The Modern Language Journal - 2011 - GARDNER - Towards A Full Model of Second Language Learning An Empirical Investigation

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Towards a Full Model of
Second Language Learning:
An Empirical Investigation
R.C.GARDNER PAUL F. TREMBLAY ANNE-MARIE MASGORET
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Departmentof Psychology
The University of Western Ontario The University of Western Ontario The University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario London, Ontario London, Ontario
N6A 5C2 Canada N6A 5C2 Canada N6A 5C2 Canada
Email:gardner@sscl.uwo.ca Email: tremblay@sscl.uwo.ca Email: masgaret@sscl.uwo.ca
Much research in second language acquisition (SLA) centres on the relationships among in-
dividual difference measures such as language attitudes, motivation, anxiety, self-confidence,
language aptitude, learning strategies, field independence, and measures of achievement in
the language. Numerous studies have supported the proposed influences of these individual
difference variables on achievement, and a number of models have been developed to explain
the relationships among subsets of these variables. However, there is a lack of research exam-
ining the relationships among all these variables simultaneously. In the present study, we in-
vestigate a large number of individual difference measures to determine their underlying di-
mensions, to contrast their predictive validities, and to evaluate their contributions in a causal
model of SLA. Our study was based on a sample of 102 university students enrolled in intro-
ductory French. The results indicated substantial links among the affective measures and
achievement. Support was found for these connections in the proposed causal model.
MANY VARIABLES HAVE BEEN SUGGESTED PREVIOUS STUDIES

