College of Social Science and Humanities

Department of English Language and Literature

 Advanced Writing Skills Hand out

 Course Code: EnLa 2044
 Number of Credit hour: 3/week
 Third Year Undergraduate students

A Compiled By:

Motuma Hirpassa Minda (Ph.D)

Ambo University
2014 E.C/2022

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Introduction
Advanced Writing Skills is a higher level writing course which extends from the preceding course:
intermediate Writing Skills. This course focuses on various modes of advanced level of writing: 1)
Argumentation: refuting, appropriate reasoning, using solid evidence. 2) Descriptive discourse:
introduction to description, types of description, descriptive vocabulary, producing descriptive
paragraphs and essays; 3) Narrative discourse: introduction to narrative, ways of developing ideas
in narratives, narrative diction, narrative paragraphs and essays, writing stories; 4) expository
discourse: Introduction to exposition, types of exposition (process exposition, comparison and
contrast, analogy, problem to solution, illustration, exemplification, etc). Furthermore, skills such
as summary writing and précis will be reflected. The course is also intended to develop students’
skills in critical writing and identification of informal fallacies in argumentation. Besides, through
all stages of the course, grammatical and fluency issues will be addressed so that students build up
their confidence and awareness about academic writing in
general and essay writing skill in particular.

Points of Types of Texts

Analysis Argumentative Descriptive Narrative Expository
Purpose Persuade/ Creating Declaring/ teaching
convince/ image/reveals/sho informing
influence/ to w
settle disputes and
discover truth
Principle of Reasoning and Spatial order Chronological Logical order
organising logic order order
Major claim, reason, Place, people, Story and event Procedures
components evidence, idea, objects etc
counter-claim,
and rebuttal etc.
Skills critical thinking Diction: Selection Presenting the Presenting the
required and reasoning and use of story/different procedure orderly
adjective and events in using imperative
adverbs coherently/unity sentences
Methods of fact, definition, facts/statistics, facts/statistics, facts/statistics,
developmen value, cause and illustration of illustration of illustration of
t/claims effect, compare personal personal personal experiences,
and contrast, experiences, experiences, exemplification
policy exemplification exemplification
Method of Introductory par. Introductory par. Introductory par. Introductory par.
outlining The thesis The thesis The thesis The thesis statement:
statement, statement: statement: Body paragraphs:
Body paragraphs, Body paragraphs: Body paragraphs: Conclusion
Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion

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 Language check-list
 Grammar: verb tense; subject/verb agreement; number agreement.
 Sentences: incomplete sentences (fragments); compound sentences - use of
 Subordinators and coordinators: unity, coherence and cohesion
 Punctuation: capital letters; commas; full stops; apostrophes; speech marks.
 Vocabulary: Is this correct? Is this varied? Are there any spelling mistakes?

Unit 1: Argumentative Texts

The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect,
generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner. Some
confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository essay. These two genres
are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository essay in the amount of pre-
writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a
capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy,
detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository
essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.
To analyse an author's argument, take it one step at a time:
1. Briefly note the main assertion (what does the writer want me to believe or do?)
2. Make a note of the first reason the author makes to support his/her conclusion.
3. Write down every other reason.
4. Underline the most important reason.
The List of Good Topics for an Argumentative Essay
 Can the death penalty be effective? ...
 Can smoking be prevented by making tobacco illegal? ...
 Are girls too “mean” in their friendship? ...
 Is competition really good? ...
 Is buying a lottery ticket a good?
 Is religion the cause of war?
 Is fashion really important?
How to Write a Good Argumentative Essay Introduction
1. Start With a Hook. Start your introduction with a sentence that gets the reader interested in
the topic. ...
2. Include Background. Providing readers with background on the topic allows them to better
understand the issue being presented. ...
3. State Your Thesis. ...
4. What to Leave Out.
What is argument text example?
An argument text is a text where the writer is either 'for' or 'against' an issue or subject or presents the
case for both sides. A common example of an argument text a kid may write about in primary school
is whether students should have to wear school uniforms.

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What are the examples of argumentative?
1. President presents an argument for why Congress should approve military action, laying out
reasons and evidence to support such a move.
2. Teenage girl presents an argument to her parents regarding why she needs a cell phone that will
allow her to text and use the internet.
What is the purpose of argumentative text?
It is used to settle disputes and discover truth. Teachers assign argumentative writing so students can
learn to examine their own and other's ideas in a careful, methodical way. Argument teaches us how
to evaluate conflicting claims and judge evidence and methods of investigation.
What are the parts of argumentative text?
The purpose of argument writing is to convince a reader that a point of view is valid or to persuade
the reader to take a specific action. Information is used, but it is organized based on these major
components of an argument: claim, reason, evidence, counter-claim, and rebuttal etc.
What is an example of an argumentative claim?
Most people would agree that junk food is bad for your health. Because junk food is bad for your
health, the size of sodas offered at fast-food restaurants should be regulated by the federal
government is a debatable thesis. Reasonable people could agree or disagree with the statement.
Argumentative texts are based on the evaluation and the subsequent subjective judgement in
answer to a problem. It refers to the reasons advanced for or against a matter. The writer usually
argues with another side to convince the reader to join a certain side.
What are argumentative skills?
Argumentation is the thought process used to develop and present arguments. It is closely related
to critical thinking and reasoning. Argument skills belong among the essential 21 st century cognitive
skills. We face complex issues that require careful, balanced reasoning to resolve.
5 Types of Argument Claims
Once you decide what you’re arguing and know your thesis statement, consider how you’ll
present your argument. There are five types of argument claims that can drive your essay:

1. Fact: whether the statement is true or false.

2. Definition: the dictionary definition of what you’re arguing, plus your own personal
interpretation of it.
3. Value: the importance of what you’re arguing.
4. Cause and effect: what causes the problem in your essay and what effects it has.
5. Policy: why the reader should care and what they should do about it after reading.

How to Outline an Argumentative Essay in 4 Steps

Argumentative essays should have a straightforward structure so they are easy for readers to follow.
The goal of an argumentative essay is to clearly outline a point of view, reasoning, and evidence. A
good argumentative essay should follow this structure:
Introductory paragraph: The first paragraph of your essay should outline the topic, provide
background information necessary to understand your argument, outline the evidence you will
present and states your thesis.

