A

Seminar Report
On
RFID TECHNOLOGY

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
Submitted by

EARRA SUMITH 19K81A0413

Under The Guidance of

Mrs. K. ANITHA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of electronics and communication engineering

St. MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
UGC Autonomous
NBA & NAAC A+ Accredited
Dhulapally, Secunderabad-500100
NOVEMBER-2022
 St. MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
UGC Autonomous
NBA & NAAC A+ Accredited
Dhulapally, Secunderabad-500100

Certificate

This is to certify that the seminar entitled “RFID TECHNOLOGY” is being submitted

by Earra Sumith (19K81A0413) in fulfilment of the requirement for the award of

degree of BACHELOR IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING is recorded of bonafide work carried out by him. The result embodied

in this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Guide Head of the Department

K. Anitha Dr. B. Hari Krishna
Assistant Professor Professor

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and
whose encouragement and guidance have crowded my efforts with success.

We extend our deep sense of gratitude to Principal, Dr. P. SANTOSH KUMAR

PATRA, St. Martin’s Engineering College Dhulapally, for permitting us to undertake
this seminar.

We are also thankful to Dr. B. HARI KRISHNA, Professor, Head of the Department,
Electronics and Communication Engineering, St. Martin’s Engineering College,
Dhulapally, Secunderabad, for his support and guidance throughout the seminar as well
as Project Coordinator Dr. A. CHAITANYA KRISHNA, Professor, Electronics and
Communication Engineering department for his valuable support.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude and indebtedness to our seminar
supervisor K. ANITHA, Assistant Professor Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, St. Martins Engineering College, Dhulapally, for her
support and guidance throughout our seminar.
Finally, we express thanks to all those who have helped us successfully completing this
seminar. Furthermore, we would like to thank our family and friends for their moral
support and encouragement. We express thanks to all those who have helped us in
successfully completing the seminar.

Mr. Earra Sumith 19K81A0413

iii
 ABSTRACT

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology that uses communication via

electromagnetic waves to exchange data between a terminal and an electronic tag
attached to an object, for the purpose of identification and tracking. Some tags can be
read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader. Radio-
frequency identification involves interrogators (also known as readers), and tags (also
known as labels). Most RFID tags contain at least two parts. One is an integrated circuit
for storing and processing information, modulating and demodulating a radio-
frequency (RF) signal, and other specialized functions. The other is an antenna for
receiving and transmitting the signal. There are three types of RFID tags: passive RFID
tags, which have no power source and require an external electromagnetic field to
initiate a signal transmission, active RFID tags, which contain a battery and can transmit
signals once an external source ('Interrogator') has been successfully identified, and
battery assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags, which require an external source to wake up
but have significant higher forward link capability providing greater range. RFID has
many applications; for example, it is used in enterprise supply chain management to
improve the efficiency of inventory tracking and management

iv
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
Abstract iii

List of Figures vii

List of Acronyms viii

List of Tables ix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 01

1.1 History 01
1.2 RFID system 03
1.21 RFID Tag 04
1.2.2 RFID Reader 06
1.2.3 Host System 06
1.3 RFID Principle 07
CHAPTER 2 RFID INFRASTRUCTURE 08
2.1 Introduction 08
2.2 Criteria for Evaluation 09
2.3 Oracle 10
CHAPTER 3 Advantages of RFID Over Barcode 12
CHAPTER 4 RFID SCENARIOS 14
4.1 Introduction 14
4.2 Live Tracking 15
4.3 Problems in using RFID and possible solutions 16
CHATER 5 RFID use in SCM 18
5.1 Supply Chain Management and RFID 18
5.2 Limits and Challenges in SCM 22
CHAPTER 6 PRIVACY AND SECURITY IN RFID 24
SYSTEMS
6.1 Privacy Mechanisms 24
6.2 RFID Privacy and Security 26
for ID cards and E-Passports

v
 6.3 various mechanisms to ensure 27
that the security services can be guaranteed
CHAPTER 7 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS 29

7.1 Advantages 29

7.2 Applications 30

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 32

8.1 Conclusion 32

8.2 Future scope 33

REFERENCES 34

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure Name Page No.

1.1 RFID System 04

1.2 RFID tag classification 05
1.3 Passive RFID tag 05
1.4 Active RFID tag 06
2.1 Components called middleware regarding 08
2.2 Components of RFID System 09
3.1 Oracle Sensor Edge Server Architecture 11
4.1 Animal Tracking 16
5.1 Supply Chain Management 18
5.2 Applications of the RFID Technology in the 21
Area of Supply Chain Management

vii
 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS

S.NO ACRONYM DEFINITION

01 RFID Radio Frequency

Identification

02 HF High Frequency

03 LF Low frequency

04 UHF Ultra High

Frequency

05 AIDC Automatic

Identification

and Data Capture

06 OSES Oracle

Sensor Edge Server

07 EPC Electronic Product

Code

08 DES Data Encryption

Standard

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No Table Name Page No.