as possible characteristics of individuals that will Language Anxiety
influence how successful different individuals
will be at learning another language. Among Early research suggested that the relation of
them, the most frequently investigated appear to anxiety to SLA was equivocal. Scovel (1978) re-
be language anxiety, language aptitude, attitudes viewed a number of studies investigating the re-
and motivation, field dependence/independence, lation between anxiety and L2 achievement and
learning strategies, and self-confidence, and found evidence for positive, negative, and no re-
each of these classes of variables has been shown lationships. Based on these findings, he pro-
to relate to measures of achievement in a second posed that there might be two types of anxiety,
language (L2). Although the relationships be- which he referred to as facilitating and debilitating
tween some of these variables have been investi- anxiety. Other research being conducted at the
gated, no study has considered them together in time, however, found evidence to suggest that
the same sample of L2 learners. The purpose of anxiety specific to the language learning context
the present study is to do just that. (i.e., language anxiety) tended to be negatively
related to L2 achievement (see, e.g., Gardner,
1985, pp. 33-36).
In recent years, there has been much more in-
terest in the role of language anxiety. Horwitz,
Horwitz, and Cope (1986) developed the Foreign
The Modern LanguageJournal, 81, iii, (1997) Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), as-
0026-7902/97/344-362 $1.50/0 sessing three components of anxiety (commu-
©1997 The Modern LanguageJournal nication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of
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R C. Gardner, Paul F. Tremblay and Anne-Marie Masgoret 345
negative evaluation) that they believed were required for successful SLA. The MLAT consists of
sponsible for its detrimental effect on language five subtests: Number Learning, Phonetic Script,
learning. Other researchers have also developed Spelling Clues, Words in Sentences, and Paired
measures of language anxiety. Examples of such Associates, the last three of which are recom-
measures are the French Class Anxiety Scale mended as a short form (Carroll & Sapon, 1959).
(Gardner & Smythe, 1975), the English Use Anx- These five subtests were designed to assess the
iety Scale (Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977), four components considered necessary in the
the Anxometer (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991), learning of a L2, that is, Phonetic Coding, Gram-
and other measures that are conceptually related matical Sensitivity, Memory Ability, and Induc-
to language anxiety (e.g., Ely, 1986). tive Language Learning Ability.
Research using these various scales indicates Research indicates that achievement in a L2
that language anxiety is negatively related to is positively related to language aptitude. Corre-
achievement in the L2 (see, e.g., Clement, Gard- lations between measures of language aptitude
ner, & Smythe, 1977; Gardner & Smythe, 1975; and various measures of L2 achievement are gen-
Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre & erally positive and significant, and some re-
Gardner, 1991). These studies have found that searchers, such as Sparks and Ganschow (1991)
language anxiety is associated with deficits in and Sparks, Ganschow, and Patton (1995) regard
listening comprehension, impaired vocabulary aptitude to be the prime determinant of achieve-
learning, reduced word production, low scores ment in the L2. For a contrary view, see MacIn-
on standardized tests, low grades in language tyre (1995).
courses or a combination of these factors. This
anxiety is hypothesized to develop out of nega- Attitudes and Motivation
tive experiences in L2 contexts, where students
may begin to associate the L2 with feelings of ap- Empirical research on the role of attitudes and
prehension (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989). These motivation in L2 learning has focused on several
anxiety-provoking experiences may create diffi- measures. An initial study conducted by Gardner
culties in the cognitive processing of L2 material and Lambert (1959) found that an individual's
(see, e.g., MacIntyre, 1995). orientation to learning French as a L2 was re-
lated to his or her motivation to learn French,
Language Aptitude attitudes toward French Canadians, and profi-
ciency in French. The Attitude/Motivation Test
Language aptitude is a general term referring Battery (AMTB; Gardner, 1985) was developed
to those verbal abilities that facilitate L2 learn- to measure these variables as well as other attitu-
ing. Research on language aptitude has a long dinal and motivational attributes believed to be
history; however, conceptions of this variable associated with L2 learning. These variables can
have remained relatively unchanged over the be grouped into five categories:
past 40 years. The Modern Language Aptitude 1. Integrativeness
Test (MLAT; Carroll & Sapon, 1959) is the most 2. Attitudes toward the Learning Situation
widely used measure, to which other tests, such as 3. Motivation
the Elementary Form of the Modern Language 4. Language Anxiety
Aptitude Test (Carroll & Sapon, 1967) and the 5. Other Attributes
Language Aptitude Battery (Pimsleur, 1966), are Integrativeness refers to the individual's willing-
conceptually very similar. Two more recent mea- ness and interest in having social interaction with
sures are the Defense Language Aptitude Battery members of the L2 group. It is assessed by three
(DLAB; Peterson & AI-Haik, 1976), and the scales: (a) Attitudes Toward the Language Group,
VORD (Parry & Child, 1990). Although little in- (b) Interest in Foreign Languages, and (c) an
formation has been made available on these lat- Integrative Orientation toward Learning the
ter two measures, the VORD and the MLAT have Language. Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation
been found to relate positively to each other reflect the student's evaluation of formal instruc-
(Parry & Child, 1990). tion and is assessed by two measures: (a) Attitudes
The development of the MLAT began with a Toward the Teacher, and (b) Attitudes Toward
study conducted by Carroll (1958) in which he the Course. Motivation refers to the individual's
factor analyzed a large battery of ability tests that attitudes, desires, and effort to learn the L2 and
were administered to military personnel enrolled is measured by three scales: (a) Attitudes toward
in foreign language programs. This study revealed Learning the Language, (b) Desire to Learn the
several dimensions of language aptitude re- Language, and (c) Motivational Intensity. Lan-
346 TheModern LanguageJourna181 (1997)
guage Anxiety reflects the individual's apprehen- proficiency, Chapelle and Green (1992) view
sion in the language class or in settings where the field independence as a fluid ability closely re-
language is used. In the AMTB, this is measured lated to language aptitude.
by the French Class Anxiety and French Use Anx-
iety scales. The category of Other Attnbutes refers Language Learning Strategies
to other variables that have been included in
some studies. One such variable is measured by Language learning strategies are techniques
the Instrumental Orientation scale. that individuals use to help them learn L2 mate-
Numerous studies have demonstrated associa- rial and improve their skills. Oxford (1986) de-
tions between scores on these measures and veloped the Strategy Inventory for Language
achievement in the L2 (see, e.g., Gardner, 1985). Learning (SILL), a self-report assessment de-
In general, the results indicate that the three signed to determine the extent to which individ-
components of Motivation tend to be correlated uals use various strategies to promote learning.
with each other and to correlate more highly In a factor analytic investigation of language
with achievement than do the measures of Inte- learning strategies, Oxford, Nyikos, and Crookall
grativeness and Attitudes Toward the Learning (1987) identified five factors underlying the SILL:
Situation (Lalonde & Gardner, 1985). These re- (a) General Study Habits, (b) Functional Prac-
sults suggest that motivation plays a primary role tice, (c) Speaking and Communicating Meaning,
in L2 learning, with Integrativeness and Atti- (d) Studying and Practising Independently, and
tudes Toward the Learning Situation playing a (e) Mnemonic Devices.
supportive role. Other researchers have also proposed classifi-
cations of strategies. Thus, for example, Chamot
(1990) proposed three major classes of strategies:
Field Dependence/Independence
(a) Metacognitive, (b) Cognitive, and (c) Socio-
A number of studies have demonstrated a re- Affective. Regardless of how they are classified,
lationship between field dependence/independ- research indicates that language learning may in-
ence and achievement in the L2, with high levels volve the use of several independent learning
of achievement being associated with field inde- strategies that may have different effects on pro-
pendence. Field-dependent individuals are char- ficiency. Investigations confirm that there are re-
acterized as sensitive and interested in others, lationships between the frequent use of learning
while field-independent individuals are described strategies and achievement in the language (see,
as able to distinguish between figure and ground, e.g., Green & Oxford, 1995; Oxford & Burry-
and tending to be self-sufficient and analytical Stock, 1995; Oxford, Park-Oh, Ito, & Sumrall,
(Witkin, Goodenough, & Oltman, 1979). Often, 1993).
in the studies concerned with SLA, field depend-
ence/independence is measured using the Em- Self-Confidence
bedded Figures Test (Oltman, Raskin, & Witkin,
1971). The concept of self-confidence is conceptually
Several studies have reported relationships be- related to that of language anxiety, except that it
tween field independence and L2 achievement emphasizes a positive as opposed to a negative
(Genesee & Hamayan, 1980; Hansen & Stans- component. Clement (1980) proposed that self-
field, 1981; Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, & Todesco, confidence was an important determinant of the
1978). Krashen (1981) argues that because field- motivation to learn a L2, and that this self-con-
independent individuals have an analytic orienta- fidence developed in multicultural contexts as a
tion, they are potentially better language learners. function of the frequency and quality of contact
Naiman et al. (1978) proposed that field-inde- with members of the L2 community. He pro-
pendent individuals would be successful lan- posed that self-confidence consisted of percep-
guage learners because they would distinguish tions of confidence in the L2 as well as an ab-
between important elements to be learned and sence of anxiety about learning or using the
other less salient background factors. Hansen language. As stated by Clement, Dornyei, and
and Stansfield (1981) found, however, that most Noels (1994) "self-confidence includes two com-
of the relationship between field independence ponents ... : anxiety as the affective aspect and
and L2 achievement disappeared when the ef- self-evaluation of proficiency as the cognitive
fects of scholastic ability were partialled out. In component" (p. 443). Clement and his associates
their review of a number of studies showing rela- have found that indices of self-confidence corre-
tionships between field independence and L2 late significantly and appreciably with measures
R C. Gardner, Paul F. Tremblay and Anne-Marie Masgoret 347
of proficiency in the L2 (Clement, Dornyei, & Existing research and theory make it clear that
Noels, 1994; Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977, a number ofvariables relate to achievement in the
1980; Clement & Kruidenier, 1985). L2, and it seems obvious that the variables do not
operate independently of one another. The pres-
Relationships among theIndividual ent investigation focuses on measures from all
Difference Variables the classes of variables discussed above, and di-
rects attention to the factorial composition un-
As demonstrated, there is evidence to indicate derlying the relationships among them. A second
that all of these variables are related to indices of objective is to investigate the relation of each of
achievement in the L2, and that there are also re- these variables to measures of achievement in a
lationships among many of these measures them- L2, so that their relative relationship to achieve-
selves. In addition to the obvious relationships ment can be considered with the same sample of
between indices of attitudes and motivation students. A third objective is to assess the ade-
(Gardner, 1985), relationships have been re- quacy of fit of a causal model based on the socio-
ported between self-confidence and both motiva- educational model ofSLA, as described by Gard-
tion and anxiety (Clement & Kruidenier, 1985), ner (1985) and Gardner and MacIntyre (1993),
and between self-efficacy (conceptually similar but modified to incorporate the variables dis-
to self-confidence) and the frequency of use of cussed above.
language learning strategies (Chamot, 1994).
Gardner (1985) presents evidence indicating that
METHOD
motivation and language aptitude are relatively
independent, although other studies indicate that Participants
language aptitude tends to be related to field in-
dependence (see Genesee & Hamayan, 1980). The sample consisted of 82 female and 20 male
Other research suggests that attitudinal/moti- university students enrolled in introductory French.
vational variables could influence the extent to Participants were recruited from their French
which individuals make use of various language classes and were paid $15 for their cooperation.
learning strategies (see, e.g., Politzer, 1983; Demographic information obtained from partic-
Politzer & McGroarty, 1985; Oxford, Nyikos, & ipants indicated that they had studied French for
Crookall, 1987). an average of 11.37 years (SD = 3.01), and that
Some researchers have proposed models of 86% of them had spent 9 or more years studying
SLA that have discussed the possible role of these French. Other information revealed that 38% of
types of variables in learning. Gardner (1985) re- them had between 1 and 14 years of French im-
views a number of such models; among the oldest mersion experience (M = 2.96, SD = 4.43), and
appears to be the socio-educational model of that 55% of them had spent at least a month in a
SLA, which dates back to 1974, but has been re- French country or region.
vised and expanded since then (see, e.g., Gard-
ner & MacIntyre, 1993; Tremblay & Gardner, Procedure
1995). Another is Clement's (1980) social context
model. Both of these models have been subjected Participants were tested in two stages. In the
to empirical evaluation using causal modelling first session, they completed a questionnaire con-
procedures, and both have received considerable taining measures of attitudes, motivation, achieve-
support. Other, more complex, models have ment, and self-rating scales of French proficiency.
been proposed but, although they are based on Administration of this questionnaire took ap-
interpretations of the literature, they have not proximately 90 minutes and was conducted in
themselves been put to direct empirical evalua- small groups. Following this, participants made
tion. One such model was proposed by Stern appointments for the second testing session that
(1983, p. 498ff), while another was presented by also lasted approximately 90 minutes. In this ses-
Spolsky (1989). Both of these models are excel- sion, they completed a questionnaire containing
lent overviews of the complex processes involved measures of anxiety, learning strategies, aptitude,
in language learning with many implications for and field dependence/independence. Next, the
language teaching and learning. They are, how- participants completed a short language history
ever, less concerned with functional relationships questionnaire and were asked to sign a release
among the major variables that could be put to form providing access to their final French grades.
empirical test than are other models like the Following the second session, they were thanked
socio-educational and social-context models. for their participation and were paid $15.
348 The Modern LanguageJournal 81 (1997)
Measures assesses the extent to which students seek to learn