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The thesis statement: This is part of your first paragraph. It is a concise, one-sentence summary of
your main point and claim.
Body paragraphs: A typical argumentative essay comprises three or more paragraphs that explain the
reasons why you support your thesis. Each body paragraph should cover a different idea or piece of
evidence and contain a topic sentence that clearly and concisely explains why the reader should agree
with your position. Body paragraphs are where you back up your claims with examples, research,
statistics, studies, and text citations. Address opposing points of view and disprove them or explain
why you disagree with them. Presenting facts and considering a topic from every angle adds
credibility and will help you gain a reader’s trust.
Conclusion: One paragraph that restates your thesis and summarizes all of the arguments made in
your body paragraphs. Rather than introducing new facts or more arguments, a good conclusion will
appeal to a reader’s emotions. In some cases, writers will use a personal anecdote explaining how the
topic personally affects them.
1. Argumentation
1.1. Paragraph
A paragraph of persuasion is a special type of paragraph that gives reasons. Its main purpose is to
persuade or convince the reader of a certain point of view. This is done by providing tangible pieces
of evidence or reasons. Facts and statistics provide strong support, but examples and incidents may
also be used effectively. The reasons in a persuasive paragraph are often organized from the least
important to the most important. This helps to build strong support for the opinion, and leaves your
reader with your strongest reason freshly in mind- A paragraph of persuasion usually contains a
signal of its purpose in the topic sentence. The sentence will be worded so that a definite opinion is
given on an issue. It may also contain words such as SHOULD or OUGHT TO, to express a
judgment about a thing or idea.
Structure of a persuasive paragraph
Structure 1
 Topic sentence (opinion)
 Supporting sentences (Facts and Examples)
 Concluding sentence (Final Appeal)
Example
Despite the general shortage of government money, the benefits of the space shuttle are so
great that the program should be expanded. First, each shuttlecraft can be reused many times
to carry satellites into and out of orbit. These satellites can perform a wide range of services
that help people on Earth. They can predict weather on land and sea and forecast crop
production around the globe. They can also relay power and communication beams. Second,
the shuttle can carry materials for important construction projects in space, such as a space
station. Most important, the shuttle allows science and industry a convenient laboratory for
testing new ideas in technology and medicine. Although the development costs are high,
money on the space shuttle is well spent.
Exercise 1
Write an argumentative or a persuasive paragraph on each of the following topics. Follow the pattern
of the example above.
1. Abortion: should it be legalized?
2. Wearing Mini-skirts in schools

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 3. Life in the city Vs Life in the country.
4. Education Vs money.
5. Smoking cigar at public places.
Structure 2
1. State the opposing point of view.
2. State evidence to support it.
3. State your own point of view.
4. State evidence to support it.
5. Draw conclusions.
Example
The paragraph in structure one can be presented as follows using structure two.
Some people argue that the benefits of the space shuttle are so great that the program should
be expanded. They say that each shuttlecraft can be reused many times to carry satellites into
and out of orbit. These satellites can perform a wide range of services that help people on
Earth. They can predict weather on land and sea and forecast crop production around the
glob. However, any own view is that the money used for that purpose should rather be spent
on life-saving activities. For example, many people are dying of starvation, and mal-nutrition.
Also, AIDS, AIDS is haunting the lives of people in thousands, even in millions. Needless to
say, millions are still dying of malaria, TB and other contagious diseases. Therefore, is it
really human to spend much money on something too remote from us where there are more
urgent things to take care of?

This structure helps you to present the different sides of an argument. By so doing, you can properly
refute what other people say about the topic of discussion. In using this structure, you should give
more emphasis to your own point of view. Otherwise, if you focus more on what other people say,
you will end up saying nothing or little as far as your view point is concerned.
Exercise 2
Using structure two write persuasive paragraphs on each of the following topics.
1. Who likes money more: Males or Females?
2. Article 39 of the Ethiopian Constitution.
3. Wedding Ceremonies in Ethiopia.
4. Wearing Uniforms in Schools.
1.2. Essay
As online learning becomes more common and more and more resources are converted to digital
form, some people have suggested that public libraries should be shut down and, in their place,
everyone should be given an iPad with an e-reader subscription.
Proponents of this idea state that it will save local cities and towns money because libraries are
expensive to maintain. They also believe it will encourage more people to read because they won’t
have to travel to a library to get a book; they can simply click on what they want to read and read it
from wherever they are. They could also access more materials because libraries won’t have to buy
physical copies of books; they can simply rent out as many digital copies as they need.

However, it would be a serious mistake to replace libraries with tablets. First, digital books and
resources are associated with less learning and more problems than print resources. A study done on
tablet vs book reading found that people read 20-30% slower on tablets, retain 20% less information,
and understand 10% less of what they read compared to people who read the same information in

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print. Additionally, staring too long at a screen has been shown to cause numerous health problems,
including blurred vision, dizziness, dry eyes, headaches, and eye strain, at much higher instances
than reading print does. People who use tablets and mobile devices excessively also have a higher
incidence of more serious health issues such as fibromyalgia, shoulder and back pain, carpal tunnel
syndrome, and muscle strain. I know that whenever I read from my e-reader for too long, my eyes
begin to feel tired and my neck hurts. We should not add to these problems by giving people,
especially young people, more reasons to look at screens.

Second, it is incredibly narrow-minded to assume that the only service libraries offer is book lending.
Libraries have a multitude of benefits, and many are only available if the library has a physical
location. Some of these benefits include acting as a quiet study space, giving people a way to
converse with their neighbors, holding classes on a variety of topics, providing jobs, answering
patron questions, and keeping the community connected. One neighborhood found that, after a local
library instituted community events such as play times for toddlers and parents, job fairs for
teenagers, and meeting spaces for senior citizens, over a third of residents reported feeling more
connected to their community. Similarly, a Pew survey conducted in 2015 found that nearly two-
thirds of American adults feel that closing their local library would have a major impact on their
community. People see libraries as a way to connect with others and get their questions answered,
benefits tablets can’t offer nearly as well or as easily.

While replacing libraries with tablets may seem like a simple solution, it would encourage people to
spend even more time looking at digital screens, despite the myriad issues surrounding them. It
would also end access to many of the benefits of libraries that people have come to rely on. In many
areas, libraries are such an important part of the community network that they could never be
replaced by a simple object.

Analysis
The author begins by giving an overview of the counterargument, then the thesis appears as the first
sentence in the third paragraph. The essay then spends the rest of the paper dismantling the counter
argument and showing why readers should believe the other side.
 What this essay does well:

Although it’s a bit unusual to have the thesis appear fairly far into the essay, it works because,  once
the thesis is stated, the rest of the essay focuses on supporting it since the counterargument has
already been discussed earlier in the paper.

This essay includes numerous facts and cites studies to support its case. By having specific data to
rely on, the author’s argument is stronger, and readers will be more inclined to agree with it.

For every argument the other side makes, the author makes sure to refute it and follow up with why
her opinion is the stronger one. In order to make a strong argument, it’s important to dismantle the
other side, which this essay does this by making the author's view appear stronger.

 How this essay could be improved:

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This is a shorter paper, and if it needed to be expanded to meet length requirements, it could include
more examples and go more into depth with them, such as by explaining specific cases where people
benefited from local libraries.

Additionally, while the paper uses lots of data, the author also mentions their own experience with
using tablets. This should be removed since argumentative essays focus on facts and data to support
an argument, not the author’s own opinion or experiences. Replacing that with more data on
health issues associated with screen time would strengthen the essay.

