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IJSHE
15,3
Advancing grassroots climate
change awareness in Botswana
BCA campus greenhouse gas baseline
304 inventory
Nnyaladzi Batisani and Abijah Ndiane
Received 10 May 2012 Department of Agricultural Engineering and Land Planning, College of
Revised 6 July 2012
22 October 2012 Agriculture, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
Accepted 24 October 2012

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to report on the results of a case study in Botswana, aimed at raising
awareness on climate issues. Higher-education institutions play a leading role in sustainability efforts,
as their research role often lays the groundwork for social transformation.
Design/methodology/approach – The Clean Air-Cool Planet (CACP) campus calculator was used to
calculate emissions from various sections within the college.
Findings – Total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the college is 3,432.66 metric tons CO2e
resulting in per capita GHG emissions of 3.20 metric tons CO2e, which is high compared to other
universities. Options for reducing emissions are proposed.
Practical implications – The procedure in carrying out the study provided learners with an
opportunity to appreciate emissions from developing countries and also gain technical skills in
conducting a GHG inventory. It also sensitized campus administrators about the scale of emissions and
possible ways of reducing them.
Originality/value – This paper is original in that it provides campus greenhouse inventory within a
developing country, a unique undertaking. Furthermore, it highlights the fact that developing countries
also produce significant emissions, hence the need for mitigation measures.
Keywords Higher education, Sustainability, University, Botswana, Greenhouse gas inventory
Paper type Case study

Introduction
Although climate change education is important to all education levels, from primary
schools to universities, it is in the higher-education sector that the need to tackle it in a
systematic way is particular acute. For university students will pursue careers in
various professions, thus the need to be conscious of the likely impact of their
professional actions both on the environment as a whole and on the climate in particular
(Filho, 2010). The objectives of climate change education at university include
motivating students to take action both during their time as students and later on as
professionals. Breyman (1999) and UNESCO (2009) noted that the value and relevance of
sustainable initiatives as a whole, and on climate change education at universities in
International Journal of Sustainability particular, is beyond dispute. While Rappaport and Creighton (2007) and Eagan et al.
in Higher Education (2008) highlighted climate change activities at universities.
Vol. 15 No. 3, 2014
pp. 304-313 Filho (2000) and Knuth et al. (2007) noted that colleges and universities have missions
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited that encompass a moral responsibility to institute sustainable practices and to address
1467-6370
DOI 10.1108/IJSHE-05-2012-0043 global climate change. Likewise, their mission to educate tomorrow’s leaders enables
them to have a significant, positive impact on efforts to reduce humanity’s climate Grassroots
footprint (Orr, 1991; Rappaport and Creighton, 2007; Button, 2009). Furthermore, the
high levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that universities can produce and in the
climate change
wide variety of emission-producing activities that they encompass, large universities awareness
produce emission profiles similar to those of small cities (Knuth et al., 2007). Therefore,
universities warrant attention as local systems for climate change mitigation in their own
right, and may also help their broader communities address climate change. With their 305
access to tomorrow’s leaders and their buying power, universities have it within their ability
to lead communities in addressing the global climate change crisis (Knuth et al., 2007). They
may be able to provide expert knowledge, research experience and faculty and student time
to communities lacking the necessary skills and resources to reduce their GHG emissions,
which are problems common to many communities (Betsill, 2001; Bulkeley and Betsill, 2003).
University researchers may also develop and refine novel GHG emission measurement tools,
emission reduction technologies and management approaches. Significantly, researchers
may apply experience and techniques developed in internal university programmes to
subsequent community outreach efforts (Knuth et al., 2007). These efforts are especially
crucial in developing countries where expertise and subsequently knowledge on climate
change and its impacts is still in its infancy.
For graduates to diligently perform the above expected duties, calls for a hands-on
approach on various aspects of climate change awareness, mitigation and adaptation
during their university days. This paper showcases such a process through an
exploratory undergraduate student project that inventorizes campus GHG emissions; a
prerequisite for mitigation. The aim of the paper is to report on the results of a case study
in Botswana, aimed at raising awareness on climate issues through the creation of a
baseline (2009) for future inventories’ benchmarking. The paper further seeks to
sensitize college administrators on the magnitude of emissions from various sectors on
campus. Specifically the paper aims to:
• calculate carbon equivalents GHG emissions from various activities in the college;
• determine major contributors to campus GHG emissions; and
• conduct a comparative analysis of GHG emissions from the college with those of
other higher-education institutions worldwide.