French for integrative reasons.
Measures were obtained on 34 variables. Ap-
pendix A provides information on the mean, Motivational Intensity (M!; a = .76). This mea-
standard deviation, range, skewness, and kurtosis sure comprises five positively and five negatively
for each of these measures. worded items. A high score represents consider-
The following 13 variables were assessed using able effort expended to learn French.
a 7-point Likert scale ranging from strong dis-
agreement (-3) to strong agreement (+3). The The following self-report variables are taken
scale descriptions and the internal consistency from different sources as described below.
reliability (a) coefficients obtained with this sam-
ple are presented below. Most of the items used Self-Confidence(SCC; a = .91). This measure con-
are reproduced in Appendix B, grouped by scale sists of 10 positively worded items. Six items were
(the number preceding each item refers to the developed by Clement and Kruidenier (1985)
item number in the questionnaire). Items not and four items were added to the scale for the
presented in the appendix are those that were present study. This measure assesses a student's
adapted from research by other investigators. self-confidence in reading, writing, speaking,
The first nine variables listed below are based and understanding French.
on the AMTB (Gardner, 1985), but the items
Self-Confidence (Ability Controlled) (SCAC; a =
have been altered in many cases to make them
.92). This measure consists of six positively
appropriate to a university-level sample.
worded items. It was developed to differentiate
Attitudes toward French Canadians (AFC; a = self-confidence from achievement because it
.78). This scale consists of five positively and five seemed possible that items in the Clement and
negatively worded items. A high score reflects a Kruidenier (1985) measure may confound feel-
positive attitude. ings of self-confidence and actual proficiency in
French. These items attempted to control for dif-
Attitudes toward Learning French (AlF; a = .86). ferences in such achievement.
This measure consists of five positively worded
and five negatively worded items, with a high Self-Confidence (Given Ability) (SCGA; a = .92).
score indicating a positive attitude. This measure consists of three positively and
three negatively worded items. Like the previous
Desire to Learn French (DI.F; a - .78). Five posi- measure, it was developed for this study to iden-
tive and five negative items comprise this mea- tify differences in self-confidence while control-
sure. High scores reflect a positive attitude. ling for differences in ability. These items asked
French Class Anxiety (FCA; a = .88). This mea- participants to indicate their level of self-confi-
sure consists of five positively and five negatively dence in using French as compared to others
worded items. A high score represents a consider- with the same level of ability.
able level ofapprehension experienced when called French Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLA; a
upon to use French in the French classroom. = .95). The 33-item Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope
French Use Anxiety (FUA; a = .88). This mea- (1986) FLCASwas adapted to refer specifically to
sure consists offive positively and five negatively the French language classroom. Itern keying was
worded items. A high score reflects a consider- not balanced, with 24 items indicative of French
able level of apprehension when called upon to classroom anxiety and 9 items referring to a re-
use French. laxed state.
The following two measures were adapted from
Interest in Foreign Languages (IFL; a =.75). This the AMTB (Gardner, 1985). These measures make
measure consists of five positive and five nega- use of a 7-point semantic differential format (Os-
tive items, with a high score indicative of an in- good, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957).
terest in learning and using any L2.
French CourseEvaluation (FCE; a =.91). Partici-
Instrumental Orientation (INST; a .63). This
= pants rated "MyFrench Course" on 25 bipolar ad-
measure consists of four positively worded items jective scales. Ratings on 10 evaluative scales were
assessing the degree to which students seek to aggregated. Sample bipolar scale: "worthless-
learn French for pragmatic reasons. valuable."
Integrative Orientation (INT; a =.73). Four posi- French TeacherEvaluation (FTE; a - .96). Partic-
tivelyworded items comprise this measure, which ipants rated "My French Teacher" on 25 bipolar
R.C. Gardner; Paul F. Tremblay and Anne-Marie Masgoret 349
adjective scales. Ratings on 10 evaluative scales The following three subtests comprise the
were aggregated. Sample bipolar scale: "ineffi- short form of Carroll and Sapon's (1959) Mod-
cient-efficient. " ern Language Aptitude Test. They are:
Spelling Clues. This measure consists of 50
The following measures of French achievement items that must be completed within 5 minutes.
were obtained. Each item contains a word spelled phonetically
French Achievement Test. This 100-item multiple and the participant's task is to select a synonym
choice test was used to determine the participants' for it from a list of five alternatives. This subtest
knowledge of French verbs, adjectives, pronouns, is thought to measure an individual's phonetic
and prepositions. It was adapted from a version coding ability.
of the Universite Laval French Placement Test. Words in Sentences. This measure consists of 45
For each item, participants circled the correct items, each of which is comprised of a key sen-
answer from a list of four alternatives. They were tence with an underlined word or phrase, and a
allowed 30 minutes to complete this test. second sentence or set of sentences with five un-
Cloze Test. This test (Lalonde & Gardner, derlined words or phrases. The participant's task
1984) consists of a French prose passage from is to choose the one underlined word or phrase
which every fifth word has been omitted and re- that serves the same function as the underlined
placed by a blank. Participants are required to word or phrase in the key sentence. This subtest
fill in the 25 blanks that appeared in the passage. is thought to measure grammatical sensitivity.
They received one point for each blank that was Paired Associates. Participants are given 2 min-
completed correctly, with a maximum score of utes to learn the English meaning of 24 Kurdish
25. The participants were allowed 5 minutes to words. They are then given a multiple choice test
complete this test. The responses were scored by in which each Kurdish word is presented fol-
a bilingual judge. The Cloze Test is intended to lowed by five English words. This subtest is in-
measure knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and tended to measure rote memory ability.
inferencing skills.
Thing Category Test. This test was adapted from The following measure is an index of field de-
Lalonde & Gardner (1984) and is based on an pendence/independence.
English test from the Kit of Cognitive Factors The Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT; a =
(French, Ekstrom, & Price, 1963). Participants .87). The GEFT (Oltman, Raskin, & Witkin,
are required to list in French as many items as 1971) is designed to measure field dependence/
possible belonging to three given categories, for independence. Individuals are presented with a
example, "fruit." The test is intended to measure complex figure and then supplied with a simple
vocabulary knowledge and production. The items form that is contained within it. The partici-
are scored as correct if they belong to the given pant's task is to recognize and trace the simple
category. The score represents the total number form over the lines of the complex figure. This
of correct items listed. measure consists of three sections, the first of
Theme Test (THM; a = .81). This test was which contains seven simple items and is pre-
adapted from Lalonde & Gardner (1984) to as- sented for practice. Participants were given 20
sess proficiency in written French. The partici- minutes to complete the test. The score is the
pants are required to write a French composition total number of simple forms correctly traced in
on a given theme, for example, "My first week at the second and third sections combined.
University." The compositions were scored on 5-
point scales by a bilingual judge for (a) quality of The following six measures are from the Strat-
grammar, (b) vocabulary complexity, (c) variety egy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Ox-
in sentence structure, (d) length, and (e) the use ford, 1990). This inventory consists of 80 items
of idiomatic French. and is designed to determine the extent to which
individuals use six language learning strategies.
Grades in French. Participants were asked to
Participants are asked to rate each item on a 5-
sign a release form at the time of testing allowing
point scale, ranging from "never or almost never
the researchers to obtain their final French grade
true of me" (1) to "alwaysor almost always true of
from the Department of French. The final grades
me" (5). The six language learning strategies are:
for 84 of the 102 participants were available (the
remaining individuals did not sign the release Remembering moreEffectively (LSI; a = .76). This
form or did not write the final examination). measure consists of 15 items and assesses whether
students use various memory strategies such as among various measures of attitudes, motivation,
grouping, using imagery and sounds, and review- self-confidence, anxiety, aptitude, and learning
ing in a structured way. strategies that have been found to correlate with
measures of achievement in a L2. In order to in-
Using Mental Processes (LS2; a = .84). This mea-
vestigate this structure, Pearson product-moment
sure consists of 25 items determining to what ex-
correlations were computed among 29 measures,
tent students use processing strategies such as re-
and the resulting correlations were subjected to
peating, practising with sounds and writing
a principal components analysis. This analysis
systems, skimming and scanning, and reasoning
yielded eight factors with eigenvalues greater
deductively.
than 1.0; however, application of Cattell's (1966)
Compensating for Missing Knowledge (LS3; a = scree test indicated that five factors, accounting
.43). This measure consists of eight items assess- for 64% of the variance, best accounted for the
ing whether students compensate for missing in- correlations among the variables. These five fac-
formation by using such strategies as trying to tors were rotated by means of the Varimax pro-
understand the overall meaning, and finding cedure. The rotated factor matrix is presented in
ways to communicate in speaking or writing de- Table 1.
spite limited knowledge of the language. Factor I obtained high loadings (greater than
Organizing and Evaluating Learning (LS4; a = ±.3) from 11 variables. High positive loadings
.87). This measure consists of 16 items. It assesses were obtained from the three measures of Self-
the frequency with which students use metacog- Confidence and the four Can Do ratings of pro-
nitive strategies, such as overviewing and linking ficiency, while high negative loadings were ob-
with previously known material, setting goals and tained from the three measures of language
objectives, learning from errors, and evaluating anxiety. This structure suggests that Factor I is
best defined as a Self-Confidence with French
progress.
factor. In addition, Desire to Learn French also
Managing Emotion (LS5; a =.70). This measure loads positively on this factor, indicating that Self-
consists of seven items and measures whether stu- Confidence with French has a motivational com-
dents use emotion management strategies such ponent. Individuals with high levels of self-confi-
as lowering anxiety, taking risks, rewarding one- dence in their L2 skills show a stronger desire to
self, and talking to someone about feelings or at- learn the other language than individuals with
titudes. low levels of self-confidence.
Learning with Others (LS6; a = .74). This mea- Eight variables received high loadings on Factor
sure consists of nine items and assesses how fre- II. The variables that loaded highest on this factor
quently students use strategies such as coop- were five of the six learning strategies (Remem-
erating with peers and proficient users of the bering More Effectively, Using Mental Processes,
new language and developing cultural awareness. Organizing and Evaluating Learning, Managing
Emotions, and Learning with Others), suggest-
The following is a measure of self-perceptions ing that Factor II is best defined as a Language
of proficiency in the L2. Learning Strategies factor. These results indicate
that there is communality among these five strate-
Can Do. Participants rated their French profi- gies, such that individuals tending to make fre-
ciency using a modification of the Can Do mea- quent use of one of them will tend to use them all.
sure developed by Clark (1984). As used in this Additional variables defining this factor suggest
study, this measure requires individuals to rate that this communality has a motivational compo-
their French proficiency in terms of Speaking (a nent. The measures of Motivational Intensity, At-
= .93; 15 items), Understanding (a = .93; 8 items), titude toward Learning French, and Desire to
Reading (a = .89; 7 items), and Writing (a = .77; Learn French obtained appreciable loadings on
6 items). A sample Speaking item is: "Order a sim- this factor. These three measures comprise the
ple meal in a restaurant." Ratings were made on concept of motivation in the socio-educational
a 7-point scale ranging from ''very difficult for model of L2 learning (Gardner, 1985), thus it
me" (1) to ''very easy for me" (7). seems reasonable to conclude that such motiva-
tion is associated with the frequent use of many
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION language learning strategies.
Factor III obtained high loadings from eight
A major purpose of this investigation was to variables. Positive loadings were obtained by the
determine the structure of the relationships measures of Motivational Intensity, Attitude to-
R. C. Gardner; Paul F. Tremblay and Anne-Marie Masgoret 351
TABLE 1
Rotated Factor Matrix
FACTORS
Variables I II III IV V
Spelling Clues .01 -.07 .23 .65 -.08

