Chapter 2) SIGNAL DISTORTION IN OPTICAL FIBERS 2.1 INTRODUCTION When optical pulses are traveling along the fiber medium, the light intensity (Power) decreases over a distance and the width of pulse is broadening (dispersion). Because of this the optical signal is distorted at the receiving end of optical fiber shown in Fig (2.1). /\ S\N Fig. 2,1 Signal Distortion 2.2 ATTENUATION Power loss in a fiber cable is probably the most important characteristics of the cable. Power loss is often called as attenuation. Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs as light pulses propagate through the length of the fiber. Attenuation has several adverse effects on performance, including reducing the system bandwidth, information transmission rate, efficiency and overall system capacity. Attenuation is the ratio of input and output optical power. It is given by Pin __input optical power a=s"= Pou, output optical power The standard formula for expressing the total power loss in an optical fiber cable is Pout «1 (dB) = 10 log( = ee OB Pout (2.1)22 Communication and Where a (dB) - Total reduction in power level, attenuation. Pout - Output power (watts) in optical fiber. Pi, — Input power (watts) in optical fiber. The basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are (i) Absorption (ii) Scattering and (iii) Radiative losses of the optical energy Absorption is related to the fiber material and scattering are due to fiber structural imperfections in the optical waveguide. Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of curvature. 2.2.1. Attenuation units As light travels along a fiber, its power decreases exponentially with distance. The power at distance 1 is given by pO=p@e w= (2.2) Where p (0) is the optical power in a fiber at the input end and ay is the fiber attenuation coefficient (per km) and given by a= Pa] By [ome P® (2.3) The attenuation is denoted by and is given in the units of dB) _10 0) 9B) 101, [2 “in| I ro (2.4) ‘This parameter is known as fiber loss or fiber attenuation. Attenuation is also a function of wavelength shown in Fig (2.2)Distortion in Fibers 23 0 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 Wavelength (nm) Fig. 2.2 Optical fiber attenuation as a function of wavelength (nm) reent of its power after travelling 7.0 Km of fiber. What is the fenuation in dB/Km of this fiber. Solution Example 2.1: An optical Signal at a specific wavelength has lost 55 pe atte Pin Attenuation 0 =>— Pout Pout = 55% of Pin, = 0.55 Pin *= 055 10 Pi (dB/km) Teed 7 | ‘out I= distance = 7 km 10 1 a (dB/km) -Preeo{ 058 = 2 logio (1.818) = 0.370 (dB/km) = 0.370 dB/km.2.3 MATERIAL ABSORPTION LOSSES IN SILICA FIBERS 1. Material absorption is caused by absorption of photons within the fiber, 2. When a material is illuminated, photons can make the valence electrons of an atom transition to higher energy levels. 3. Photon is destroyed and the radiant energy is transformed into electric potential energy. 4. This energy can be > Re-emitted (scattering). Free electrons (Photo electric effect). > Disipated to the rest of the material (transformed into heat). In an optical fiber, material. absorption of the optical power is effectively converted to heat dissipation within the fiber. There are two types of absorption exist: 1. Intrinsic absorption is caused due to interaction of electrons and photons in ultra violet region and it is also caused due to absorbtion of photons in fiber medium and heat is dissipated in Infrared region. 2. Extrinsic absorption is caused due to presence of impurities (metal ions like Cu‘, Cr* etc) and presence of water molecules (OH ions) 2.3.1 Intrinsic Absorption Tt is loss significant than extrinsic absorption. For a power (no impurities) in silica fiber a low loss window exists between 800 nm and 1600 nm. Wavelength (um) 0.9 1.01,11.21,31,5 © 2 22 rd Attenuation (4B kia) 8 2.0 Fig. 23 The Attenuation spectra from the intrinsic lots mechanism in pure GeO, SiO, glass‘Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers 25 Fig (2.3) shows attenuation spectrum for pure silica glass. Intrinsic absorption is very low compared to other forms of loss. It is for this reason the fibers are made of silica and optical communication systems mark between 800 and 1600 nm. i. Intrinsic absorption in the ultraviolet region is caused by electronic absorption bands. Basically, absorption occurs when a light particle (photon) interacts with an electron and excites it to a higher energy level. 