The paper further seeks to provide management options for decreasing campus emissions.

Materials and methods

Study area
Botswana College of Agriculture (BCA) is an associate institution of University of
Botswana (UB), established in 1991. As an associate institution, the college offers UB
higher diploma and degree programmes in agricultural sciences, while it is responsible
for short courses offered by its Centre for In-service and Continuing Education (CICE).
Currently, the college is going through an exciting period of transformation with a
vision of becoming an agricultural university of international repute.
The institution is located 12 km north of Gaborone City Center, within a sprawling
700-hectare farm with beef, dairy cattle, piggery and various crop and fodder enterprises
(Figure 1). In 2009, the total enrolment of the college was 1,022 students, with 470 staff
members (Botswana College of Agriculture Academic Services Office, 2010).
IJSHE
15,3

306

Figure 1.
Botswana College of
Agriculture campus map

Data
Data on the college vehicle fleet fuel consumption, propane gas used in the student
kitchen, amount of solid waste produced in the college and also amount of fertilizer used
in the college gardens, crop and fodder fields obtained from the College Purchasing
Department form the basis of the analysis. Actual amounts consumed were then
obtained from user sections (transport, catering, physical planning and farm
management). As the college is a residential campus, only the transportation emissions
from the university’s fleet vehicles are accounted for. Furthermore, emissions from
electricity usage are not included, as they are paid on financial year basis (April to
April), as lump sum, without factoring in price and quantity consumed variation during
that period. Heating emissions are also excluded, as they are not relevant for this warm
environment.

Analysis
GHG emissions analysis. The Clean Air-Cool Planet (CACP) campus calculator V6.0
(Clean Air-Cool Planet, 2010) was used to calculate emissions from vehicle fleet fuel
consumption, solids waste and also agricultural emissions (in the form of nitrous oxide
[N2O]) resulting from fertilizer application on campus farm. The CACP campus carbon
calculator is a Microsoft Excel-based spreadsheet tool that provides procedural
protocols and a framework for investigation of campus GHG emissions. Figure 2 shows
the CACP campus calculator modules; being the input, the emission factor module, the
calculation module, the results module and the graph module.
The spreadsheets were originally based on the workbooks provided by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), for national-level inventories, and
incorporate data from the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC (IPCC, 2010). The
calculator had adapted this IPCC procedure for use at institutions like colleges and
 Grassroots
climate change
awareness

307

Figure 2.
Different modules found
within the campus
calculator

university. The calculator includes all six GHGs specified by the Kyoto Protocol (CO2,
CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC and SF6) (Clean Air-Cool Planet, 2010).
Calculating emission per source in kilograms (kg). The amount of each gas emitted per
source in kg was measured by multiplying the quantity of each emission source used by
the corresponding emission factor, to derive emission in kg. Emission per fertilizer used
was derived by, multiplying the percentage of nitrogen contributed by each fertilizer, by
the quantity of fertilizer used and then multiplied by the corresponding emission factors
(Clean Air-Cool Planet, 2010).

Gas emitted per source (kg) ⫽ quantity of source used ⫻ emission factor (1)
Gas emitted per fertilizer source (kg) ⫽ (amount of fertilizer used ⫻ per cent N)
⫻ emission factor (2)

Calculating emission per source in carbon dioxide equivalent (MTCOe). The amount/
quantity of each source used was multiplied by the emission factor to derive emission in
carbon dioxide equivalent. Emission resulting from fertilizer used was derived by first
multiplying the percentage of nitrogen contributed by each fertilizer by the amount of
fertilizer used, and then multiplying the value obtained by the corresponding emission
factor (Clean Air-Cool Planet, 2010).