1.1 The decades of RFID evolution 03

3.1 RFID vs BARCODE 13

ix
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 History
Radio frequency identification (RFID) is an electronic tagging technology which
utilizes radio frequency waves to remotely detect and identify a device or an object
containing an encoded tag. It serves as a radio technology to achieve internet of things
(IoT) vision to create a worldwide network of smart objects (Bolic et al., 2015). If all
objects are equipped with radio tags, they could be identified and inventoried. To fulfil
these functions, RFID tags must be data dense, inexpensive and energy efficient (Noor
et al., 2016). However, their widespread use is limited due to the high cost of silicon
chip required. Hence, cost effective solutions are of great need. Today, RFID systems
are being developed with tags that do not contain silicon chips. These tags are known
as ‘chip less’ tags.
The concept of RFID was introduced during world war II. Radars used to
identify the presence of an object gave no additional information about it apart from its
size and location. To identify an aircraft as ‘friend or foe’ was of particular importance.
A Scottish physicist named Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt developed a system
called IFF - identification friend or foe to overcome this problem (Roberti, 2005;
Bowden, 1985). A transponder that was placed on each aircraft, received signals from
radar stations on the ground and broadcasted a signal back which identified the aircraft
as friendly. This system formed the basis of RFID. In 1945, the first RFID tag was
developed by Leon Theremin known as ‘the Thing’, as an espionage tool for Russia,
which retransmitted incident radio waves with audio information. It was embedded in
a carved wooden plaque of the great seal of the United States of America (USA) and
offered to the US ambassador in Moscow (Tedjini et al., 2013). The gift was kept in the
US embassy for many years and used by Russia for spying.
Stockman in his landmark paper on ‘communication by means of reflected
power’ in 1948, demonstrated that by alternating the load of the tag antenna, it
was possible to vary the amount of reflected power and therefore perform modulation
(Stockman, 1948). It was termed as antenna load modulation. This new form of wireless
technology was subsequently known as RFID. Further improvements were regularly
introduced in RFID systems with the advancements in electronics and communication

1
technologies like the use of transistors, integrated circuits, microprocessors and
communication networks. The changes in the ways of doing business and other
applications also influenced the structure and configuration of RFID systems. The
evolution of RFID as explained in (Landt, 2005) is shown in Table 1.1.
RFID systems are increasingly used in many applications involving tracking
and handling of assets and documents, security and access control, supply chain
management etc. (Whitmore and Xui, 2015; Ramirez et al., 2015; Rezaiesarlak and
Manteghi, 2014; Zhu et al., 2012; Chuang and Shaw, 2007; Shutzberg, 2004; Want,
2004b). In a typical RFID system having many tags and readers, it is possible to track
the current location of a uniquely identifiable item by attaching an RFID tag to it.
Efficient and reliable supply chain management can be implemented for business
activities with the use of RFID technology. It can be used to ensure that the right goods
are available in the right place without lapses or errors. As right information can be
made available in real-time, administration and planning processes can be improved
considerably. RFID systems are being widely used for perfect circulation operations
and asset tracking in libraries (Aruna et al., 2014; Mahajan et al., 2010; Butters et al.,
2006). Other applications include, stock management in super markets, tracking
equipment, medical persons and patients in large hospitals, parking access control,
luggage tracking in airlines etc (Jones et al., 2015; Slack et al., 2013; Mun et al., 2007;
Fisher and Monahan, 2008).
Various games have been developed for kids based on wearable RFID
technology systems, the first being Zowie, followed by Music blocks, Ping pong plus,
and Tagaboo (Elena de la, 2013; Konkel et al., 2004). Another major application of
RFID is tracking the movements of animals. Ensuring that the correct feed is provided
to specific cattle among a herd of hundreds is difficult and time consuming. However
this can be achieved automatically and cost effectively using RFID systems
(Voulodimos et al., 2010). RFID can also function as a electronic key to control access
to restricted areas (Want, 2004a).

2
 Decade Event

1940 - 1950 Functionality of radar improved for identifying aircraft as friend or

foe. RFID concept introduced in 1948.

1950 - 1960 Early explorations of RFID technology, laboratory experiments.

1960 - 1970 Development of the theory of RFID. Start of applications, field

trials.

1970 - 1980 Explosion of RFID development. Tests of RFID accelerate. Very

early adopter implementations of RFID.

1980 - 1990 Commercial applications of RFID enter mainstream.

1990 - 2000 Emergence of standards. RFID widely deployed and becomes a

part of everyday life.

2000 - 2010 Miniaturization and power saving in RFID tags. Introduction of

chip less RFID tags.

2010 onwards RFID research and development continues.

Table 1.1: The decades of RFID evolution

1.2 RFID system

A typical RFID system is shown in Fig.1.1. The system consists of

• RFID tag

• RFID reader

• Host system

3
1.2.1 RFID tag
RFID tag is attached to an item that is to be identified or tracked. A tag is typically
composed of an antenna and integrated circuitry. The identification code and sometimes
additional information like specification of the item or any special care while handling
is stored in the integrated circuitry. RFID tags can be classified based on different
attributes like frequencies used, sources of power for operation or the presence of a
silicon chip (Want, 2004b; Klaus, 2003; Finkenzeller, 2003, 1999) as illustrated in
Fig.1.2.

RIFD tags are available at different frequency bands like low frequency (LF),
high frequency (HF), ultra high frequency (UHF) and microwave bands. LF (120 KHz
- 150 KHz) and HF (13.56 MHz) RFID systems can communicate up to 1 m read range
with the use of inductive coupling. UHF RFID tags, typically operating in 866 MHz -
868 MHz (European Union) and 902 MHz - 928 MHz (North American continent) have
a longer read range up to 10 m or more, with a faster data rate compared to LF and HF

4
tags. Commonly used frequencies at microwave band for RFID technologies are 2.45
GHz and 5.8 GHz having a range of 1 to 2 m.

Depending on the power source for operation, RFID tags are classified as
passive tags, active tags and semiactive tags. Passive RFID tags consist of a silicon chip
and an antenna circuit (Borriello, 2005; Lehpamer, 2012) as shown in Fig.1.3. They
have neither onboard power source nor an active transmitter. The electromagnetic
signal transmitted by the RFID reader inductively powers the tag, which helps it to
retransmit its information. The impedance matching between the antenna and the tag
circuitry determines the amount of energy that can be transferred between them. Since
the tag has a limited supply of power, the amount of data transmitted is restricted. It is
typically not more than the identification code. The read range of the tag mainly
depends on the antenna circuit and size.