Words in Sentences .04 .03 .10 .73 .08
Paired Associates -.11 .05 .03 .51 -.10
Instrumental Orientation .21 .06 .05 -.27 .55
French Use Anxiety -.82 -.08 -.27 .03 -.21
French Class Anxiety -.86 .16 -.28 -.15 -.09
French Language Anxiety -.81 .05 -.34 -.13 -.05
Attitudes toward French Canadians .06 .12 .07 -.06 .77
Interest in Foreign Languages .01 .26 .42 .28 .25
Integrative Orientation .12 .14 .15 .02 .85
Motivational Intensity .20 .52 .59 -.16 .01
Attitudes toward Learning French .27 .33 .73 .05 .20
Desire to Learn French .33 .36 .73 -.03 .15
Self-Confidence (SCC) .87 .00 .23 -.02 .03
Self-Confidence (SCAC) .87 .07 .17 -.11 .27
Self-Confidence (SCGA) .87 -.03 .26 -.04 .14
French Class Evaluation .27 .03 .82 -.05 .03
French Teacher Evaluation .11 -.24 .63 .19 .00
Memory Strategies -.07 .68 .11 -.06 -.05
Processing Information Strategies .16 .86 .03 .10 .06
Missing Information Strategies .10 .20 -.30 .36 .14
Meta-Cognitive Strategies .03 .83 .17 -.09 .09
Emotion Management Strategies .01 .75 .04 .00 .08
Learning with Others Strategies .10 .72 -.11 .10 .27
Group Embedded Figures Test .01 -.11 -.17 .60 -.09
Can Do-Writing .80 .18 -.03 .00 -.05
Can Do-Reading .83 .05 -.01 -.12 .02
Can Do-Understanding .86 .05 -.04 -.05 .07
Can Do-Speaking .91 .13 -.02 .05 .01
ward Learning French, Desire to Learn French, erate loading on this factor, suggesting that indi-
and Interest in Foreign Languages. These mea- viduals with high levels of language aptitude tend
sures suggest that Factor III is best defined as a also to be field independent and to prefer strate-
Motivation to Learn French factor. In addition to gies that compensate for any knowledge they do
these measures, French Course Evaluation and not have.
French Teacher Evaluation obtained high positive Factor V received high loadings from three
loadings on this factor, suggesting that high levels variables, Integrative Orientation, Instrumental
of motivation are related to favourable attitudes Orientation, and Attitudes toward French Cana-
toward the learning situation. Finally, one learn- dians. This configuration seems best identified as
ing strategy (Compensating for Missing Knowl- an Orientation to Learn French factor, but it also
edge) and the measure of French Language Anx- indicates that students with high levels of both in-
iety had negative loadings suggesting that highly tegrative and instrumental orientation hold fa-
motivated students tend to avoid the use of this vourable attitudes toward French Canadians.
learning strategy and tend also not to experience
anxiety in the classroom. Relation of the Individual Difference
Five variables loaded highly on Factor IV, which Variables to Achievement
is primarily a Language Aptitude factor. All three
of the Language Aptitude measures (Spelling The preceding factor analysis indicated how
Clues, Words in Sentences, Paired Associates) ob- the various classes of individual difference vari-
tained high positive loadings on this factor as ables such as Language Attitudes, Motivation,
does the measure of Field Independence. In ad- Language Aptitude, and so forth, relate to one
dition, one of the learning strategies (Compen- another. The purpose of this section is to demon-
sating for Missing Knowledge) received a mod- strate how the various individual difference vari-
abIes relate to achievement in French. This was TABLE 2