Some of the points made aren't completely accurate, particularly the one about digital books
being cheaper. It actually often costs a library more money to rent out numerous digital copies of a
book compared to buying a single physical copy. Make sure in your own essay you thoroughly
research each of the points and rebuttals you make, otherwise you'll look like you don't know the
issue that well.

 Argumentative Essay Example 2

Malaria is an infectious disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through female
Anopheles mosquitoes. Each year, over half a billion people will become infected with malaria, with
roughly 80% of them living in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nearly half a million people die of malaria every
year, most of them young children under the age of five. Unlike many other infectious diseases, the
death toll for malaria is rising. While there have been many programs designed to improve access to
malaria treatment, the best way to reduce the impact of malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa is to focus on
reducing the number of people who contract the disease in the first place, rather than waiting to treat
the disease after the person is already infected.
 

There are multiple drugs available to treat malaria, and many of them work well and save lives, but
malaria eradication programs that focus too much on them and not enough on prevention haven’t
seen long-term success in Sub-Saharan Africa. A major program to combat malaria was WHO’s
Global Malaria Eradication Programme. Started in 1955, it had a goal of eliminating malaria in
Africa within the next ten years. Based upon previously successful programs in Brazil and the United
States, the program focused mainly on vector control. This included widely distributing chloroquine
and spraying large amounts of DDT. More than one billion dollars was spent trying to abolish
malaria. However, the program suffered from many problems and in 1969, WHO was forced to
admit that the program had not succeeded in eradicating malaria. The number of people in Sub-
Saharan Africa who contracted malaria as well as the number of malaria deaths had actually
increased over 10% during the time the program was active.

One of the major reasons for the failure of the project was that it set uniform strategies and policies.
By failing to consider variations between governments, geography, and infrastructure, the program
was not nearly as successful as it could have been. Sub-Saharan Africa has neither the money nor the
infrastructure to support such an elaborate program, and it couldn’t be run the way it was meant to.
Most African countries don't have the resources to send all their people to doctors and get shots, nor
can they afford to clear wetlands or other malaria prone areas. The continent’s spending per person

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for eradicating malaria was just a quarter of what Brazil spent. Sub-Saharan Africa simply can’t rely
on a plan that requires more money, infrastructure, and expertise than they have to spare.

Additionally, the widespread use of chloroquine has created drug resistant parasites which are now
plaguing Sub-Saharan Africa. Because chloroquine was used widely but inconsistently, mosquitoes
developed resistance, and chloroquine is now nearly completely ineffective in Sub-Saharan Africa,
with over 95% of mosquitoes resistant to it. As a result, newer, more expensive drugs need to be used
to prevent and treat malaria, which further drives up the cost of malaria treatment for a region that
can ill afford it.

Instead of developing plans to treat malaria after the infection has incurred, programs should focus
on preventing infection from occurring in the first place. Not only is this plan cheaper and more
effective, reducing the number of people who contract malaria also reduces loss of work/school days
which can further bring down the productivity of the region.

One of the cheapest and most effective ways of preventing malaria is to implement insecticide-
treated bed nets (ITNs).  These nets provide a protective barrier around the person or people using
them. While untreated bed nets are still helpful, those treated with insecticides are much more useful
because they stop mosquitoes from biting people through the nets, and they help reduce mosquito
populations in a community, thus helping people who don’t even own bed nets.  Bed nets are also
very effective because most mosquito bites occur while the person is sleeping, so bed nets would be
able to drastically reduce the number of transmissions during the night. In fact, transmission of
malaria can be reduced by as much as 90% in areas where the use of ITNs is widespread. Because
money is so scarce in Sub-Saharan Africa, the low cost is a great benefit and a major reason why the
program is so successful. Bed nets cost roughly 2 USD to make, last several years, and can protect
two adults. Studies have shown that, for every 100-1000 more nets are being used, one less child dies
of malaria. With an estimated 300 million people in Africa not being protected by mosquito nets,
there’s the potential to save three million lives by spending just a few dollars per person.

Reducing the number of people who contract malaria would also reduce poverty levels in Africa
significantly, thus improving other aspects of society like education levels and the economy. Vector
control is more effective than treatment strategies because it means fewer people are getting sick.
When fewer people get sick, the working population is stronger as a whole because people are not
put out of work from malaria, nor are they caring for sick relatives. Malaria-afflicted families can
typically only harvest 40% of the crops that healthy families can harvest. Additionally, a family with
members who have malaria spends roughly a quarter of its income treatment, not including the loss
of work they also must deal with due to the illness. It’s estimated that malaria costs Africa 12 billion
USD in lost income every year. A strong working population creates a stronger economy, which
Sub-Saharan Africa is in desperate need of.  

Analysis

This essay begins with an introduction, which ends with the thesis (that malaria eradication plans in
Sub-Saharan Africa should focus on prevention rather than treatment). The first part of the essay lays
out why the counter argument (treatment rather than prevention) is not as effective, and the second
part of the essay focuses on why prevention of malaria is the better path to take.

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 What this essay does well:

The thesis appears early, is stated clearly, and is supported throughout the rest of the essay. This
makes the argument clear for readers to understand and follow throughout the essay.

There’s lots of solid research in this essay, including specific programs that were conducted and
how successful they were, as well as specific data mentioned throughout. This evidence helps
strengthen the author’s argument.

 How this essay could be improved:

The author makes a case for using expanding bed net use over waiting until malaria occurs and
beginning treatment, but not much of a plan is given for how the bed nets would be distributed or
how to ensure they’re being used properly. By going more into detail of what she believes should be
done, the author would be making a stronger argument.

The introduction of the essay does a good job of laying out the seriousness of the problem, but the
conclusion is short and abrupt. Expanding it into its own paragraph would give the author a final way
to convince readers of her side of the argument.

Argumentative Essay Example 3

As college sports continue to be hugely popular and the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) brings in large amounts of revenue, people have revived the debate on whether college
athletes should get paid.
 

There are many ways payments could work. They could be in the form of a free-market approach,
where athletes are able to earn whatever the market is willing to pay them, it could be a set amount of
money per athlete, or student athletes could earn income from endorsements, autographs, and control
of their likeness, similar to the way top Olympians earn money.

Proponents of the idea believe that, because college athletes are the ones who are training,
participating in games, and bringing in audiences, they should receive some sort of compensation for
their work. If there were no college athletes, the NCAA wouldn’t exist, college coaches wouldn’t
receive there (sometimes very high) salaries, and brands like Nike couldn’t profit from college
sports. In fact, the NCAA brings in roughly $1 billion in revenue a year, but college athletes don’t
receive any of that money in the form of a paycheck. Additionally, people who believe college
athletes should be paid state that paying college athletes will actually encourage them to remain in
college longer and not turn pro as quickly, either by giving them a way to begin earning money in
college or requiring them to sign a contract stating they’ll stay at the university for a certain number
of years while making an agreed-upon salary.  