Fig. 1.3: Passive RFID tag

RFID tags with onboard power source and associated electronics for performing
specialized tasks are called Active RFID tags(Cho and Baek, 2006). The active tag can
be designed with a variety of specialized electronic devices, including microprocessors,
different types of sensors, or I/O devices as shown in Fig.1.4. Active tags are larger in
size and more expensive than passive tags, but they store more data and are commonly
used for high-value asset tracking. The cost of the tag depends on the amount of
memory, the battery life required, the type of sensors and the ruggedness.

Semiactive RFID tags also have onboard battery and electronics for performing
specialized tasks. The battery in this case is used only to operate the chip. Like the
passive tag, the energy in the electromagnetic field wakes up the tag and transmits the
encoded data to the reader. These tags are sometimes called battery assisted passive
(BAP) tags. Based on the presence or absence of silicon chip, RFID tags can be

5
classified as tags containing silicon chip, or without a chip termed as chip less RFID
tag.

Fig. 1.4: Active RFID tag

1.2.2 RFID reader

A transceiver and antenna are usually combined to form an RFID reader. It sends the
interrogation signals to an RFID tag that is being identified. The RFID reader
communicates with tags that are within its interrogation zone, depending on its power
output and the radio frequency used. The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag’s
integrated circuit and the data is passed to the host computer for processing. Readers
can be placed in fixed locations in an organization, or can be integrated to a handheld
device such as a portable scanner.

1.2.3 Host system

Host system contains software components that acts as a bridge between the RFID
hardware components and the host application software. It configures and manages the
hardware, processes tag data, filters out duplicate tag reads and aggregates the data that
is passed along to back-end applications. This can be a dedicated computer at each
facility where RFID interrogators are deployed or on a networking appliance where the
technology is used. The process application software can then update the data in the
server through the internet.

6
1.3 RFID Principle

Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for
Automatic Identification and Data Capture technology which performs object
identification and collection and mapping of the data.

An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for
communication between reader and tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from
RFID tag which detects the tag and reads or writes the data into the tag. It may include
one processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.

7
 CHAPTER 2
RFID INFRASTRUCTURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In context of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), the phrase RFID infrastructure
describes the IT-infrastructure which is necessary to collect, filter and enrich raw RFID
data before processing it to the backend-systems (business intelligence systems like
ERP, etc.). In our case, we are focusing on the software components doing this job.
Hence middleware and infrastructure are to be used synonymously in this report.

Fig. 2.1: Components called middleware regarding

In order to standardize the technical description of each vendor’s solution, we

have derived a set of evaluation criteria. Furthermore, we have defined three phases the
act of processing RFID-data typically has to go through if working properly. This was
done by identifying and generalizing the several steps to be performed.
Hence the abstract task of preprocessing data could be distinguished into three
phases:
1. collecting data by managing the RFID-reader(s)
2. enriching this collected data for further use (eg. by filtering, accumulating, etc.)
3. exchanging enriched data with backend-systems
Thus, we have an n-tier design approach for RFID-middleware (usually a 3- tier
- architecture presuming one layer for each phase). As further reading will show, nearly
all solutions meet this approach.

8
 Fig. 2.2: Components of RFID System

2.2 Criteria For Evaluation

Current literature dealing with RFID-middleware offers several criteria for evaluating
RFID-Systems. We have summarized the most common ones to the following topics:

Scalability An increase in throughput rates could cause the infrastructure to

collapse. Being in the line of fire middleware has to offer features for dynamically
balancing processing loads and handle large amounts of data and their
preprocessing(like database lookups, updates, etc.). Additionally, this topic covers the
question of how to extend an already implemented system.

Commitment To Standards Supporting common standards simplifies

upgrading, migrating and scaling of an existing infrastructure. Concerning this topic,
we concentrate on the exchange of information between the enricher-layer and the
backup-systems. This topic goes hand in hand with the question of application
integration.

9
 Level Of Processing and Enriching Data Besides collecting data, RFID
middleware needs to filter and enrich raw RFID-data in order to transform those flows
into single events

2.3 Oracle

Regarding RFID infrastructure, Oracle provides an out-of-the-box-solution for

handling RFID-data called Oracle Sensor Edge Server (OSES). OSES is a module of
Oracle’s more extensive framework Oracle Sensor-Based-Services for processing
sensor-based data. Furthermore Oracle offers two software-packages: EPC Compliance
Enabler and RFID Pilot. Digging deeper shows that both are just slightly more than
parts of OSES reassembled to provide support for RFID-data at a different degree.

Oracle’s Sensor-Based-Services consist of the following applications:

– Oracle Database 10g (as local repository called Data Hub)

– Oracle Application Server 10g (to run Sensor Edge Server)

– Oracle Enterprise Manager 10g (as backend-system)

– Oracle E-Business Suite 11i (as backend-system)

In order to stress new RFID-components we focus on the Oracle Sensor Edge

Server as a new component of the Oracle Application Server 10g and the attached Data
Hub instead of describing all modules listed above.

Architecture The Oracle Sensor Edge Server (OSES) itself consists of three
layers, matching our presumptions made in the first section one-by-one:

1. Device Driver Layer: Management of Readers, Printers and other connected and
supported Devices for input and output (eg. RFID-label printers, light stacks) of RFID
- data.

2. Data Processing Layer: Cleansing and normalisation of read RFID-data, generation

of events. No enrichment with meta-data at this point.

10
3. Data Dispatching Layer: Processing data to connected systems. Buffering outgoing
data in an internal queue to prevent loss of data if a dispatcher is currently down. All
layers are managed by the Enterprise Manager-component. Furthermore, a local
repository could be applied to the OSES. It is called Data Hub.

Fig. 2.3: Oracle Sensor Edge Server Architecture

Data Hub and Sensor Data Rules The so called Data Hub is realised by an Oracle
Database 10g and serves as a central data repository. It is not part of the Oracle Sensor
Edge Server but closely attached to it. The main benefit of Data Hub is the use of the
so called Data Rules which allow the definition of rules for notifications to backend-
systems and the triggering of applications based on incoming events from the OSES.
Hence Data Rules could be compared to SAP‟s Rule Engine.