done by forming two French achievement scores. Correlations of the Aggregate Scores
The first score (labelled Objective Measures) was with Achievement
obtained by summing the scores for the theme,
cloze, categories, and French achievement test. Objective French
Variables Measures Grades
The other was the measure of French grades.
These two measures were then correlated with Motivation .27** .36***
aggregates for each of eight individual difference Language Attitudes .23* .09
variables. Language Anxiety -.66*** -.33**
The aggregate for Motivation was the sum of Self-Confidence .64*** .29**
Motivational Intensity, Desire to Learn French, CanDo .64*** .33**
and Attitudes toward Learning French while that Learning Strategies -.10 .04
for Language Attitudes was the sum of the scores Language Aptitude .37*** .35**
for Integrative Orientation, Attitudes toward Field Independence .14 .17
French Canadians, Instrumental Orientation, Note. * P< .05 **P < .01 *** P< .001
Interest in Foreign Languages, Evaluation of the
French Class, and Evaluation of the French
Teacher. The Language Anxiety aggregate was
the sum of the three language anxiety measures, French Grades) that reflects competence in a
the Self-Confidence aggregate was the sum ofthe number of characteristics over a long period of
three Self-Confidence measures, and the Can Do time. Most of the variables investigated in this
score was the sum of the four Can Do measures. study (with the exception of the measures of
Finally, the aggregate for Language Strategies Learning Strategies and Field Independence,
was the sum of the six language strategy scores, and to some extent Language Attitudes) are
while that for Language Aptitude was the sum of nonetheless significantly related to measures of
the three subtests from the MLAT. The Embed- L2 proficiency, and these findings indicate that
ded Figures Test was the sole measure ofField In- they are thus implicated in the task of learning a
dependence. L2.
Table 2 presents the correlations of each of the
aggregate scores with the two measures ofFrench Integrating Causal Model
achievement. As can be seen, all of the correla-
tions involving the objective measures of French Taken together, the previous analyses indicate
are significant, with the exception of those in- that the various individual difference measures
volving the Language Strategies and Field Inde- can be grouped into five relatively independent
pendence measures. Moreover, the correlations categories, and that some, but not all, of the
for the measures of Language Anxiety, Self-Con- classes of variables relate to achievement in the
fidence, and Can Do ratings of proficiency are by L2. Moreover, the review of the literature sug-
far the highest, and are very consistent with one gests that many of the variables might be func-
another. The correlations for the aggregates for tionally related to one another. The next ques-
Aptitude, Motivation, and Language Attitudes are tion is, therefore, what is the nature of the
significant, but much lower. When French Grades functional relations among the major variables?
are considered, all but three of the variables cor- Causal modelling is a procedure that permits
relate significantly with them. In this case, how- researchers to determine whether a hypothesized
ever, the correlations involving the measures of model, where some variables are assumed to be
Language Anxiety, Self-Confidence;' and Can caused by others, can account for the relation-
Do are much lower. In fact, the measures of Mo- ships among the variables (see, e.g., Schumacker
tivation and Language Aptitude correlate slightly & Lomax, 1996). There are two parts to the
more highly with French Grades than do these causal model, the measurement model and the
other variables. structural model. The measurement model esti-
These results indicate therefore that some of mates the relationships between the indicator
the variables are more highly related than others variables (the measures taken) and hypothesized
to indices of achievement based on measures of latent variables (e.g., factors), and permits tests of
specific skills taken more or less at the time when the significance of these estimates. The struc-
these other variables are assessed, but that most tural model is concerned with the relationships
measures demonstrate comparable correlations among the latent variables, expressed in terms of
when the criterion is a more global measure (like correlations (where two variables are considered
R. C. Gardner, Paul F. Tremblay and Anne-MarieMasgoret 353
to covary) or regression coefficients (where one These specifications were consistent with previ-
variable is considered to be the cause of another). ous research. In order to reduce the number of
As with the measurement model, these coeffi- indicators associated with the latent variable,
cients are estimated and these estimates can be Self-Confidence, the measures defining the three
tested for significance. Finally, causal modelling different components were aggregated. Thus,
permits tests of the adequacy of the model (i.e., scores on the three measures of French anxiety
the goodness of fit) and indicates whether other (French Use Anxiety, French Class Anxiety, and
relationships could improve this fit. French Language Anxiety) were summed to
Causal modelling is ideally suited to the pres- form one indicator variable of Language Anxiety,
ent situation, where it is possible to hypothesize the three measures of self-confidence were ag-
causal links between the constructs underlying gregated to form one measure of Self-Confi-
the variables under investigation. Like other dence, and the four Can Do scales were summed
models, such as those proposed by Clement to form one measure of Self-Rated Proficiency.
(1980) and Spolsky (1989), the socio-educational In the model, all coefficients associated with
model (Gardner, 1985) posits a configuration the measurement model are significant, though
linking attitudes, motivation, and language ap- one alteration had to be made. The language
titude to achievement in a L2, and this model learning strategy of Compensating for Missing
forms the basis of the model tested in this inves- Knowledge did not contribute significantly to the
tigation. The initial socio-educational model pro- Language Learning Strategy latent variable so it
posed that two attitude constructs, Integrative- was dropped from the final model. Similarly, all of
ness and Attitudes toward the Learning Situation, the coefficients defining the paths and correla-
were causes of Motivation (Gardner, 1985). In tions proposed in the structural model are signif-
subsequent investigations using causal modelling icant. Thus, Language Attitudes is seen to cause
procedures, however, it was found that linking the Motivation, Motivation causes both Self-Confi-
two attitudinal constructs to form one construct, dence and Language Learning Strategies, and
Language Attitudes, proved more satisfactory Motivation, Language Aptitude, and Language
(see, e.g., Tremblay & Gardner, 1995), and this re- Learning Strategies cause Language Achievement.
vision was maintained here. The present model Moreover, as can be seen, Field Independence
proposes specific correlational and causal paths correlates significantly with Language Aptitude.
linking seven latent variables: (a) Language Atti- There is one apparent inconsistency in this
tudes, (b) Language Aptitude, (c) Field Indepen- model that requires comment. The correlation
dence, (d) Motivation, (e) Learning Strategies, coefficients between Language Learning Strate-
(f) Self-Confidence, and (g) Language Achieve- gies and Language Achievement, which are typi-
ment. cally reported in the literature, are positive. Thus,
The indicator variables defining these latent we initially proposed that the use of language
variables, as well as the relationships among the learning strategies would promote success in
latent variables, are presented in the causal model SLA. In the present model, however, this path is
in Figure 1. The originally hypothesized struc- negative suggesting that the use of language
tural model is depicted by solid lines, while a bro- learning strategies is associated with low levels of
ken line indicates a relationship that was added achievement. Such an interpretation is not con-
to account for variation not explained by the sistent with other studies of language learning
original model. The original model proposed strategies (see, e.g., Oxford, Nyikos, & Crookall,
that Language Attitudes was a cause of Motiva- 1987), and it is generally accepted that the use of
tion, and that Motivation was a cause of both Self- such strategies helps to foster high levels of
Confidence and the use of Language Learning achievement. In the present study, however, there
Strategies. It proposed further that Motivation, were no significant correlations between lan-
Language Aptitude, and Learning Strategies guage learning strategies and L2 achievement
were causes of Language Achievement, and that (see Table 2). In the model, the path coefficients
Field Independence was a correlate of Language involving Strategies suggest that Motivation pro-
Aptitude. motes the use of Strategies which, in turn, causes