Carbon dioxide equivalent (MTCOe) for fertilizer ⫽ (% N ⫻ quantity used)

⫻ emission factor (3)

Carbon dioxide equivalent (MTCOe) for other sources ⫽ emission factor

⫻ quantity used (4)

A comparative analysis of BCA GHG emissions with those of other institutions. Due
to lack of campus emissions studies in Africa and the rest of the developing world, a
comparative analysis of BCA emissions with those of other institutions of higher
IJSHE learning was carried out based on data from The American College and University
Presidents’ Climate Commitment (ACUPCC, 2010), which displays the annual GHG
15,3 emission reports of different institutions around the world (Mathew and John, 2010).
Institutional data used for comparing BCA emissions include total student enrolment,
gross emission (MTCO2), emissions per 92.9 m2 area and emissions per student
(MTCO2e) (Clean Air-Cool Planet, 2010). This comparison was done with full
308 appreciation of the differences between BCA and these well-developed, Northern
Hemisphere universities. Such as resource use efficiency and advanced technology in
the later and also cultural and environmental differences. Nevertheless, as a goal of the
paper is to raise student awareness on global warming, the comparison is crucial for
students to appreciate how other institutions of high learning fare in emissions.
Options for decreasing campus emissions. Alternative options for reducing college
emissions through reviewing of approaches used by other institutes were carried out.

Results
Table I shows quantity of each emission source, for the year 2009. The college used 368
of 45-kg, each, propane gas cylinders, amounting to 16,560 kg of propane; 200 of 50-kg,
each, bags of NPK fertilizer (2:3:2), with 15 per cent of nitrogen content each; and 100 of
50-kg, each, bags of urea, each comprising 4.5 per cent nitrogen. A total of 136 loads each
288 tons of solid waste were collected on campus, while a total amount of 55,662 litres of
fuel, comprising 33,050 litres of gasoline (petrol) and 22,612 litres of diesel, was used by
the college vehicle fleet in 2009.
Table II indicates GHG emission per source, with CO2 being the most gas emitted
from various emission sources at 252,712.2 kg, followed by N2O at 10,257.1 kg, while
CH4 was the least gas emitted at 13.1 kg.

Emission source Amount

Gasoline (petrol) 33,050 litres

Diesel 22,612 litres
Table I. Synthetic fertilizer 10,000 kg
The quantity of emission Organic fertilizer 5,000 kg
sources used in the college Propane (cooking gas) 16,560 kg
in 2009 Solid waste 288 tones

Emission factor per gas (kg) Gas emitted per source (kg)
Emission source Quantity used CO2 CH4 N2O CO2 CH4 N2O

Gasoline (petrol) 33,050 litres 2.2878952 0.0003452 0.0002718 75,614.9 11.4 9.0
Diesel 22.612 litres 2.6826741 0.0000737 0.000197 60,660.6 1.7 4.4
Synthetic 10,000 kg N/A N/A 0.0310330 N/A N/A 9,309.0
fertilizer (3,000% N)
Organic 5,000 kg N/A N/A 0.0306371 N/A N/A 628.1
fertilizer (410% N)
Cooking gas 16,560 kg 0.0019696 1.913E-07 N/A 32.6 0.0 N/A
Table II. Solid waste 288 tons 404.1808318 N/A 1.0645161 116,404.1 306.6
Emission per source Total emissions 252,712.23 13.1 10,257.1
Figure 3 shows the percentage distribution of GHG emitted per emission source, from Grassroots
the total emission of 262,982.4 kg. CO2 emission from fossil fuels (petrol and diesel) was
higher than other gases emitted in 2009, at 52 per cent of the total emission, followed by
climate change
CO2 gas emission from solid waste at 44 per cent. CH4 was the least gas emitted from awareness
vehicle fuel at 0.004 per cent of the total emission.
Table III shows emission per source, in units of metric tons of carbon dioxide
equivalence (MTCOe). Synthetic fertilizer had the highest emission of 2,885.78 MTCOe, 309
followed by solid waste at 211.44 MTCOe, then organic fertilizer at 194.70 MTCOe.
Cooking gas (propane) had the least emission of 0.03 MTCOe.
Figure 4 indicates the distribution of total emission per sector, measured in carbon
dioxide equivalents (MTCOe). Fertilizers use (synthetic and organic) had the highest
carbon dioxide equivalent emission of 3,080.48 MTCOe from the total emission of
3,432.66 MTCOe or 90 per cent of the total emission in 2009 probably due to high rates
of volatilization because of high temperatures and low soil moisture. Baligar and
Bennett (1986) noted that in the tropics, large N losses are attributed to ammonium
volatilization. These emissions from fertilizer use comprised 2,885.78 MTCOe of
synthetic fertilizers and 194.699 MTCOe of organic fertilizers. Emission from cooking
gas (propane) was the smallest, at 0.001 per cent of total emissions.
Table IV indicates comparative analysis of emissions between BCA and other
universities. BCA was the second largest emitter of GHG at 3.20 MTCOe, when
compared to other institutions, after Alfred University in the USA, which had the