Supporters of this idea point to Zion Williamson, the Duke basketball superstar, who, during his
freshman year, sustained a serious knee injury. Many argued that, even if he enjoyed playing for
Duke, it wasn’t worth risking another injury and ending his professional career before it even began

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for a program that wasn’t paying him. Williamson seems to have agreed with them and declared his
eligibility for the NCAA draft later that year. If he was being paid, he may have stayed at Duke
longer. In fact, roughly a third of student athletes surveyed stated that receiving a salary while in
college would make them “strongly consider” remaining collegiate athletes longer before turning
pro.

Paying athletes could also stop the recruitment scandals that have plagued the NCAA. In 2018, the
NCAA stripped the University of Louisville's men's basketball team of its 2013 national
championship title because it was discovered coaches were using sex workers to entice recruits to
join the team. There have been dozens of other recruitment scandals where college athletes and
recruits have been bribed with anything from having their grades changed, to getting free cars, to
being straight out bribed. By paying college athletes and putting their salaries out in the open, the
NCAA could end the illegal and underhanded ways some schools and coaches try to entice athletes
to join.

People who argue against the idea of paying college athletes believe the practice could be disastrous
for college sports. By paying athletes, they argue, they’d turn college sports into a bidding war,
where only the richest schools could afford top athletes, and the majority of schools would be shut
out from developing a talented team (though some argue this already happens because the best
players often go to the most established college sports programs, who typically pay their coaches
millions of dollars per year). It could also ruin the tight camaraderie of many college teams if players
become jealous that certain teammates are making more money than they are.

They also argue that paying college athletes actually means only a small fraction would make
significant money. Out of the 350 Division I athletic departments, fewer than a dozen earn any
money. Nearly all the money the NCAA makes comes from men’s football and basketball, so paying
college athletes would make a small group of men--who likely will be signed to pro teams and begin
making millions immediately out of college--rich at the expense of other players.

Those against paying college athletes also believe that the athletes are receiving enough benefits
already. The top athletes already receive scholarships that are worth tens of thousands per year, they
receive free food/housing/textbooks, have access to top medical care if they are injured, receive top
coaching, get travel perks and free gear, and can use their time in college as a way to capture the
attention of professional recruiters. No other college students receive anywhere near as much from
their schools.

People on this side also point out that, while the NCAA brings in a massive amount of money each
year, it is still a non-profit organization. How? Because over 95% of those profits are redistributed to
its members’ institutions in the form of scholarships, grants, conferences, support for Division II and
Division III teams, and educational programs. Taking away a significant part of that revenue would
hurt smaller programs that rely on that money to keep running.

While both sides have good points, it’s clear that the negatives of paying college athletes far
outweigh the positives. College athletes spend a significant amount of time and energy playing for
their school, but they are compensated for it by the scholarships and perks they receive. Adding a
salary to that would result in a college athletic system where only a small handful of athletes (those

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likely to become millionaires in the professional leagues) are paid by a handful of schools who enter
bidding wars to recruit them, while the majority of student athletics and college athletic programs
suffer or even shut down for lack of money. Continuing to offer the current level of benefits to
student athletes makes it possible for as many people to benefit from and enjoy college sports as
possible.

Analysis
This argumentative essay follows the Rogerian model. It discusses each side, first laying out multiple
reasons people believe student athletes should be paid, then discussing reasons why the athletes
shouldn’t be paid. It ends by stating that college athletes shouldn’t be paid by arguing that paying
them would destroy college athletics programs and cause them to have many of the issues
professional sports leagues have.

 What this essay does well:

Both sides of the argument are well developed, with multiple reasons why people agree with each
side. It allows readers to get a full view of the argument and its nuances.
Certain statements on both sides are directly rebuffed in order to show where the strengths and
weaknesses of each side lie and give a completer and more sophisticated look at the argument.
 How this essay could be improved:

Using the Rogerian model can be tricky because oftentimes you don’t explicitly state your argument
until the end of the paper. Here, the thesis doesn’t appear until the first sentence of the final
paragraph. That doesn’t give readers a lot of time to be convinced that your argument is the
right one, compared to a paper where the thesis is stated in the beginning and then supported
throughout the paper. This paper could be strengthened if the final paragraph was expanded to more
fully explain why the author supports the view, or if the paper had made it clearer that paying
athletes was the weaker argument throughout.
 3 Tips for Writing a Good Argumentative Essay

Now that you’ve seen examples of what good argumentative essay samples look like, follow these
three tips when crafting your own essay.
#1: Make Your Thesis Crystal Clear
The thesis is the key to your argumentative essay; if it isn’t clear or readers can’t find it easily, your
entire essay will be weak as a result. Always make sure that your thesis statement is easy to find. The
typical spot for it is the final sentence of the introduction paragraph, but if it doesn’t fit in that spot
for your essay, try to at least put it as the first or last sentence of a different paragraph so it
stands out more.
Also make sure that your thesis makes clear what side of the argument you’re on. After you’ve
written it, it’s a great idea to show your thesis to a couple different people--classmates are great for
this. Just by reading your thesis they should be able to understand what point you’ll be trying to
make with the rest of your essay.

#2: Show Why the Other Side Is Weak

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When writing your essay, you may be tempted to ignore the other side of the argument and just focus
on your side, but don’t do this. The best argumentative essays really tear apart the other side to show
why readers shouldn’t believe it. Before you begin writing your essay, research what the other side
believes, and what their strongest points are. Then, in your essay, be sure to mention each of these
and use evidence to explain why they’re incorrect/weak arguments. That’ll make your essay much
more effective than if you only focused on your side of the argument.

#3: Use Evidence to Support Your Side

Remember, an essay can’t be an argumentative essay if it doesn’t support its argument with
evidence. For every point you make, make sure you have facts to back it up. Some examples are
previous studies done on the topic, surveys of large groups of people, data points, etc. There
should be lots of numbers in your argumentative essay that support your side of the argument. This
will make your essay much stronger compared to only relying on your own opinions to support your
argument.

Summary: Argumentative Essay Sample

Argumentative essays are persuasive essays that use facts and evidence to support their side of the
argument. Most argumentative essays follow either the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model. By
reading good argumentative essay examples, you can learn how to develop your essay and provide
enough support to make readers agree with your opinion. When writing your essay, remember to
always make your thesis clear, show where the other side is weak, and back up your opinion with
data and evidence.
Argumentative Essay Writing Tips
Below are 10 useful tips you should keep in mind while crafting an argumentative essay.