2. The main cause of intrinsic absorption in the infrared region is the characteristic vibration frequency of atomic bonds. In silica glass, absorption is caused by vibration of silicon-oxygen (si-o) bonds. The interaction between the vibrating bond and the electromagnetic field of the optical signal causes intrinsic absorption. Light energy is transferred from electromagnetic field to the bond. 3. The expression for loss in IR region - un ( 48.48 Sy = 7.81 x 10 te baad (2.5) 2.3.2 Extrinsic Absorption (Metallic ions) 1. Extrinsic absorption is much more significant than intrinsic, 2. It is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber material during manufacture-Iron, nickel, chromium. 3. It is also caused by transition of meta! ions to a higher energy level. 4. Modern fabrication techniques can reduce impurity levels below 1 part in 10 10 5. For some of the more common metallic impurities in silica fiber the table 2.1 shows the peak attenuation wavelength and the attenuation caused by an impurity concentration of 1 in 10° Table 2.1 Absorbion losses caused by some of the more common metallic jon impurities in glasses, together with the zbsorption peak wavelength. Peak wavelength | One part in (nm) 10° (dBkm" 4) crt 625 1.6 ct 685 0.1 Cu?* 850 11 Fe?* 1100 0.682.6 Communication and Peak wavelength | One part in (nm) 10° (@Bkm”*) Feo* 400 0.15 Niz* 650 0.1 i Mn?* 460 0.2 { vt 725 2.7 ad rete sere ee ee al Note: Intrinsic absorption (ultraviolet band) ayy=Ce!o> urbach’s rule. Where C and Ey are empirical constant, E is the photon energy. (2.6) Extrinsic absorption caused by dissolved water in the glass, as the hydroxyl or OH ion. In this case absorption due to the same fundamental processes (between 2700 nm and 4200 nm) give rise to so called absorption overtones at 1380, 950 and 720 nm. ‘Typically a one part per million impurity level causes 1 dB/km of attenuation at 950 nm. Typically levels are a few parts per billion. 2.4 SCATTERING Scattering is the process in which power is transferred from one mode to another mode. 2.4.1 Types of Scattering Loss in fiber ‘Two basic types of scattering exist: 1. Linear Scattering: Rayleigh and Mie scattering. 2, Non Linear Scattering: Stimulated Brillouin and Stimulated Raman. Rayleigh is the dominant loss mechanism in the low loss silica window between 800 nm and 1700 nm. 2.4.2 Scattering Losses in Fiber 1. Scattering is a process where by all or some of the optical power in @ mode is transferred into another mode. 2, Frequency causes attenuation, since the transfer is often to a mode which does not propagate well.(also called leaky or radiation mode).‘Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers 27 2.5 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING 1. Dominant scattering mechanism in silica fibers. 2. Scattering caused by inhomogeneities in the glass of a size smaller than the wavelength of light. 3. In-homogeneities manifested refractive index variations, present in the glass after manufacturing (compositional fluctuation) 4. Difficult to eliminate with present manufacturing methods. 5. Rayleigh loss falls off as a function of the fourth power of wavelength. A, Rayleigh loss, 0, =—5 dB per km nar (2.7) where A in this empirical formula is expressed in microns(t m) 6. The Rayleigh scattering coefficient A, is constant for a given material 7. For 1550 nm, the loss is approximately 0.18 dB/km. The Rayleigh scattering coefficient A, depends on ~ The fiber refractive index profile. ‘ The doping is used to achieve a given core refractive index. For a step index Germanium doped fiber is given by A, = 0.63 + 2.06 NA dB/km (2.8) For a graded index near parabolic profile fiber A, is given by A, = 0.63 + 1.75 NAdBkm (29) Example 2.2: Show that for a graded index fiber with NA=0.275 operating at 1330 nm, the Rayleigh scattering loss is approximately 0.36 db/km. Solution A, = 0.63 + 1.75 NA dB/km = 0.63 + 1.75 x 0.275 =111dBKm28 Communicall The loss in Rayleigh scattering can be expressed in another way: 3 scat = oe (n® 1) KpT/Br 8 3 Oaeat = 52a PY Ke Ty Br Where, Kg= Boltzmann constant Tr= fictive temperature n= Refractive index of silica A= Operating wavelength T;= Temperature at which the Si changes from solid to semi-solid state (1200-1400k) Br= Isothermal compressibility factor (m?