This model was tested using the Amos 3.51 lower levels of achievement. This appears contra-
causal modelling program developed by Ar- dictory at first, especially because Motivation
buckle (1995), applied to the variance/covariance also has a direct, positive influence on Achieve-
matrix computed on the relevant data. In order ment. Nonetheless both of these causal links are
to perform the test, the indicator variables rele- meaningful in the present context. Analysis of
vant to each of the latent variables were specified. the personal history records indicated that 86%
354 The Modern LanguageJournal81 (1997)
FIGURE 1
The Causal Model
APT: Language Aptitude; SC: Spelling Clues; WS:Words in Sentences; PA: Paired Associates; FIELD: Field In-
dependence; GEF: Group Embedded Figures Test; ATTS: Language Attitudes; FTE: French Teacher Evalua-
tion; FCE: French Course Evaluation; AFC:Attitudes toward French Canadians; IFL: Interest in Foreign Lan-
guages; INT: Integrative Orientation; STRA: Language Strategies; LSI: Remembering More Effectively; LS2:
Using Mental Processes; LS4: Organizing and Evaluating Learning; LS5: Managing Emotion; LS6: Learning
with Others; MOT: Motivation; ALF: Attitudes toward Learning French; MIT: Motivational Intensity; DLF:
Desire to Learn French; ACH: Language Achievement; THM: Theme Test; FAT: French Achievement Test;
CAT:Thing Category Test; CZE: Cloze Test; GRA: Grades in French; CONF: Self-Confidence; ANX: Language
Anxiety; CFD: Self-Confidence; CDO: Self-Rated Proficiency (Can Do).
of these students had at least 9 years of prior the need to use strategies. In their article inves-
French training. With such a history, it is mean- tigating many correlates of L2 achievement,
ingful to propose that those who are motivated to Ehrman & Oxford (1995) also note that "many
learn more French will engage in a host of strate- unsuccessful language learners use a vast num-
gies to assist them. At the same time, those who ber of strategies but in an unorchestrated, ran-
are successful may have adopted their own effec- dom way" (p. 69).
tive strategy (cf., Marrie & Nettan, 1991) and The modification indices from the Amos pro-
thus do not adopt the wide range of strategies de- gram suggested that the model could be im-
scribed by the latent variable, Language Learning proved by adding a path between Achievement
Strategies, in this model. Where there is consid- and Confidence, and we adopted this modifica-
erable prior training in a language, it is possible tion because it is theoretically meaningful. This
that those who have not reached a high level of path was significant in the revised model. The
achievement may still attempt to use strategies, finding that high levels of Language Achievement
while those who are progressing well may not feel cause Self-Confidence is consistent with the pos-
R C. Gardner, Paul R Tremblay and Anne-MarieMasgoret 355
itive relations found in the literature between Self- (c) Motivation to Learn French, (d) Language
Confidence and Language Achievement (Cle- Aptitude, and (e) Orientation to Learn French.
ment, 1986; Clement & Kruidenier, 1985) and in That is, the various measures can be seen to fall
this investigation (see Table 2). The direction of into one of these five categories (factors), al-
the path is not, however, consistent with theoriz- though examination of the factors themselves in-
ing by Clement and his colleagues who propose dicates that some measures contribute to more
that Self-Confidence causes Motivation and that than one factor. This, in turn, suggests that there
Motivation causes Achievement. These findings are some functional relationships among the
should not be taken as disconfirmation of their measures and that even these categories are not
theory, however. The socio-educational model mutually exclusive.
posits that motivation is responsible, along with When attention is directed to the correlations
language aptitude, for achievement in the L2, between achievement in the L2 and the major
and this model is consistent with correlations be- variables researchers have identified by the mea-
tween these two classes ofvariables and measures sures, it is clear that different types of processes
ofL2 achievement. As we have already seen, how- are implicated depending upon how one assesses
ever, the correlations between many of the in- achievement. Thus, when achievement is assessed
dices of achievement and self-confidence are by relatively objective measures taken at the same
very high, thus requiring more than an indirect time as the other measures, indices of Language
link between self-confidence and achievement. Anxiety, Self-Confidence, and Can Do evidence
Within the structure of the model that was tested much higher correlations with this achievement
here, this link is obtained through the direct than do indices of Language Aptitude, Moti-
causal path from Achievement to Self-Confi- vation, or Language Attitudes. However, when
dence. Such a model is quite reasonable. It is very achievement is measured in terms of more global
meaningful to propose that much of the variation and less time-specific indices, such as final grades
in feelings of self-confidence can be accounted in French, the correlations of all of the above
for by differences in knowledge and skill. measures with achievement are similar. One in-
The goodness of fit indices for this model are terpretation that might be put on these results is
all reasonable, given the complexity of the model. that the indices of Language Anxiety, Self-Confi-
The chi-square goodness of fit index was 465.18 dence, and Can Do are simply better correlates of
at 268 degrees offreedom. As a consequence, the objective measures of proficiency than are the
chi-square per degree of freedom ratio was 1.74, other measures studied here, but this begs the
well below the value of 2.0 that has been recom- question as to why. Another interpretation might
mended by Carmines and McIver (1981) and be that these three indices all involve some self-
Byrne (1989) as an acceptable value. In addition, examination of French proficiency as well as of
the various goodness of fit measures provided by feelings of anxiety or self-confidence, and conse-
the Amos program indicate a moderate fit. That quently that these indices were partially con-
is, the AGFI was .702, d 2 was .853, and P2 was .832. founded with proficiency at the time they were
Such values suggest that the model provides an taken. This would, in turn, increase the magni-
adequate representation of the functional rela- tude of the correlations between these indices
tionships among the variables and between the and measures of achievement taken at the same
variables and achievement in a L2. 2 time (see, also, Footnote 1). Further research
might well profit by investigating such possible
INTEGRATION AND CONCLUSIONS confounds.
Whenever individual difference measures are
This study examined a number ofvariables that involved, there is always the question as to how one
have been shown to correlate significantly with might account for the relationships among them.
indices of L2 achievement. The results are in- Many different models are possible; often it is not
structive. The exploratory factor analysis was per- possible to compare them directly. Causal model-
formed to determine how the variables related to ling is, however, a procedure that permits one to
one another without any preconceived structure evaluate how well a model accounts for the rela-
imposed on them. It is clear that despite the dif- tionships obtained. In this investigation, we have
ferent theoretical models represented in the var- attempted to show how the variables investigated
ious measures, they group together into five re- can be incorporated into an extended version of
latively independent clusters. These clusters the socio-educational model of SLA (Gardner,
(factors) were identified as: (a) Self-Confidence 1985; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). The results
with French, (b) Language Learning Strategies, provide strong support for the model, suggesting
that the model permits one way of understanding other structurally equivalent models, except for the
how the variables interrelate and complement Can Do measure. In one, the Can Do was included as
one another. However, this support should not be an indicator of French achievement rather than self-
taken as proof that this is the correct or only confidence. In the other, it was omitted from the model
altogether. The coefficients and fit indices were com-
model. It is a useful model, but various other
parable in all three models. For example, the chi-square
models might have been proposed that may have
per degree of freedom ratio was 1.89 and 1.76 respec-
fit the data equally well. The intent of demon- tively for these two other models. It is clear, therefore,
strating this model at this time is not to argue for that the variable is indeed complex.
its superiority, but simply to demonstrate that it
is meaningful for interpreting the relationships
among the variables and for postulating how they
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APPENDIX A
Descriptive Statistics of the Variables
Variables Mean SD Range Skewness Kurtosis
Attitude two French Canadians 51.28 9.54 17-67 -0.66 0.86