 Choose engaging topics  Create a solid introduction

 Choose the structure  Complex sentences never impress
 Conduct quality research  Clarity and authority
 Credible sources  Stick to the essay length
 Use counter-arguments  Avoid hot and sensitive topics

CHAPTER TWO: DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

1. Description
Description is a vivid and detailed representation in words of the image of an object or subjective
phenomenon such as a person, a scene, a sensation or an emotion. Description generally employs
words that appeal to the five senses and always involves two elements: the object described and the
observer. According to which of these predominates, description can be of two types: objective or
impressionistic (subjective).

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Objective description seeks to report accurately the appearance of an object independent of the
observer’s attitude or feeling about it. On the other hand, impressionistic description focuses on the
mood or feeling the object evokes in the observer rather than upon the object as it exists in itself.
Impressionistic description expresses a feeling, attitude or opinion about the thing described, e.g.
Objective Description: Addis Ababa has a population of about 3 million. It is the biggest city in the
Horn of Africa.

Impressionistic Description: Addis Ababa is a delightful city with a number of magnificent places
to visit. It has also interesting people from all over the world. It is really worth visiting.
1.1. Describing a person
In describing a person, the writer’s purpose is to capture the essence of a person by going beyond
physical characteristics. The writer of the following description, for example, selects words and
details that reveal much about the inner reality of the woman being described.

She was a big, awkward woman, with big bones and hard, rubbery flesh. Her short
arms ended in ham hands, and her neck was a squat roll of fat that protruded behind her
head as a big bump. Her skin was rough and puffy, with plump, mole-like freckles
down her cheeks. Her eyes glowered from under the mountain of her brow and were
circled with expensive naive shadow. They were nervous and quick when she was
flustered and darted about at nothing in particular while she was dressing hair or talking
to people.
With phrases such as “rubbery flesh,” “ham hands” and “squat roll,” the writer creates an overall
impression of ugliness. She notes the woman’s “expensive naïve shadow,” which hints at vanity. She
uses words such as glowered, nervous, quick, and darted to imply suspicion and insecurity. The
writer makes the woman come alive for the reader. She paints a picture of an interesting, complex
human being.
Below is a list of words that can be used to describe the physical appearance, and the inner, or
emotional qualities of a person.
External Qualities Internal Qualities
flat nose dimples aloof snobbish
straight nose pointed chin sociable arrogant
eagle eyes bearded trustworthy eccentric
round lips eye-glassed selfish generous
tall short cooperative helpful
thin dandified kind naïve
brown eyes heavy dependable lovely
boob round lips thoughtful offensive
beautiful gorgeous shameless lonely
handsome attractive innocent restless
muscular long face far-sighted cool
kinky hair curly hair disruptive
afro hair freeze hair
pretty shapely legs
pot-bellied round face
Exercise 1
Use the information below to write a descriptive paragraph about a person called Nati.

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 height: short shape: plump, large stomach
legs: surprisingly thin hair: graying, neatly brushed
coat: new, brown, open at neck trousers : neat, well ironed
shoes: light-brown, shiny socks: matching the shoes
hat : rim pulled down face: round and smiling
Overall Impression: timid, as if afraid of passers-by
Exercise 2
Describe someone whom you know very well without mentioning his/ her name. Begin by describing
his/ her physical appearance, and then go on to describing his/ her inner qualities. Give it to a friend
so that he/ she can guess who the person is. Use the words given above, or your own. In your
description compare the person with other things to impress your reader.
13.2.2 Appealing to Senses
Descriptive paragraphs can appeal to any of the five senses either individually or in combination.
Below is a list of words/ expressions that appeal to the senses. Use them to describe the items under
them.
Hearing Touch Taste Smell
boom icy salty aromatic
bump cold buttery fragrant
crash cool oily sweet
explode sticky sweet odorous
bang steamy bittersweet flowery
smash warm bitter perfumed
bark rubbery vinegary rotten
whistle fleshy sour gaseous
yell waxy tasteless acidic
scream oily sour spicy
shout slippery ripe fishy
roar wet sugary Pungent
clap elastic fruity spoiled
noisy feathery spicy stench
deafening silky peppery Stale
earsplitting sandy gingery
shatter rough hot
screech dry burnt
sharp, etc rotten, etc.
Exercise 3
Write at least two sentences describing each of the following senses. Use some of the words above.
1. Example: A jet landing 5. Drinking ice water
A landing jet is noisy. 6. A crowded room
A landing jet is deafening. 7. A stale garbage can
2. A crying baby 8. A cut finger
3. A lemon 9. A classroom
4. Walking barefoot 10. Eating a raw carrot
Read this description of a town
My town, Addis Ababa

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 I am going to take you on a visit to my town. When we meet, I will take you to see wide,
tree-lined streets, fine modern buildings, and tree covered hills. Tall skyscrapers, elegant
villas and functional bungalows are some of the buildings you will see. Next to traditional
houses you will find imposing buildings that house the government offices. These are the
sights of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, my town.

As we tour the city, we might drink coffee at one of the many cosy espresso bars and
patisseries that line every street and visit the colourful outdoor markets. We might take a
line-taxi to the famous Shiromeda textile market, where you will find an abundance of
cotton netela and gabi. This market is famous all over Ethiopia.

After our walk, we might eat at one of the huge variety of restaurants in this town. You
might like to eat traditional food or try food from Mexico, India, Italy and many other
countries. The food in these restaurants is high quality and delicious.

When at last, after your busy day of sightseeing, you are ready to rest, you can choose
from one of the many reasonably – priced small hotels. These hotels are new to the town
and have been built to provide a place to stay for the many visitors now arriving in Addis.

Try to guess some of the words. Ask your partner and use a dictionary. Ask the trainer. Add the new
vocabulary to your word bank.
Language focus: describing words
Look at the describing words in the reading extract My Town. Most of the describing words are
before a noun. Find more adjectives that are before a noun and add to the list.
Playing with fire.
John was a small skinny boy of ten years with blond untidy hair. He had knobbly knees and
they were usually dirty. He was wearing his old clothes because he had no lessons today so his
shorts were torn and his tee-shirt showed his back. John was usually cheerful and usually
walked around with a big smile on his face. He was mischievous and did not like to be bored
and when he had nothing to do, he sometimes got into trouble.

John lived on a sheep farm in Australia. His home town was in a dry and dusty part of
Queensland, where he could stand and see no one for kilometre after kilometre. This part of the
world has few people but many sheep. From the front door of his farmhouse, all he could see
were sheep grazing the sparse grass. In the distance, he could hear the sound of his father
taking food to the new born lambs in the pen close to his house. He could smell the smoke in
the air from the great bush fires further north. These fires had burned many hundreds of
kilometres of grass and trees.

John walked over to the sheep pens to help his father feed the new lambs. This took about an
hour and then his father went into the house and John had nothing more to do. He thought
about going horse riding and then he thought about going to look for rabbits. Then he smelt
the smell of fire again and he had an idea. John had watched fires on television and thought
that the fires were very exciting. He decided to have a little fire on his fathers’ farm.