/N) P= Photo elastic coefficient ‘Transmission loss per km due to Rayleigh scattering is given by yam = ex ~ scat “LE ] Where L=1 km or 1000 m The attenuation is normally expressed in dB/km so the attenuation due to fundamental Rayleigh scattering is given by the following expression, «a (dB/km) = 10 wean a= | Example 2.3: Silica has an estimated fictive temperature T,=1400 k with isothermal compressibility (By) of 7x10"! m/N. The refractive index and! photo elastic coefficient for silica are 1.40 and 0.286 respectively. Determine the attenuation in db/km due to the fundamental Rayleigh scattering in silica, at optical wavelength of 0.63 1m. Solution Given: Ty= 1400 k B= 7x 10°! m7NDistortion in Fibers 29 n=1.40 P=0.286 A=0.63 nm 8 3 Ogeat = af PK, Te Bp -| a | (1.4)8 (0.286)? (1.38 x 10” 8) (1400) (7 x 10” "4) 8 x (0.63 x 10° §) 4.049 x 10-8 2 “4.726 x 10" ey = 8.567 x 1074 m=! (.* Nim=J) gm = EXP gent “L ] = exp| - 8.56 x 10"4x 1000 | Om = 0.424 a (dB/km) = 10 we ae | 10 we{ saa} lm . a (dB/km) = 3.73 dBkm Example 2.4: Repeat example 2.3 for operating wavelength of 1300 nm Solution Bre Ogcat =z 2°P'Kp Ty Br 3X 3 -__*___| (1.4)8(0.286)? (1.38 x 10773 J/k)i400 kx 7x 1071! m2yN 3 (1300 x 10” ®)4m' - 28 = £04917 F ig to: Nim=J] 8.5683 x 10" = 4.725 x10" m+ Om = exp ~ Oscat *L ] =exp| ~ 4.725 x 10° x 1000 |= 0.9542.10 _ epticas Communication and Networking o: (dB/km) = 10 wean | ‘km 1 =10 toe 0954 } a (dB/km) = 0.205dB/km. Example 2.5: Repeat the example 2.3 for operating wavelength 1,55%m, Solution 8x seat = 54 PK eT Bp 81° 8 2 93 119 =———*——_ (1.4)8(0.286)? (1.38 x 10° 8 J/Km) 1400 K x 7 x 10 m/N 3 (1.55x 107%) m* ee 88x OBES sm Ovned = 2.338x 107° m™? Om = exp[ ~GgeatL ] = exp [- 2.338 x 10° x 1000 = 0.997 (dBm) = sted a | Om 1 =10 oe 0997 } o (dB/km) = 0.101 dB/km 2.6 MIE SCATTERING Linear scattering may also occur at in-homogeneities which are comparable in size to the guided wavelength. These results from the non perfect cylindrica! structure of the waveguide and may be caused by fiber imperfections such as irregularities in the core cladding interface, core-cladding refractive index differences along the fiber length, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles. When the scattering in-homogeneities size is greater than 4/10, the scattered intensity which has an angular dependence.24 The scattering created by such in-homogeneities is mainly in the forward direction and it is called Mie scattering. Depending upon the fiber material, design and manufacture, Mie scattering can cause significant losses. The in-homogeneities may be reduced by: (a) Removing imperfections due to the glass manufacturing process; (b) carefully controlled extrusion and coating of the fiber; (c) Increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the relative refractive index difference. By these means it is possible to reduce Mie scattering to insignificant levels. 2.7 NON-LINEAR SCATTERING LOSSES Optical wave guides do not always behave as completely linear channels whose increase in output optical power is directly proportional to the input optical power. Several nonlinear effects occur, in case of scattering which cause disproportional attenuation, usually at high optical power levels. This nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from, one mode to be transferred in either the forward or backward directions to the same or other modes at a different frequency. It depends critically upon the optical power density with in the fiber and hence only becomes significant above threshold power levels. The most important types of nonlinear scattering in optical fiber are stimulated Brillouin and Raman scattering, both of which are usually only observed only at high optical power densities in long single-mode fibers. These scattering mechanism infact give optical gain but with shift in frequency, thus contributing to attenuation for light transmission at a specific wavelength. 2.7.1. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) Stimulated Brillouin scattering may be regarded as the modulation of light through the thermal molecular vibrations within the fiber. The scattered light appears as upper and lower sidebands which are separated from the incident light by the modulation frequency. The incident phonon in this scattering process produces a photon of accoustic frequency as well as a scattered photon. This produces an optical frequency shift which varies with the scattering angle because the frequency of the sound wave varies with accoustic wavelength. The frequency shift is maximum in the backward direction reducing to zero in the forward direction and making Stimulated Brillouin scattering mainly as backward process. As indicated previously, brillouin scattering is only significant above threshold power density. Assuming that the polarization state of the transmitted light is not maintained that the threshold power Py is given by Popg= 44x10 8d? 7 agRB watts (2.10)212 Communication and. (Note: Phonon” is quantum of a elastic wave in a crystal lattice] Where d and 2 are the fiber core diameter and the operating Avior respectively both are measured in Micro meters, Ogp 18 the fiber attenuation in decibels per kilometer and B is the source bandwidth in gigahertz. 