Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Instrumental Analysis I
Introduction
By Dawit Alemu
1. Analytical Separation Techniques and
Classical Method of Analysis
Analytical Methods
This can be divided in to two broad classes as classical and
instrumental method of analysis.
Classical Methods
Separation of analytes by precipitation, extraction, or
distillation.
Qualitative analysis by reaction of analytes with reagents
that yielded products that could be recognized by their
colors, boiling or melting points, solubilities, optical
activities, or refractive indexes.
Quantitative analysis by gravimetric or by titrimetric
techniques
Cont…
Instrumental Methods
Measurement of physical properties of analytes - such
as conductivity, electrode potential, light absorption or
emission, mass-to-charge ratio, and fluorescence-
began to be employed for quantitative analysis of
inorganic, organic, and biochemical analytes.
Efficient chromatographic separation techniques are
used for the separation of components of complex
mixtures.
Instrumental Methods of analysis (collective name for
newer methods for separation and determination of
chemical species.)
Cont …
Table 1.1. Comparisons between the two methods
Classical Methods Instrumental methods
Based on absolute (direct) measurement Are not absolute (indirect way) in measurement
Special training not required to operate the Special training will require to operate the
instruments instruments
Column chromatography
Packed
Open tubular
Planar chromatography
Paper
TLC
Cont …
Column chromatography
Paper Chromatography
Paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a
small dot or line of sample solution onto a strip of
chromatography paper.
Cont…
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
TLC is a widely employed laboratory technique and is similar
to paper chromatography.
However, instead of using a stationary phase of paper, it
involves a stationary phase of a thin layer of adsorbent like
silica gel, alumina, or cellulose on a flat, inert substrate.
Compared to paper, it has the advantage of faster runs, better
separations, and the choice between different adsorbents.
Cont …
Distance the solute move
Rf =
Distance the solvent front move
Z
Rs
WA / 2 WB / 2
2Z
Rs
WA WB
2[(t R ) B (t R ) A ]
Rs
WA WB
2.4. Migration Rates of Solutes
• The effectiveness of a chromatographic column in separating
two solutes depends in part on the relative rates at which the
two species are eluted.
• These rates in turn are determined by the ratios of the solute
concentrations in each of the two phases.
• The separation is enhanced by altering the relative flow rate of
solutes. i.e.
o by increasing the flow rate of weakly retained species and
o decreasing the flow rate of strongly retained species.
Factors affecting Migration Rates of Solutes
• Distribution Constant, K or D
Ain mobile phase Ain stationary phase
• The equilibrium constant K; for this reaction is called a
distribution constant, which is defined as
𝐶𝑠
𝐾=
𝐶𝑚
Where: 𝐶𝑠 - Concentration in molar of solute A in the
stationary phase
𝐶𝑚 - Concentration in molar of solute A in the mobile
phase
Note:
• Large K value is obtained when the solute concentration in the
stationary phase is large. This indicates the solute interacts
with stationary phase strongly.
Cont…
• Retention time
o The retention time (tR) is the time between injection of a
sample and the appearance of a solute peak at the detector
of a chromatographic column.
o The dead time (void time) (tM) is the time it takes for an
unretained species to pass through a chromatographic
column.
o All components spend this (tM) amount of time in the
mobile phase.
o Separations are based on the different times tS that
components spend in the stationary phase.
Velocities: Linear rate of solute migration!
L
Velocity of solute:
v
tR
L
Velocity of mobile phase:
tM
The Relationship between Migration Rate and
Distribution Constant
cM VM
v
cM VM cSVS
1
v
1 cSVS / cM VM
cS
K Distribution Constant
cM
1
v
1 K VS / VM
Cont…
Retention Factor :
It is the amount of time a solute spends in the stationary phase relative to the time it
spends in the mobile phase.