He went into the house and took a box of matches from the table and also a bucket. Then he
ran down the hill away from the house. He collected a lot of wood and put it in a pile. Then

16
he started digging a trench in a circle around the pile of wood. He lit the fire and ran very
quickly to the house, shouting for his father to come outside.

When his father came to the door, John pointed to the smoke from the fire and shouted that
the bush fires had come. His father looked very worried and ran down the hill to the fire.
When he got near, his father could see that the fire was very small. He could also see that
John had dug a trench around the fire and that there was a bucket of water nearby. In spite of
this, John’s father was very angry.

John’s father punished John by preventing him from going horse riding for a month. His
father realised that John needed more work to do on the farm.

Word Bank
knobbly knees very thin knees
mischievous playful, naughty
bored he had nothing to do
grazing animals (sheep) eating grass
sparse very little grass
lamb baby sheep
pen the compound where the lambs are kept safe at night.
empty land with no farms or people
bush small animals that live on grass
rabbits mound; heap; stack
pile ditch
trench fire burning
smoke despite
in spite of this
Activity 3. Understanding the story. Work with a partner to do these activities.
3.1. Characters. Complete the table.
Main character in
Playing with fire. The main character is..............................................................

3.2 . Read the beginning of the story Playing with fire and underline the words that describe John.
When you have done this, check with the table below.
John was a small skinny boy of ten years with blond untidy hair. He had knobbly knees and
they were usually dirty. He was wearing his old clothes because he had no lessons today so his
shorts were torn and his tee-shirt showed his back. John was usually cheerful and usually
walked around with a big smile on his face. He was mischievous and did not like to be bored
and when he had nothing to do, he sometimes got into trouble.
How many of these did you find?

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John Appearance Personality
Small; skinny; blond untidy hair; Cheerful; happy; mischievous;
knobbly knees; dirty knees; old disobedient.
clothes; torn shorts.
3.3. The setting.
Read the sentences about the setting in Playing with fire.
John lived on a sheep farm in Australia. His home town was in a dry and dusty part
of Queensland, where he could stand and see no one for kilometre after kilometre.
This part of the world has few people but many sheep. From the front door of his
farmhouse all he could see were sheep grazing the sparse grass. In the distance, he
could hear the sound of his fathers’ taking food to the new born lambs in the pen
close to his house. He could smell the smoke in the air from the great bush fires
further north.
Write the words that tell the reader where John lives.
........................................................................................................................................
Write the words that describe this country.
..........................................................................................................................................
Check your words with the table below.
The setting
Playing with fire A sheep farm in Queensland, Australia; dry; hot; this part of the
world has few people but many sheep; sparse grass.
3.4. The plot.
The plot is about what happens in a story.
The first sentences of paragraphs 3, 4, 5 and 6 tell the reader what happened in the plot. These
sentences are printed below in the wrong order.
When his father came to the door, John pointed to the smoke from the fire and shouted that
the bush fires had come.
He went into the house and took a box of matches from the table and also a bucket.
John’s father punished John by preventing him from going horse riding for a month.
John walked over to the sheep pens to help his father feed the new lambs.
Narrative texts
2. Narration
Narration is the reporting of a series of happenings such as actions, incidents or episodes all leading
to a conclusion. It, in other words, is a story that may be based on fact, on imagination, or a
combination of both. A well-constructed narrative has three basic parts:
a) the initial situation (where a conflict or a character and a situation or a combination of all
these is introduced.
b) The action taken to solve the conflict
c) The conclusion
Good narratives require
a) Carefully considered beginning, middle and end
b) Carefully selected and arranged details.
c) A dominant impression, and
d) Mainly a chronological sequence of arranging details leading to a climax or result.

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Example:
The day was hot and sunny and the town dull and sleepy. With the exception of a few
idlers, not a living creature was to be seen. Suddenly, the loud noise of a bugle broke
the monotonous stillness of the street. Soon, a horse-drawn coach appeared, rattling
over the uneven stone paving, noisy enough to stop even the large-faced clock in the
middle of the square itself. Then the strangers disembarked from the coach. In no time,
there came rushing the rugged boys- running about and shouting, bringing and taking
away things thereby making a most exhilarating bustle.

The transitions (logical connectors) above-suddenly, soon, then, and in no time-all show a time order
or a chronological order of arranging details. Additional linking devices/ transitions that are used in
chronological order include.
¨immediately ¨next ¨afterwards
¨after ¨when ¨throughout the day
¨before ¨after a while ¨on Monday
¨as soon as ¨meanwhile ¨during
¨firstly ¨by evening ¨in December
¨secondly ¨until ¨last night,
¨finally ¨early ¨at last etc

Exercise 1
Rearrange the sentences below to create a coherent paragraph.
1. “Good morning, my sons”, the old woman answered and smiled at them.
2. Once, there lived an old woman.
3. One morning, two young boys saw the old woman with her donkeys and shouted: “Good
morning mother of donkeys!”
4. She had two donkeys.
5. Every morning, she went with them down the street to the fields.

Exercise 2
Look at the narrative paragraph below and answer the questions that follow it.

There was a robber who roamed the countryside. He pillaged and killed passers-by. The
king, having heard this, sent out his soldiers. They caught him and brought him in
chains to the king who sentenced him to death. As they took him to the place where he
was to be beheaded, the old father of this robber was following him in tears. When the
robber caught sight of his father, he asked to say a few words to him before his death.
Once he got close to his father, he tried to hit him, but he failed to do so because his
hands were tied together. So, he began to inflict upon him a terrible bite with his teeth.
All the people around him shouted “Really, this bandit deserves death since he even
wanted to kill his father.” But, he told them. “It is not I who deserves death but my
father. When in my childhood I began stealing corn and grain, he encouraged me
instead of punishing me and accustomed me to robbery. For this reason, I became a
bandit and thus reached this hour of my death. Had my father punished me at the
appropriate time, I would not have come to this end. Having said this, he was beheaded,
but all those who had children understood the seriousness of the matter.

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 1. A robber _______________passers-by.
2. The soldiers ________________________.
3. The king ______________ the robber ________________.
4. When the robber _______________, the father _______________.
5. This was because _____________________.
6. The robber _________________ the father __________________.
7. The moral message of the story is that _____________________.

Exercise 3.3. Writing an Eyewitness Report

Use the following notes to write an eyewitness report.
1. You were sitting at one corner of a café.
2. A girl was sitting at the other corner waiting for her friend.
3. The girl put her bag on her table, went to latrine.
4. A tall, bearded man sitting at the other corner came and sat at her table, pretending to be her
friend.
5. The man picked her bag and left the café.
6. The girl came, found out that her bag had been stolen; screamed as a result.
It was hard but it was worth it!
Para. 1. Sometimes, we learn a lot from a very bad experience. My first year as a Opening
teacher was a very bad experience but I learned to teach and I have never forgotten stage
what I learned.