Attitude two Learning French 59.96 8.26 29-70 -1.41 1.92
Desire to Learn French 58.26 7.65 26-70 -1.61 3.55
French Class Anxiety 36.71 12.60 11-70 0.49 -0.03
French Use Anxiety 27.86 11.60 10-64 0.55 -0.01
Interest in Foreign Languages 61.26 7.14 31-70 -1.21 2.19
Instrumental Orientation 20.54 4.39 4-28 -0.94 1.38
Integrative Orientation 20.39 4.87 8-28 -0.65 0.17
Motivational Intensity 49.64 9.39 18-66 -0.72 0.73
Self-Confidence (SCC) 48.47 12.88 16-69 -0.56 -0.40
Self-Confidence (SCAC) 29.12 8.61 8-42 -0.70 -0.27
Self-Confidence (SCGA) 27.34 9.10 7-42 -0.49 -0.80
French Language Anxiety 83.08 22.34 47-154 0.85 0.45
French Course Evaluation 51.53 11.66 12-70 -1.17 1.36
French Teacher Evaluation 56.97 10.60 11-70 -1.32 2.55
French Achievement Test 57.11 13.92 30-89 0.16 -0.73
Cloze Test 12.49 3.81 4-22 0.09 -0.44
Thing Category Test 29.16 8.77 9-51 0.21 -0.10
Theme Test 12.61 3.82 5-23 0.85 0.51
Grades in French 69.04 12.11 40-90 -0.64 0.03
Spelling Clues 17.22 6.71 4-31 -0.10 -0.64
Words in Sentences 19.71 5.66 7-33 0.25 -0.32
Paired Associates 17.28 5.62 0-24 -0.73 -0.24
Group Embedded Figures Test 13.69 4.51 0-18 -1.40 1.44
LSI-Memory 37.97 7.42 22-54 -0.20 -0.37
LS2-Processing Information 77.14 12.47 47-105 -0.25 0.07
LS3-Missing Information 26.99 3.42 18-35 -0.09 -0.25
LS4-Meta-Cognitive 48.13 9.78 25-70 -0.11 -0.28
LS5-Emotion Management 17.11 4.11 9-30 0.52 0.33
LS6-Learning with Others 27.53 5.41 11-41 -0.52 0.89
Can Do-Writing 16.33 5.21 6-29 0.04 -0.50
Can Do-Reading 26.04 8.30 7-43 -0.19 -0.39
Can Do-Understanding 30.09 10.56 8-52 -0.16 -0.69
Can Do-Speaking 47.70 15.50 16-89 0.12 -0.27
APPENDIXB
Attitude/Motivation Test Battery Items
ATTITUDES TOWARD FRENCH CANADIANS
-Positively keyed
3. If Canada should lose the French culture of Quebec, it would indeed be a great loss.
14. Most French Canadians are so friendly and easy to get along with that Canada is fortunate to
have them.
25. French Canadians are a very sociable, warm-hearted and creative people.
32. I would like to know more French Canadians.
91. The more I get to know French Canadians, the more I want to be fluent in their language.
-Negatively keyed
35. The more I learn about French Canadians, the less I like them.
50. French Canadians should not try to maintain their cultural identity.
59. By promoting French to the exclusion of English, French Canadians in Quebec have shown
that they deserve less, not more, consideration from the rest of Canada.
72. French Canadian fervour is the real threat to our national unity.
99. French Canadians deserve no preferential treatment because of the way they treat minority
groups.
ATTITUDES TOWARD LEARNING FRENCH
-Positively keyed
21. French is really great.