Figure 3.
Percentage distribution
for each gas emitted per
emission source

Emission source Emission factors in MTCOe MTCOe

Solid waste 0.7341808 211.44

Gasoline (petrol) 0.0023794 78.64
Diesel 0.0027452 62.07
Synthetic fertilizer 0.0096192 2,885.78 Table III.
Organic fertilizer 0.0094975 194.70 Emission per source in
Cooking gas (propane) 1.97482E-06 0.03 carbon dioxide equivalent
Total emission 3,432.66 (MTCOe)
IJSHE
15,3

310

Figure 4.
GHG emission per sector
in carbon dioxide
equivalent (MTCOe)

highest emission of 3.48 MTCOe per student. Boston Architectural College, also in the
USA, had the smallest emission of 0.32 MTCOe per student.

Discussion
The agricultural activities of the college emitted the highest amount of GHGs through
the use of organic and inorganic fertilizer. Ahmed et al. (2008) noted that ammonia
volatilization from surface-applied urea fertilizer reduces N fertilizer use efficiency by
crops. Therefore, ammonia volatilization in this high-temperature environment could
have led to less N uptake by plants and subsequently the need for repeated applications.
While Smith et al. (2007) highlighted that the reactive nitrogen added into the soil through
fertilizer and manure greatly influences the GHG balances, as some is released into the
atmosphere as the GHG, N2O. IPCC (2010) noted that the use of nitrogenous fertilizers,
manures and nitrogen-fixing legumes increases N2O emission. Solid waste emissions were
the second highest from the college campus. Ken (2008) observed that when solid waste is
discarded into landfills, the organic portion decomposes and generates landfill gas that
contains about 55 per cent CH4 and 44 per cent CO2, with the remainder composed of
moisture and trace organic compounds. Mathew and John (2010) agreed and stated that solid
waste is one of the largest primary contributors to GHG and CH4 emission attributed to solid
waste accounts for more than 2 per cent of the global total emissions.
The least emitter of GHG in the college was the transport sector which emitted 140.7
MTCOe, of the total emission, or 4 per cent of the total probably due to the residential
nature of the campus. This result is in disagreement with David (2007), who stated that
transportation, specifically the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles, is the single largest
source of human-made GHGs, releasing the three major GHGs, namely, CO2, N2O and
CH4. Nevertheless, the low amount of GHG in this case might be attributed to the less
distance that college vehicles have to travel into town (12 km). The Department of
Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (DSEWPC, 2009)
stated that the amount of GHG emitted from fuel depends on its type, with CO2 gas
emission from diesel being higher than that of petrol, at 2.7 and 2.3 kg of CO2 per litre,
respectively. Nevertheless, despite the amount of CO2 emitted from diesel being higher
 Area of Total Scope 1 total Emission per
Grassroots
building student emission Emission per student climate change
University space (m2) enrolment (MTCOe) 92.9 m2 (MTCOe) awareness
Botswana College of
Agriculture 7,890,935.9 1,011 3,234.66 0.04 3.20
Agnes Scott College 78,965 791 1,416.0 1.67 1.79
Alfred University 96,697.5 2,134 7,422.8 7.13 3.48
311
American University 311,104.7 10,570 9,027.0 2.69 0.85
Anna Maria College 22,457.1 1,042 2,704.5 11.19 2.60
Appalachian State University 472,830.8 15,749 24,638.0 4.84 1.56
Aquinas College 60,274.1 1,787 2,810.0 4.33 1.57
Augsburg College 97,098.1 3,948 2,628.4 2.51 0.66
Austin College 71,990.4 1,283 2,619.0 3.38 2.04
Bard College 104,313.8 1,883 4,566.0 4.07 2.42
Bemidji State University 153,239.8 4,296 7,134.0 4.32 1.66
Bentley University 157,930 5,012 2,947.0 1.73 0.59
Berea College 130,614.3 1,496 4,208.0 2.99 2.81
Black Hills State University 67,974.5 2,229 2,480.0 3.39 1.11 Table IV.
Boston Architectural College 9,401.2 1,500 478.0 4.72 0.32 Comparison of higher-
Boome Community College 54,963.6 6,275 2,042.5 3.45 0.33 education institutions
Bryn Mawr College 124,506.9 1,649 3,878.0 2.89 2.35 GHG emissions for 2009