EPC Compliance Enhancer And RFID-Pilot provide basic functionalities to

work with RFID-data in EPC-format. It includes software to generate and print EPC-
tags out of ASN-data. Drivers for most common RFID-readers and printers are included
as well as adapters to METRO, Wal-Mart and others. Based upon the EPC Compliance
Enhancer, RFID-Pilot provides further modules for prototyping and testing RFID as
well as basic tools for analysis. It consists of Oracle Database 10g and Oracle
Application Server 10g. To sum up, these two packages are parts of the OSES-
architecture in different extent but are sold separately.

11
 CHAPTER -3

ADVANTAGES OF RFID OVER BAR CODE

• Barcodes can only be scanned one at a time, unlike RFID which multiple tags
can be scanned at once using a single scanner.
• Barcodes require the scanner to have a direct line-of-sight with the code where
are RFID is a near-field technology, which allows the scanner to read the tags
within a range and without a direct line-of-sight.
• Barcodes are typically printed on adhesive labels or on paper resulting in the
barcode being prone to wear and damage which can impact the readability.
However, RFID tags are usually embedded within plastic labels or within the
object its self, resulting in a more robust product which can withstand more
damage than barcodes.
• Barcodes are limited by the type and volume of data that can be stored, while
RFID allows for up to 2,000 bytes of data to be stored within a single tag.
• Tag does not need to be on the surface of the object because they do not need a
direct line of sight, tags can be embedded or hidden.
• Tags are applicable in harsh environments, such as outdoors, around chemicals,
moisture and high temperatures.
• RFID tags can be read at a rate of forty or more tags per second; Bar Codes
usually take half a second or more per bar code.
• RFID tags can be read at distances up to 300 feet; Bar Codes no more than 15
feet.
• RFID Tags can be re-programmed; Bar Codes do not have the read/write
capability

12
 Manual Bar Code RFID
Process

Data Accuracy Least Accurate Most Accurate More Accurate

Data Collection Time/Labor Most Some Least

Time/Labor Time/Labor Time/Labor

Data Input Time/Labor Most Some Least

Time/Labor Time/Labor Time/Labor

Equipment Costs (tags, N/A Some More

readers/scanners)

Ability to Track Assets Out of Line of No No Yes

Sight

Amount of Data Storage on Tag N/A Less More

Ability to Exchange Information Two No No Yes

Ways

Ability to Reprogram Tags N/A No Yes

Table.3.1: RFID vs BARCODE

13
 CHAPTER-4

RFID SCENARIOS

4.1 Introduction

Radio Frequency Identification technology enables items, animals or persons to

identify themselves by means of wireless communication. A small tag containing
microchip and antenna is applied to commercial products, animals or human Beings.
There are different kinds of tags which differ in shape, size, storage capability,
frequency range and can be active, semi-active or passive. An active chip is equipped
with its own energy cell for broadcasting whereas a semi active chip is also battery-
assisted but the energy is used for the power supply of the microchip’s circuitry but not
for broadcasting the chips information.

Therefore the battery life of semi-active chips is longer compared to the life Of
an active chip. The passive tag on the other hand does not have a battery cell at all. It
uses the power carried in the readers signal to emit its data. There are four main
frequency bands commonly in use.

1. low frequency range (125 or 134.2 kHz)

2. high frequency range (13.56 MHz)

3. ultra high frequency range (UHF) (868 to 956 MHz)

4. microwave frequency range (2.45 GHz or 5.8 GHz)

The information stored on the tags are read by a tag reader, which induces the
necessary power into the passive tags, so they can emit their data. The reader can be a
handheld or a fix installed device like a walkthrough reader. It receives the
identification data and supplements it with further data from local or global databases.
The distance from which a tag reader can receive data from the tag scan be very short
(0.2 mm up to a few meters for passive tags) to a very long distance (tens of meters).
The RFID applications can be used in various fields. They can be found in baggage
tracing used by airlines to reduce numbers of lost baggage. For example, Delta Airlines
could decrease the number of lost baggage from usually 11 % to0.3 % with the

14
deployment of RFID technology. Furthermore access control can be realized in
different ways, for example in pass, in schools, public transportation and toll system.
The system for the ski pass gives automatically entry to the lift. It also helps the ski
patrol to find the missing, injured or dead persons in time critical situations like
avalanches.

In the school the RFID chips are used to monitor attendance in school facilities
and buses. Especially in Asia the tickets for using public transportation are substituted
by RFID. The market leader in Asia for systems is Philips with Mi fare-System. RFID
is also used in toll systems to control the cars entering the highway. It is deployed in
Norway and some US states, for locating missing persons, cell phones are equipped
with RFID tags, which have an additional GPRS module. RFID tags can also be found
in the automobile industry and are used as an anti-theft device. In public libraries, anti-
theft devices is also an important application. As a solution all books are provided with
RFID chips to protect them from unauthorized thievery. In addition these chips can be
used to relieve the employees of a library, so they can focus on assisting visitors,
automate the bool rental or to maintain book sorting devices and conveyer for logistic
purposes. In the next section, three scenarios, namely life tracking, supply chain
management and healthcare, are examined in depth.

4.2 Live Tracking

Using RFID in Livestock Tracking and the resulting improvements The RFID
technology is the next step to a solution of current problems in animal identification
and tracking. With the RFID tags the first steps are taken to a more transparent
backtracking, covering the entire chain from the producer the customer, and a
centralized organization of animal data. The vision is that all information about an
animal and the owner it belongs to, is stored in a database. Records in the database do
not only consist of the information to which owner an animal belongs to, but also if an
animal changes its owner, every following owner, the complete track of an animal life
and disease history and which particular breeding properties it has.