24. I really enjoy learning French.
27. I love learning French.
43. I plan to learn as much French as possible.
81. Because of Canada's position on bilingualism, I think that all Canadian schools should teach
French.
-Negatively keyed
6. I hate French.
40. I would rather spend my time on courses other than French.
45. I find the study of French very boring.
56. Learning French is a waste of time.
87. When I finish this course, I shall give up the study of French entirely because I am not inter-
ested in it.
DESIRE TO LEARN FRENCH
-Positively keyed
26. I wish I had begun studying French at an early age.

31. If it were up to me, I would spend all of my time learning French.
37. I want to learn French so well that it will become second nature to me.
41. I would like to learn as much French as possible.
66. I wish I were fluent in French.
-Negatively keyed
11. Knowing French isn't really an important goal in my life.

22. I sometimes daydream about dropping French.
63. I find I'm losing any desire I ever had to know French.
83. To be honest, I really have little desire to learn French.
93. I haven't any great wish to learn more than the basics of French.
FRENCH CLASS ANXIETY
-Positively keyed
20. I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in our French class.
33. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in our French class.
64. It worries me that other students in my class seem to speak French better than I do.
75. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my French class.
89. I am sometimes afraid the other students will laugh at me when I speak French.
-Negatively keyed
44. I don't usually get anxious when I have to respond to a question in my French class.
47. I feel confident when asked to participate in my French class.
51. I do not get anxious when I am asked for information in my French class.
85. I don't understand why other students feel nervous about using French in class.
96. Students who claim they get nervous in French class are just making excuses.
FRENCH USE ANXIETY
-Positively keyed
18. I would get nervous if I had to speak French to someone in a store.

23. Speaking French bothers me.
48. It would bother me if I had to speak French on the telephone.
71. I would feel uncomfortable speaking French under any circumstances.
94. I feel anxious if someone asks me something in French.
FRENCH USE ANXIETY
-Negatively keyed
2. When called upon to use my French, I feel very much at ease.

15. It doesn't bother me at all to speak French.
28. I would feel quite relaxed if I had to ask street directions in French.
73. I would feel comfortable speaking French in an informal gathering where both English and
French speaking persons were present.
80. I would feel calm and sure of myself if I had to order a meal in French.
INTEREST IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES
-Positively keyed
4. I would really like to learn many foreign languages.

8. I wish I could speak another language perfectly.
10. I often wish I could read newspapers and magazines in another language.
82. If I planned to stay in another country, I would make a great effort to learn the language even
though I could get along in English.
98. I enjoy meeting and listening to people to who speak other languages.
-Negatively keyed
12. Studying a foreign language is not a pleasant experience.

29. I really have no interest in foreign languages.
53. Seeing that Canada is relatively far from countries speaking other languages, it is not impor-
tant for Canadians to learn foreign languages.
55. Most foreign languages sound crude and harsh.
100. I would rather see a foreign film dubbed in English than see the film in its original language
with English sub-titles.
INSTRUMENTAL ORIENTATION
1. Studying French is important because it will make me appear more cultured.

65. Studying French is important because it will give me an edge in competing with others.
69. Studying French can be important to me because I think it will someday be useful in getting
a good job.
77. Studying French is important for me because it will increase my ability to influence others.
INTEGRATIVE ORIENTATION
39. Studying French can be important for me because it will allow me to meet and converse with
more and varied people.
52. Studying French is important because it will allow me to participate more freely in the activi-
ties of French Canadians.
67. Studying French is important because it will allow me to gain good friends more easily among
French Canadians.
97. Studying French is important because it will enable me to better understand French Canadian
life and culture.
MOTIVATIONAL INTENSITY
-Positively keyed
7. I make a point of trying to understand all the French I see and hear.
30. I keep up to date with French by working on it almost every day.
61. When I have a problem understanding something we are learning in my French class, I always
ask the instructor for help.
78. I really work hard to learn French.
86. When I am studying French, I ignore distractions and stick to the job at hand.
-Negatively keyed
46. I don't pay too much attention to the feedback I receive in my French class.
57. I don't bother checking my corrected assignments in my French courses.
74. I tend to approach my French homework in a random and unplanned manner.
79. I have a tendency to give up when our French instructor goes off on a tangent.
92. I can't be bothered trying to understand the more complex aspects of French.
SELF-CONFIDENCE (SCC)-New items only
38. I'm sure I could speak French well in almost any circumstances.
34. When the French language is spoken to me, I feel I can understand practically everything.
84. I feel comfortable conducting myself in French almost any time and any place.
95. I believe that I can competently read and understand most books and articles written in
French.
SELF-CONFIDENCE (ABILITY CONTROLLED) (SCAC)
5. I may not be completely fluent in French, but I feel confident speaking it.
17. Despite the fact that I may not be completely proficient in French, I am self assured conduct-
ing myself in French.
54. Even when I make mistakes speaking French, I still feel sure of myself while trying to com-
municate.
68. I am confident when having conversations with French-speaking people despite any errors I
may make.
76. Regardless of how much French I know, I feel confident about using it.
88. I feel confident using French regardless of my ability.
362 TheModern LanguageJournal 81 (1997)
SELF-CONFIDENCE (GIVEN ABILITY) (SCGA)
-Positively keyed
9. I am more confident in my ability to speak French than others who know as much French as
I do.
58. I'm as self-assured conducting myself in French as anybody else who knows as much French
as I do.
62. I am as confident using French as other people who know as much French as I do.
-Negatively keyed
13. I have less confidence in my French skills than others who know as much French as I do.
19. I'm not as confident in my ability to use French as other people who know as much French as
I do.
49. I'm not as self-assured using French as other people at my level of ability.
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15404781, 1997, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1997.tb05495.x by Test, Wiley Online Library on [11/12/2022].

MANY VARIABLES HAVE BEEN SUGGESTED PREVIOUS STUDIES

Measures assesses the extent to which students seek to learn

Spelling Clues .01 -.07 .23 .65 -.08

abIes relate to achievement in French. This was TABLE 2

Variables Mean SD Range Skewness Kurtosis

Attitude two French Canadians 51.28 9.54 17-67 -0.66 0.86

ATTITUDES TOWARD FRENCH CANADIANS

ATTITUDES TOWARD LEARNING FRENCH

21. French is really great.

DESIRE TO LEARN FRENCH

26. I wish I had begun studying French at an early age.

11. Knowing French isn't really an important goal in my life.

FRENCH CLASS ANXIETY

FRENCH USE ANXIETY

18. I would get nervous if I had to speak French to someone in a store.

FRENCH USE ANXIETY

2. When called upon to use my French, I feel very much at ease.

INTEREST IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES

4. I would really like to learn many foreign languages.

12. Studying a foreign language is not a pleasant experience.

1. Studying French is important because it will make me appear more cultured.

SELF-CONFIDENCE (SCC)-New items only

SELF-CONFIDENCE (ABILITY CONTROLLED) (SCAC)

MLJOffers No-Fee Copying for Course Packs

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