than that of petrol, emission of GHG resulting from petrol is usually higher than that of
diesel, as engines designed to operate on diesel are more fuel-efficient than petrol ones
(DSEWPC, 2009). This assertion supports the findings, as emission from petrol was
higher than that of diesel.

Options for decreasing campus emissions

To minimize loss of nitrogen (N) as ammonia gas (NH3), known as volatilization, fertilizers
should be placed below the soil surface (basal dressing) as opposed to top dressing. In
situations where top dressing is necessary, fertilizer should be cultivated into the soil to
avoid exposure to heat, as high temperature increases volatilization. Approximately 6-13
mm of rain is necessary to dissolve N fertilizer and move it into the soil to a depth where
volatilization is no longer a concern. Therefore, rainfall amounts less than 6 mm will likely
encourage volatilization, as there is not enough moisture to move the fertilizer into the soil.
Therefore, for irrigated crops, application of nitrogenous fertilizers should be followed by
irrigation. Recycling of solid waste should be considered.

Conclusion
The aim of the paper was to report on the results of a case study in Botswana, aimed at
raising awareness on climate issues. Total GHG emission from the college was 3,432.66
MTCOe, with fertilizer use being the highest emitter. On a global basis, the college was
the second highest emitter probably due to low resource use efficiency such as high
fertilizer applications to compensate losses due to volatilization. Emission from fertilizer
use can be reduced through efficient use of fertilizer, and also through practicing other
farming techniques, such as organic farming (Mathew and John, 2010). Solid waste
IJSHE emission can be reduced by collecting and storing the biogas produced for heating and
also electricity generation (Ken 2008).
15,3 In sum, the knowledge gained by the student in carrying out the project is an
indispensable asset for him/her as a future leader, as, first, it provides the student with
the technical know-how of carrying out a GHG inventory, and, more importantly,
allowed the student to appreciate the scale of GHG emissions within a developing
312 country context.

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Further reading
Rose, A., Neff, R., Yarnal, B. and Greenberg, H. (2005), “A greenhouse gas inventory for
Pennsylvania”, Air and Waste Management Association, Vol. 55 No. 1, pp. 1-12.
Shackley, S., Fleming, P.D. and Bulkeley, H. (2002), Area-Based Carbon Emission Reduction: Low
Carbon Spaces, London.
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Botswana country of study, available at: www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.
asp?DocumentID⫽471&ArticleID⫽5231&l⫽en (accessed October 2010).

About the authors

Nnyaladzi Batisani is an Associate Professor, Botswana College of Agriculture, University of
Botswana. He is a geographer interested in complex environmental science: the integration of
biophysical science, social science and information science to solve food security problems. In
particular, his research addresses global environmental change in local places – i.e. how farmers
and the places in which they live contribute to global environmental changes and how global
environmental change affects food security at household level. His research integrates climate
change, food security, natural resource management and planning, natural hazards and land-use
change and the use of environmental information in decision-making. Nnyaladzi Batisani is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: nnyaladzi.batisani@gmail.com
Abijah Ndiane is a final-year student, BSc Soil and Water Conservation Engineering,
Botswana College of Agriculture, University of Botswana.

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