15
 Fig. 4.1: Animal Tracking

4.3 Problems in using RFID and possible solutions

The use of the RFID technology in livestock tracking is still not the Holy Grail for all
problems, since new problems evolve which need to be solved. One of the biggest
problems is the lack of standardized tags and tag readers. Some of the tag readers are
only able to read the information of specific tags. The lack of standardized codes leadsto
big obstacles in centralizing the information about certain animals in a federal global
database.. The information received from the breeder needs to be arranged, before
storing it, to set them in to a uniform data format. A first step to solve this problem is
the standardization of the information on the tags and the standardization of the tag
readers. Like mentioned above there are standards from the ISO, but another problem
is that not all tag and reader producer are using the standard. Also it is not possible to
ensure in all cases the uniqueness of the IDs, since they could be duplicated or in case
of the loss of the tag the same number is given to more than one animal. The uniqueness
can be better ensured through biometric methods. which take advantage of clear
physiologic characteristics of an animal. Biometric identification methods for practical
use are the DNS-Profiling, Iris-Scanning or Retina Imaging.

16
 The DNS-Profiling is mainly used in breeding animals with best physical
characteristics, but this is a very slow and expensive method, since the DNA has to be
extracted and analyzed for every single animal. In the case of Iris-scanning a picture
from the iris s taken and stored in a database, this method is faster and more practical
than DNS-Profiling. A unique and stable mark from birth is the vessel pattern of the
retina. These methods can help to make it easier to identify an animal, but the
identification should not embed one without tags, because the biometric methods are
still under testing. Another problem is the limited range of the tag readers. To identify
an animal in a herd or on an open field the breeder needs to be in the direct
neighborhood of that animal. This can be solved if the animals are carrying only active
tags, but it is not likely to ensure that the animals carries its unique ID its whole life,
because the battery needs to be recharged.

17
 CHAPTER-5

RFID USE IN SCM

5.1 Supply Chain Management and RFID

Supply chain management aims to increase effectiveness and efficiency of entire

value added chains. This means that the focus from managing a single company shifts
towards managing a bundle of different companies. The challenge lies in the structure
of these chains formed by the companies. Instead of having single lines with no
interaction, every company has usually several different suppliers and several
different customers as shown in fig. 5.1 which in turn makes it hard to distinguish
between the chains as well as to know who is a member of the own supply chain. For
example the customer in tier three might not be known in advance.

Fig. 5.1: Supply Chain Management

Based on this prerequisite a new technology comes into place which can ease
the data exchange and provide a new quantity and quality of data regarding the different
levels of the supply chain. The RFID technology has as its object to reduce or to
eliminate the format discontinuity between real-life items like products on the one hand

18
and data in IT systems on the other hand. The RFID technology can be seen as a
mediator between the real world and the virtual world. RFID integrates the “world of
things” in the system world. Once the infrastructure is set up, RFID technology achieves
this integration with minimal human intervention. It is capable of adjusting the system
data to fit in with the real-world data at a reduced cost. Furthermore, RFID is able to
increase the quality of the data it collects from the real world.

Therefore, RFID increases the integration depth by shifting the focus from eg.
a product class to the single product or from a time span to a certain point in time. The
availability of accurate real-time data in information systems, which in turn allows real-
time management of processes, is one further characteristic advantage of RFID
architecture. Both issues, the RFID technology and the supply chain management, are
about integration even though they focus on different aspects of integration. the
emerging RFID technology can be applied in the also quite young environment of
supply chain management. The following paragraphs try to examine the implications
between the technology and the management concept.

Motives for the Introduction of the RFID Technology in Supply Chain

Management A major advantage of the RFID technology is the fact that logging the
receipts of goods takes place in real-time. Therefore, the inventory levels in the systems
are not estimated but identical with the real-world inventories. The supply chain allows
exchanging this data which in turn leads to the ability to reduce inventory levels, to
react faster to changing customer demand and to an increase in product availability.
Taking into account the entire supply chain, the bull-whip effect can be avoided,
creating benefits for every member of the chain. Furthermore, the processes can be
controlled in real-time and process efficiency can be increased by creation of
transparency. The company itself profits from reduced costs for storage and tied up
capital. The goal is to open potentials for rationalization in an inter-company based
value added chain. Furthermore, it aims to maximize the efficiency in the overall
material-flow, information-flow and in the flow of financial funds.

Another reason for the introduction of RFID labels is the possibility to trace
down the product along the supply chain. This is especially important regarding food
supply chains as it is also explained in part 2 live-stock tracking. In the face of food
scandals, avian influenza, biological-terrorism or the desire of protecting a regional
19
brand, authorities introduce legislation making it mandatory to be able to prove the
origin of a product. The EU has for example issued a decree which takes effect from
2005 on, requesting the documentation through all levels of production, processing and
retailing of food. RFID is supposed to substitute the barcode in several areas. The
advantages are information which is more precise, less missing deliveries, better
traceability and an automatic identification of products which results in an efficiency
increase at the point of incoming and outgoing shipments. Reading the barcode
manually is more complicated, more error susceptible.

Line of sight and more time-consuming than reading RFID-tags automatically

and with no line-of-sight. The difference can be seen in fig. 8. Therefore, barcode
reading does only take place at selected points in the supply chain and with a delivery
just one barcode is read. Missing or wrong products inside the delivery package remain
undiscovered. Furthermore, barcodes just identify the product group. RFID on the other
hand allows theoretically the identification on item level. Applications like tracing
down a single product, checking the best-before date or chips with sensors monitoring
the cold chain are becoming feasible. Furthermore, assuming tagging on item level, half
of the delivery packages could be put on the shelf whereas the other half stays in
storage. Still exact location data for every item is available. Analogous to today anti-
theft systems in stores, the already included RFID tag can fulfill the task as well.
Advantages can also be seen in the customer relationship management. For example in
case of malfunctioning the final customer of the end-product can be identified and the
product can be easily exchanged.