Para. 2. My early life in my home village had been happy; my family owned a
large herd of cattle and I spent my time helping my brothers with the cattle and
played in the fields, without a care in the world. I enjoyed helping my mother with Events
the cooking. I even enjoyed fetching the water, because I walked to the river with stage
my elder sisters and liked listening to the talk of older girls. We were not a rich
family, but, I think we were a happy family. At the age of nine, I was sent to
school, where, to everyone’s surprise, I was a star student.

Para. 3 After school, I went to the college of teacher education in a town close to
my home. I really enjoyed my time at college and took part in student activities.
Again, I was a bit of a star student.

Para. 4 When I started teaching, I was sent to a school far from my home and in a
very rural location. Many of the students were close to my age. Some were taller
than me, especially the boys, and they laughed when I walked into the classroom.
They would not listen to me, saying that I was not old enough to be a teacher.
They talked when I tried to instruct them. Some stayed outside in the fields when
they should have been in my class and refused to come into the classroom.

Para. 5 The other teachers soon realised that I was not a good teacher and I think
they told the director. This was the first time I had failed in my life and I felt
completely dejected. Every day, I made myself to go into school. I slowly learned
classroom management strategies and slowly learned how to make my lessons a
bit more interesting. As the school year progressed, my students began to listen to

20
me, but teaching was still a struggle, and for the first time in my life, I knew what
it was like to fail.
Conclusion
Para 6. Why do I think this experience was important? I realise now that when I stage.
started teaching I had no understanding of students who are not good at school Reflecting
work. I believe that everyone needs to examine their ideas and realise that their on events.
problems are often a result of their own personality.

3. Exposition
Exposition is a type of writing which explains an idea, object or phenomenon. Its purpose is to
explain, to give directions, or to inform. The explanation is usually done by using a combination of
all or some of the following methods of developing ideas: cause and effect, classification,
illustration, definition and comparison and contrast. Sometimes, people find difficult the distinction
between description and exposition. In description, our main purpose is to create a mental image
through words. In exposition, however, our purpose is to provide factual information. Therefore,
expository writing is informative. Descriptive writing tries to evoke impression. It therefore aims at
appealing to the emotional side of human beings while exposition appeals to the intellectual side.

There are three main types of explanatory paragraphs:

a) those that explain a process/ give directions.
b) those that define.
c) those that give reasons.
3.1. The paragraph that Explains a process or Gives Directions
This type of explanatory paragraph is used to tell how something is done or how something works.

How to Make Tea

If you follow the instructions below, you will be able to make a stimulant tea. To begin with,
make ready the necessary ingredients and utensils such as tea, a sufficient amount of water,
spice, tea-pot, stove, spoon, cups, etc. On the stove, boil a sufficient amount of water for
about 5-6 minutes. Then, mix the required spoonful of tea in the boiling water. Wait for at
least 2 minutes until it properly mixes with the boiling water. Depending on the interest of
your guests, mix spice in your tea. Put the pot off the stove, and sift the tea through a sieve.
Finally, serve the tea with or without sugar as per the preference of your guests.

A paragraph that explains a process, or that gives directions uses a chronological order to present
details. In the above paragraph, for example, to begin with, then, finally signal chronological order.
Exercise 1
Write three paragraphs explaining the following items. Follow the pattern of the example above.
1. How to Make Coffee.
2. How to Establish Friendship.
3. How to Study for Exam.
3.2. The paragraph that Defines
Clear definitions help a person to understand new words, things, and ideas. A paragraph of definition
first places the term to be defined in a general category, and then identifies several distinguishing
characteristics of the term. These characteristics help to separate the term being defined from others
closely related to it.

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Defining Words
There are three types of definitions: ordinary definition, logical definition, and extended definition.
Ordinary definition uses such things as synonyms, examples, and illustrations. Logical definition first
states the smallest class or category the thing to be defined belongs to (genus). Then, the properties
that distinguish the thing from the other members of the class are stated (differentiae). In extended
definitions, a logical definition is first given. Then, additional details are provided.

Examples
a) Ordinary definition
Daft: silly, foolish, reckless
Manacles are handcuffs.
This type of definition doesn’t give a full picture of the item being defined.
b) Logical definition
Water is a liquid made up of H2O. (genus) (differentiae)
c) Extended Definition
The elephant is an animal which is the largest among those living on land. In all the animal
kingdom, only the whale is larger. An elephant has a nose that protrudes into a long trunk
which it uses as a hand. Elephants have the largest ears in the world, and their tusks are the
largest teeth.

A paragraph that defines therefore focuses on the use of extended definitions. You should practice
writing extended definitions.
Exercise 2
Use extended definitions to define the following items.
1. A Human Being
2. A Dog
3. A School
4. Water
5. A Grandmother
3.3. The Paragraph that Reasons Out
Whenever you try to explain why something is, or why something should be, you are composing an
explanatory paragraph that gives reasons. You say that something happens because something else
occurred first, or that an action or idea is right because certain facts or reasons logically support it.
The following paragraph explains why students face difficulty in writing research paper.

There are many factors that make writing a research paper difficult. Too often, students
postpone work on the paper until it is too late. They also invite avoidable difficulty by their
failure to find out at the beginning of their study whether sufficient materials are available in
the library. Besides this, instead of developing a general notion of the topic before tackling it
in detail, they begin with the first convenient book and plunge into fine points before they see
the topic as a whole. They take down more notes than are necessary because they begin this
before they have decided what kind of information they need. Such confused research
procedures result in unnecessary wastage of time and effort.

Exercise 3

22
Write a paragraph that reasons out for each of the following items.
2. Why do you study in the Distance Mode.
3. Why I Like My village.
4. The Benefits of Ethiopian Radio.
Exercise 4
Write a paragraph explaining the following classification: Start-by defining marriage and use the
definitions given (use words such as divided, sub-divided)

Marriage
More than one spouse Monogamy

Polygamy Polyandry Permanent Ending in divorce and re-marriage.

Definition: Polyandry = One wife with more than one husband.
Polygamy = One husband with more than one wife.
Writing Report
Work in groups of four and see how quickly your group can answer these questions.
1. How many Ethiopian Athletes went to the Olympics held in London in 2012?
2. How many gold medals did Ethiopia win in the Olympics in 2012?
3. How many silver medals did Ethiopia win in the Olympics in 2012?
4. How many bronze medals did Ethiopia win in the Olympics in 2012?
5. In which Olympic Games did Ethiopia first compete?
6. Who won a silver medal in the Men’s 5000m in the 2012 Olympics?
7. Who won the Women’s 5000m in the 2012 Olympics?

LOGICAL FALLACIES

Fallacy: An idea in which a lot of people think is true but which is actually false.
1. Post hoc: A Post Hoc is a fallacy with the following form:
A occurs before B.
Therefore A is the cause of B.
Examples: The rooster crows before sunrise, therefore the crowing rooster causes the sun to rise.
I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick.
2. Hasty generalization: having a conclusion without enough evidences at hand. This is a
conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion
before you have all the relevant facts. Example:
Example: Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.