1
v
1 K VS / VM
k ' A K AVS / VM (Retention Factor)
1
v
1 k 'A
L L 1
tR tM 1 k ' A
tR tM Adjusted retention time
k 'A
tM
Cont…
Selectivity Factor:
The selectivity factor for solutes A and B is defined as the ratio of the
distribution constant of the more strongly retained solute (B) to the distribution
constant for the less strongly held solute (A).
B retained more than A >1
KB
Distribution
Constant
KA
k 'B
Retention factor
k 'A
(t R ) A t M (t R ) B t M
k 'A and k ' B
tM tM
(t R ) B t M
Retention time
(t R ) A t M
Band Broadening and Column Efficiency -
Theoretical Plates and Plate Theories
H plate height
N number of plates
L
N
H
2
H
L
L = length of column packing
standard deviation
2
L
variance per unit length.
Cont…
Relation between column distance and retention
times
N number of pates
2
t
N 16 R
W
W1/2 t
2
N 5.54 R
W1/ 2
2.5. Optimization of Resolution
Effect of Retention Factor and Selectivity Factor on Resolution
A useful equation that relates the resolution of a column to the
number of plates also contains the retention and selectivity factors
of pair of solutes on the column.
𝑁 𝛼−1 𝐾′ 𝐵
𝑅𝑠 = ( )( )
4 𝛼 1+ 𝐾′ 𝐵
Where: 𝐾 ′ 𝐵 is the retention factor of the strongly retained solute.
𝛼 is selectivity factor
Rearrange to solve for the number of theoretical plates, N:
𝛼 2 1+ 𝐾′ 2
𝑁= 16𝑅𝑠2 𝐵
𝛼−1 𝐾′ 𝐵
Effect of Resolution on Retention Time
The time required to obtain the resolution Rs is given by;
3
16𝑅𝑠2 𝐻 𝛼 2 1+ 𝐾′ 𝐵
(𝑡𝑅 )𝐵 =
µ 𝛼−1 𝐾′ 𝐵 2
Factors affecting solutes separation in CC
( Factors affecting column efficiency)
Factor Effect
Particle size of solid stationary Decrease of size improves separation (but very small
phase (or of support) particles need high pressure).
Column dimensions Efficiency increases as ratio length / width increases.
Non uniform packing results in irregular movement
Uniformity of packing of solutes through column & less uniform zone
formation, (i.e. band broadning or tailing).
Increase in column temperature results in speed of
Column temperature
elution but does not improve separation (tailing).
Solvents should be of low viscosity (to give efficient
Eluting solvent resolution) & h igh volatility (to get rapid recovery of
the substances).
Solvent flow rate Uniform & low flow rate gives better resolution.
Continuity of flow Discontinuous flow disturbs resolution
Condition of adsorbent Deactivation of adsorbent decreases separation.
Concentration of solutes Substances of high concentration move slowly.
Column Efficiency
Kinetic variables
Zone Broadening
Flow Rate of Mobile Phase
B is coefficient of
longitudinal diffusion.
Cs and Cm are
coefficients of mass
transfer in stationary
and mobile phase,
respectively.
H A B / (CS CM )
Zone Broadening
Multiple Pathways
1. Directly proportional to
the diameters of packing
2. Lower mobile-phase
velocity, smaller eddy
diffusion
Zone Broadening
Longitudinal Diffusion
• The higher the
Column , the smaller
the H
• Much smaller in
Diffusion LC than in GC
1. the physical means by which the stationary phase and mobile
phase are brought together.
Paper Chromatography
In paper chromatography, the mobile phase is a solvent, and
the stationary phase is water held in the fibers of
chromatography paper.
A solution of the mixture to be separated is spotted onto a strip
of chromatography paper (or filter paper) with a dropper.
The chromatogram is developed by placing the bottom of the
paper (but not the sample spot) in a tank containing a suitable
solvent.
The solvent is drawn up the paper by capillary action.
The components of the mixture move up the paper with the
solvent at different rates due to their differing interactions with
the stationary and mobile phases.
Cont …