In addition, the use of RFID avoids shrinkage in the supply chain through
administrative mistakes or fraud of suppliers, theft of employees or customers,
reduction of the share of unsalable goods and it makes sure that products are at the right
place, for example in a store the use of RFID technology is profitable in industrial
sectors. This sector needs very high process security due to strict regulations regarding
giving evidence for information concerning the product. The price of the RFID tag
prevents its use on item level. Instead it started in the end of the 1990s with the
deployment of RFID tags in closed logistic cycles on reusable boxes and containers.
Today RFID tags are also used in open cycles as on cardboard boxes or pallets. RFID
labels are still too expensive to apply them, for instance, on every single yoghurt in the

20
super market. This will become probably possible when RFID chips can be printed in
mass production on polymer-basis. Already in 2003 for example it was first possible to
print a transistor in mass production. Even if it does not seem profitable yet to deploy
RFID in the retail trade, retail companies use them on the background of intense
competition and with the awareness of possible cost cuttings in logistics and on
employees in stores and warehouses. With the combination of the RFID technology and
the supply chain management, new applications evolved. They can be divided them
into problem-oriented innovations and technology-driven innovations, also called
bottom-up innovations. Problem-oriented innovations lead to process improvements
carried out in small steps. An existing problem is tried to be reduced or solved using a
higher quality standard when matching real world data with system data. These
applications are used where current applications lack to fulfill the requirements. In the
area of supply chain management these applications are control tasks for example
regarding logging the receipts of goods, checking on goods, product flows, production
control, theft avoidance, damage avoidance and forgery avoidance.

Fig. 5.2: Applications of the RFID Technology in the Area of Supply Chain
Management
21
Technology-driven innovations on the other hand start with the possibilities emerging
from the new technology and are trying to find new applications which could not be
controlled earlier on, for example replacement parts. The product would know by itself
which ones are the right replacement parts, when parts have to be exchanged or when
parts do not function properly anymore. New applications like applying RFID tags
instead of barcodes often need a complex infrastructure. Furthermore, it is not sufficient
that just one company changes its business practice. An example is a retailer who tries
to build up a RFID based retail store with RFID tagged products which are
automatically when they are delivered to his store. He would probably not succeed due
to the fact that most of the products will just not have a RFID chip. Therefore, market
players who decide to promote the introduction of a new application are usually needed.
Putting their requests for the new application to their trading partners leads in a
successful case to a thorough market penetration. For the use of the RFID technology
in the supply chain management in the retail segment, the Metro AG is such a big player
who tries to introduce the new application. Metro has designed and built a so called
“Future-Store” in which customers can experience the beginning of a future grocery
store. Furthermore the goods in storage are also managed by RFID chips and the
technology is already being used in Metro’s regular stores as well .

5.2 Limits and Challenges in SCM

Challenges Regarding the Use of RFID in Supply Chain Management An important

prerequisite for the wide use of RFID technology is the need for standards companies
and institutions adhere to. One standard is the EPC global. It allows automatic
identification of items and provides a supplement identification standard for the barcode
in form of a numbering scheme. EPC global has over 400 members and is backed by
large retailers and consumer product manufactures. Nevertheless is the standardization
process still under way and is not completed yet. This situation works at the moment
because the RFID technology is not applied by the masses yet and the use normally
encloses just a few partners so that own specifications can be used. Metro for example
is using a centralized computer, the RFID-product-flow-system, to store all data of the
RFID tags.

A barrier for RFID is the fact that RFID technology demands an integration into
the company’s existing software. This is the case when realizing benefits exceeding the
22
applications which already could be realized with the help of barcodes. Additional
efforts and expenses are now implied. An example is the data registration regarding
individual products. Software like SAP RFID has the goal to integrate the different
technologies coming along with the RFID technology. Further it aims to build an
infrastructure which can manage the large amount of data, seamlessly integrate RFID
into existing applications and create new applications based on the new abilities of
RFID . Independently of SAP many IT-architectures include several layers. There are
for example the transponder-level followed by the RFID-reader which passes the
information on to the middleware. The middleware in turn is responsible for offering
basis services like filtering and bundling up the massive amount of data as well as
integrating the following complex and distributed applications like ERP or SCM. Edge
ware for example is responsible for detecting and correcting reading mistakes.
Challenges Regarding the Introduction of RFID Nowadays companies trying to
introduce RFID chips in the retail segment are faced with consumer protection groups
having doubts and objections concerning the customers‟ data protection. Also various
newspaper articles covering the topic address these concerns.

23
 CHAPTER-6

PRIVACY AND SECURITY IN RFID SYSTEMS

6.1 Privacy Mechanisms

Unfortunately, the long-term security of label contents cannot be guaranteed even if the
antenna is destroyed. Then the chip’s data cannot be accessed wirelessly but it can be
accessed by physical means, so long-term secrets, such as secret keys, are not stored on
RFID labels. It would be foolish to store a fingerprint on a tag, because a fingerprint
cannot be changed if it is lost. But it would be efficient to store the fingerprint in a
database. If the key is compromised the database can prevent further access with this
key.

Privacy can be realized by different means. The simplest approach is to kill the
tag, ie. making the tag unreadable by detaching the antenna or by other means. This is
a very good protection for the privacy of the tag owner but the tag is then unusable. A
softer method is the shielding of the tag from the reader, so the tag cannot hear the
request by the reader. This method is suitable only for some scenarios, eg. special
shielded wallets for tagged money, tagged credit cards, etc. (an instruction to construct
such a wallet by simple means can be found in). Another thing one can do to protect
ones privacy is to carry a so called blocker tag. It is an active tag which broadcasts
random numbers on the radio band, thus preventing any other tag reading. This is again
a very efficient privacy mechanism but it makes using RFID benefits harder and this
method requires a lot of energy. The most promising, but yet sparsely researched,
techniques are protocols which restrict the access to the content of the tag. Some of
these techniques will be described later in this chapter.