3. False dilemma: When only two choices are presented yet more exist, or a spectrum of possible
choices exists between two extremes.  False dilemmas are usually characterized by “either this or
that” language, but can also be characterized by omissions of choices. I.e. Either X or Y is true.
Examples: You are either with God, or against him.
I thought you were a good person, but you weren’t at church today

4. Argumentum ad hominem: this fallacy tries to undermine the opponent's arguments by personal
attacks, through attacking their character or skill level, etc.

23
Example: Abel claims that this was an accident, but we know Abel to be a liar, so we can't take his
word for it.

5. False authority: The fallacy of appeal to authority makes the argument that if one credible source
believes something that it must be true.
Example: If the Pope says that an aspect of doctrine is true, then it should be added to the creed,
since he is infallible.
I like to Join Ambo University in English Department because Motuma has already chosen it.
6. Bandwagon appeal: This fallacy appeal to the popularity of something as a means of validating it.
Example: A recent study shows 8 out of 10 doctors say that acupuncture is an effective therapy;
therefore it must be since 8 out of 10 doctors can’t be wrong!

7. Straw man: The straw man fallacy occurs when one misrepresents an argument so that it becomes
easier to attack.
Examples: Those who oppose abortion have no respect for women's rights, and see women as baby-
making machines, which is of course wrong. Women must be able to choose.

Opposing argument: Teens should be taught about contraception methods so they can practice safe
sex when they choose to have intercourse.
Straw man argument: Proponents of sex education want to give kids license to have sex with no
consequences

8. Weak/faulty analogy: (Also known as: bad analogy, false analogy, faulty analogy, questionable
analogy, argument from spurious similarity, false metaphor). When an analogy is used to prove or
disprove an argument, but the analogy is too dissimilar to be effective, that is, it is unlike the
argument more than it is like the argument.
X is like Y.
Y has property P.
Therefore, X has property P.
(But X really is not too much like Y)

Example: Believing in the literal resurrection of Jesus is like believing in the literal existence of
zombies. (This is a common analogy used by some atheists who argue against Christianity.  It is a
weak analogy because: Jesus was alive not just undead, If God is assumed, then God had a reason to
bring Jesus (himself) back—no such reason exists for zombies, and Zombies eat brains, Jesus did not
(as far as we know)

9. Appeal to ignorance: Arguing that something must be true, simply because it hasn't been proved
false, or arguing that something must be false because it hasn't been proved true. That is, my position
is right because there is no evidence against it, or yours is wrong because there is no evidence for it.
Examples:
We have no evidence that God doesn't exist.  Therefore, he must exist.
There is intelligent life in outer space, for no one has been able to prove that there isn't.

10. Slippery slope: consists of arguments that reason if something S were to happen, then something
else P will eventually occur, so we should prohibit S from happening.
If A, then B, then C ... then ultimately Z!

24
Example: If we let our child out of his room, eventually he will want to leave the house, and will end
up on the street. If he is walking around on the street then he will be snatched up by a stranger and
sold into slavery in a remote region on the World.

Report Writing
What is a report?
A report is a written presentation of factual information based on an investigation or research.
Reports form the basis for solving problems or making decisions, often in the subjects of business
and the sciences. The length of reports varies; there are short memorandum (memo) reports and long
reports. Most often you will be asked to write a long report.
What makes an effective report?
 Clear, concise and accurate
 Easy for the audience to understand
 Appropriate for the audience
 Well organised with clear section headings

Report structure:
Reports follow a standardised format. This allows the reader to find the information easily and focus
on specific areas. Most reports follow the following structure, but please look at your assignment
question and marking guide carefully, as the format and terminology required in your report may
vary from this guide. If so, check with your tutor. Please check your marking guide to determine the
word limit and how marks are allocated to each section.
A report must have:
1. Title Page
2. Table of Contents
3. Abstract or Executive Summary
4. Introduction (or Terms of Reference and Procedure)
5. Findings and/or Discussion
6. Conclusions
7. Recommendations
8. References
A report may also contain:
1. Cover letter 3. Glossary
2. Bibliography 4. Appendices
The table below summarises the main headings used in reports and outlines the purpose of each
section. Please note: Further headings or subheadings may be used depending on the report’s content,
and are specific to the individual report
. Section Purpose
Title Page (Not part of the word count) Gives the title of the report, the student name/number,
the name of the person the report is being submitted to,
and the completion date.

25
Table of Contents (Not part of the word Shows the sections of the report. Gives the headings,
count) subheadings and page numbers.
Abstract or Executive Summary Gives a summary of the whole report. Outlines the
report’s purpose, methodology, findings, main
conclusions and recommendations. Mainly written in
past tense, and prepared last.
Terms of Reference Briefly states the purpose and scope of the report. This
Procedure includes who
Outlines requestedused
the methods the to
report, theinformation
collect main issuese.g.
or
interviews, questionnaires, observations and/or
Introduction (May be used instead of the Outlines the context, background and purpose of the
Terms of Reference and Procedure) report. Defines terms and sets limits of the
investigation. The reader/audience can easily identify
what the report is about, how information was
gathered, and why the report is needed. Mainly uses
past tense and can be written last – but is presented
first.
Findings and/or Discussion For this Findings: What was found during the research or
section, avoid using the headings investigation. Gives the facts only – no interpretation
“Findings” or “Discussion”. Instead, create by the writer of the report. Tables, graphs or
headings and sub-headings that identify diagrams can be used. Must be relevant to the issues
the main issues or problems. and problems identified in the Terms of Reference.
Arranged in a logical order with headings and sub-
headings. Discussion: You may also be required to
analyse, interpret and evaluate the findings. The
discussion draws together different parts of the
findings and may refer to findings of other studies
and/or theories.
Conclusions Brief statements of the key findings of the report (full
explanation is given in the Findings and/or
Discussion). Arranged so the major conclusions come
first. Should relate directly to the objectives set out in
the Terms of Reference or Introduction.
Follow logically from the facts in the Findings and/or
Discussion. Must be complete enough for
recommendations to be made from them.
Recommendations (note: not all reports The opinions of the writer of the report about
give recommendations) possible changes, or solutions to the problems,
including who should take action, what should be
done, when and how it should be done.
References (Not part of the word A list of the sources that are used in and referred to in
count) the report. Use APA referencing style.
Bibliography (Not always required) Lists any sources that were read for the research but
were not cited in the report. (Bibliography is not
included in the word count).
Appendices (Not always required) Additional relevant information. May include
interview questions, surveys, glossary etc.
(Appendices are not included in the word count).

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The major part of the report will consist of the Introduction, Findings and/or Discussion,
Conclusions, and Recommendations.

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