A privacy protecting RFID system as either system, in which only authenticated

readers can link two sightings of the same tag (software privacy protection) or as a
system, in which reading the tag is(temporarily) prevented by physical means
(hardware privacy protection). In contrast to security issues, it is not sufficient to
guarantee privacy, i.e. infect non traceability, on the application layer.

24
It must be ensured on all three layers.

• Application Layer: to ensure non-traceability, the tag has to provide different

messages each time it is questioned. The reader has to understand these different
messages but for an attacker they have to look like random numbers. Either the
tag can generate a new number of its own, eg. by applying hash function (this
method is secure but hardly scalable), or the reader gives the new value to the
tag. In this case, the messages to the tag may only be used once and they have
to look like random numbers to the attacker. This is a difficult goal, which
unfortunately not all protocols achieve.
• Communication Layer: the most important challenge for the communication
layer is the simulation with collision avoidance mechanisms. Simulations
needed to guarantee the undisturbed communication between a reader and many
tags in its proximity. The reader and the tags agree on dividing the radio band
by means of time division. These simulation methods can be either deterministic
or probabilistic. Most deterministic approaches use a tree walk algorithm, in
which the reader questions increasing prefixes of the identifiers until only one
tag responds. This is a security risk, because a tag could be traced in an
uncompleted simulation session (because the identifier cannot be changed
during a simulation process).Most probabilistic approaches are based on a
slotted variant of the Aloha protocol. In this method, the reader tells the
surrounding tags to answer inn defined slots. If a collision in slot x appears, the
reader questions the tags to retransmit if they transmitted in slot x before. An
attacker could question single tag, save the slot x in which the tag answered and
then follow this tag by always telling it, that there was a collision in slot x (the
reader has to store the new slot after each interrogation). Another tag will only
respond if it is also in an uncompleted simulation session and did transmit in
slot x in the previous round, which is highly unlikely. A timeout, which aborts
the simulation process after an unusual long time could solve these problems.
Another problem discussed in is the lack of randomness, caused by poor random
number generators in the tag and/or bad protocol specifications, which results
in traceability of the tags.
• Physical Layer: due to different standards for the communication between the
tag and the reader, it could be possible to track a person by following his/her
25
 characteristic mix of standards. Another problem on the physical layer is the
radio fingerprinting. Each type of tag behaves a little bit different while sending
and this is called its fingerprint. So, an attacker could follow specific tag or
again a specific mix of tags with a high probability. Tag owners can be tracked
by comparing scanned EPCs. This can be avoided by simply „killing‟ the tag,
which means destroying the tag by disconnecting the antenna and/or destroying
the rectification circuit. This removes all privacy concerns but prevents many
benefits for the customer. Another possibility is to recode the tag with the
original EPC shortened to the product information thus preventing the unique
identification. However, it is still possible to violate the privacy by examining
the types of products someone carries.

A simple way to protect the privacy of tag owners is to reduce the size of the
antenna, thus reducing the read range of a tag. It would still be readable and fully
functional, but the reader would have to be significantly nearer to the tag. IBM proposed
such an architecture of tags with alterable antenna size .This altering could be done by
scratching off printed conduit that links two parts of the antenna or by stripping off a
part of the antenna at a built-imperforation line. With this method, the read range can
be reduced from a few meters down to 2.5 to 5 centimeters. Even with highly amplified
readers, thread range would not exceed about 15 centimeters according to estimations
by IBM. This is a significant improvement to consumer privacy because one can control
the readability of the tags easily by not letting a reading device come very close to the
tag but the tag can still be used for applications useful for the consumer.

6.2 RFID Privacy and Security for ID cards and E-Passports

RFID, a chance or rather a time bomb? “Pervasive Computing” and “Ubiquitous

Computing” respectively mark a new development in information and communication
technology. “Pervasive” stands for “(everything) penetrating”, “ubiquitous” for
omnipresent. In future more and more things of the daily use will be equipped with
microelectronic. The new emerging so called “Smart Objects” will nearly influence all
area of every day life. Computers will complete their services increasingly invisibly
and hidden in the background. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is one of those
emerging technologies. In the next few years this technology will be deployed in the
mighty industrial sector. Many big and small firms intend in early future to provide
26
their goods, if yet not done, with this technology, hoping to organize their business
process more efficiently. While on the one hand these positive commercial capability
exist, there is an intense social debate on the implication of this technology. When RFID
tags are attached to the products in retail and from there arrive homes, then it could
result in a ubiquitous surveillance of people on the basis of their owned objects.
Companies may be enthusiastic about this new possibility but the idea of integrated
chips in objects surrounding us as well as the opportunity of quiet communication
among each other calls a discomfort to many citizens.

6.3 various mechanisms to ensure that the security services can be

guaranteed
• Symmetric Cryptography: Symmetric cryptography, also known as secret key
cryptography is based on encryption and decryption with the same key. The key
and the plaintext are fed to an algorithm which generates the cipher text. It is
always assumed that the algorithm is known to the attacker but not the key.
• Block Ciphers: Block ciphers break the plain text into blocks usually 8 or 16
byte long and operate on them independently. Usually the last block is padded
with the number of RFID TECHNOLOGY Division Of Computer Science ,
SOE CUSAT Page 28 pad bytes added so that the receiver knows which bytes
to discard. Multiple appearances of similar text also results in similar patterns
in the cipher text. This can be avoided by using feedback modes. The most
common feedback mode is the cipher block chaining (CBC) mode where the
current block of plain text is XOR with the previous cipher text. Stream Ciphers:
Stream ciphers generate a pseudo random key stream based on the key and XOR
it with the plain text to generate the cipher text. The key stream is independent
from the input data. Decrypting is the same as encrypting because of the XOR
function applied twice produces the original input. Stream ciphers are generally
faster and use less code than block ciphers. The most common stream cipher
RC4 is probably twice as fast as the fastest block cipher.
• Symmetric Algorithms: Triple DES (Data Encryption Standard) is an adaption
of the obsolete DES algorithm to meet modern security standards. It applies the
DES algorithm 3 times and thus uses key lengths of 168 bits instead of 56 bits.

27
 Disadvantages of the 3DES algorithm are that encryption and decryption are
very slow.

• Asymmetric Cryptography: Asymmetric cryptography is also known as

public key cryptography and applies two different keys. One key called the
public key is used to encrypt data. The cipher text can only decrypted by the
second key: the private key.
• Security Threats Evaluated: When evaluating the security risks to RFID
systems in the medium and long term, it is important to consider the costs an
attacker has to spend as well the costs and efficiency of countermeasures. Rising
fixed and variable costs with additional security mechanisms can be justified
when a great number of pieces are produced.

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 CHAPTER-7

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

7.1 ADVANTAGES

• The read-only Tag code data is 100% secure and cannot be changed
or duplicated.
• Very robust Tags that can stand extreme conditions and temperatures
• Tags are available in a great range of types, sizes and materials
• No need for physical contact between the data carrier and the
communication device.
• The Tags can be used repeatedly
• Relatively low maintenance cost
• No line-of-sight necessary to read/write data. This makes it possible to use
Tags in harsh environments and in closed containers/structures. When
using bar codes- scanners have to have line of sight to read them
• An RFID Tag could identify the item (not just its manufacturer and
category). Bar codes only provide a manufacturer and product type. They
don’t identify unique items
• Extremely low error rate
• RFID technology is a labor-saving technology. This translates to cost
savings. Using barcode technology costs, on average, 7 cents in human labor
to scan a bar code. In addition, labor is required to put each label correctly
on each plastic crate holder or panel. Add a cost for label changes and
replacements for "non readable" codes. And add another for administrative
costs for labels that aren't read properly, which causes inventory errors and
non-compliant returns and penalties

29
7.2 APPLICATIONS

• Product Tracking – RFID tags are increasingly used as a cost-effective way to

track inventory and as a substitute for barcodes. For instance, bookstores such
as Barnes & Noble use RFID to identify books to be removed from shelves and
returned to publishing houses.

• Toll Road Payments – Highway toll payment systems, such as E-Z Pass in the
eastern states, uses RFID technology to electronically collect tolls from passing
cars. Instead of stopping at the toll booth, cars pass directly through in the E-Z
Passlane and the toll is automatically deducted from a pre-paid card.

• Passports – A number of countries, including Japan, the United States,

Norway, and Spain incorporate RFID tags into passports to store information
(such as a photograph) about the passport holder and to track visitors entering
and exiting the country.

• Identification – RFID chips can be implanted into animals and people to track
their movements, provide access to secure locations, or help find lost pets.

• Libraries – Libraries use RFID tags in books and other materials to track
circulation and inventory, store product information (such as titles and authors),
and to provide security from theft. Because RFID tags can be scanned without
physically touching the item, checking books in and out, plus doing laborious
tasks such as shelf inventory, can be accomplished quickly and efficiently using
RFID technology.

30
• Shipping – Large shipments of materials, such as retail goods, often utilize
RFID tags to identify location, contents, and movement of goods. Wal-mart is
one of the largest consumers of this technology to assist in tracking shipments
of merchandise.

• Other uses – RFID tags are employed in numerous other ways, including
implantation in Saguaro cacti to discourage black-market traders, placement in
car tires to transmit road condition information to the onboard computer, and
placement around cities (such as Tokyo) to transmit tourist information to
visitor cell phones.

31
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

8.1 CONCLUSION

After examining the three fields Health care, Games and Human Activity Detection
with regard to the usage of RFID technology we will now try to present the overall
observations and draw some conclusions. The scenarios presented show that RFID
technology is a technology with a promising future, even if there are still some problems
and limitations that need to be solved. Above all there is the need for small tags but
especially for smaller readers. In the field of gaming, small tags are necessary for cards,
puzzle pieces or counters. There is also a demand for smaller readers that can be
integrated into areas of board games. Regarding Healthcare the wrist band scenario
indicates the requirement for smaller tags as well, so the wrist band may be built very
small and does not handicap the patients. In the human activity scenarios describing the
GETA sandals and the iBracelet the need for smaller readers is obvious. Of course there
are quite small tags available but not for a price that allows an unlimited extensive
integration. Ina card game with 52 cards like the smart playing cards presented in
section, very small tags need to be attached to each card. The same applies to puzzles
like the smart jigsaw puzzle with 1000 smart pieces and of course to healthcare systems
since each test tube, blood bottle and all patients may be equipped with tags or readers.
If you consider only one tag, a price of about 20 Cent is no object, but if you have to
integrate thousands of tags in a small application it gets relevant. The matter of size
becomes even more problematic as the RFID tags and readers are combined with other
technologies leading to enriched functionalities but also to larger sizes as the motion
sensitive WISPs.

32
8.2 FUTURE SCOPE

The world will be very different once readers and RFID Tags are everywhere. In an
RFID-enhanced future, the benefits would accrue not just to businesses, but also to
consumers. Once various limitations like lack of a global standard, security concerns,
the cost factor, etc. are overcome and this technology is fully implemented, it can
transform the way we live our lives. It has the potential of revolutionizing the way we
travel, the way we open the locks of our homes the way we purchase goods, the way
we do business and much more. RFID chips are no bigger than grains of sand. Every
item in house will eventually come from the store with a tiny, almost invisible RFID
tag attached. Most of the retailers and restaurants will use RFID to track condition of
goods. RFID will replace barcode.

33
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