2.7.2. Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) Stimulated Raman Scattering is similar to Stra Oe ee cot that a hi ni i than an a ic pl generated in eee eet nes ate aise the forward and backward directions in an optical fiber, and may have an optical power threshold of up to three orders of magnitude higher than the brioullin threshold in a particular fiber. Using the same criteria as those specified for the Brillouin scattering threshold optical power for SRS, Pp in a long single mode fiber is given by Pops = 6.9 10°? d* d. ogg Watts. ef211) Example 2.4: Along single mode optical fiber has an attenuation oj 0.5 dbKm™! when operating at a wavelength of 1.3m. The fiber core diameter is 6m and the laser source bandwidth is 600 MHz. compare’ the threshold optical powers for stimulated brillouin and Raman! scattering with in the fiber at the wavelength specified. Solution The threshold optical power for SBS is given by Pgpg = 4.4.x 1073 d? a? ogy B = 4.4.x 1079 x 6? x 1.37 x 0.5 x 0.6 = 80.3 mW The threshold optical power for SRS is given by Pgpg = 5.9% 1077d? 2 crag =5.9x 10°? x6? x 130.5 = 1.38 W 2.8 MACRO BENDING LOSS ‘The curvature of the bend is much larger thar fiber diameter. Light wave suffers severe loss due to radiation of the evanescent field in the cladding region shown in Fig (2.4). As the radius of the curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially until it reaches at a certain critical radius. For any radius a bit smaller than this point, then the losses suddenly become extremely large. Higher order modes radiate away faster than lower order modes and Radius of curvature reduces sharp bending it supports only for smooth bending.‘Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers 2.13 Power lost through radiation Field distribution Curved fiber Fig. 2.4 An Illustration of the radiation loss at a fiber bend Lower order modes tightly bound to core. As the order of the modes increases, distribution of field is present in cladding. When there is sharp bend, the higher order mode escapes from the fiber cable. But in smooth bending prevents this to certain extent. 2.81 Critical Radius of Curvature Critical radius of curvature for multimode fiber is given by the following expression. 4n(nf-nBP (2.12) Where n,= refractive index of core ng= refractive index of cladding For graded index fiber, n; is the refractive index along fiber axis. The total number of modes that can be supported by a curved fiber is less than in a straight fiber. The effective number of modes that are supported by a curved multimode graded index fiber is given by a+2[ 2a 5__..)38 Ner=4 1-3-5 | pt N < { tia| ® (zara | 2 (2.18) Where a - Graded - index profile. A - Core — cladding index difference ng - cladding refractive index 2n — wave propagation constant214 Communication and No — Total number of modes in a straight fiber. R ~ Radius of curvature No is given by, a 2 No= Gg Kay? (2.14) Macro bending loss can be reduced by 1. Designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences. 2, Operating at shortest wavelength possible. Critical radius of curvature for a single mode fiber Rs can be given as, — 3 20% (2% - 0.995 } = 208 (ny ~ 09)? de ew( 245) Where A,- cut-off wavelength. 2.9 MICRO BENDING LOSS Microscopic bends of the fiber axis that can arise when the fibers are incorporated into cables. The power is dissipated through the micro bended fiber, because of the repetitive coupling of energy between guided modes and the leaky. or radiation modes in the fiber shown in Fig (2.5) ale soba SS SE a ae OMY (pom ZONK | | Microbends | | | Power loss from higher - order modes | Power coupling to higher - order modes | Fig. 2.5 Small-scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis leads to micro bending loss‘Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers. 2.15 Micro bending loss is also called as mode coupling loss. To avoid micro bends, decompressible buffer jackets should be used as shown in Fig (2.6). This jacket does not allow the external mechanical force to pass to the cladding or core. External force Fiber decompressible jacket SSSSS Fig. 2.6 A decompressible jacket extruded over a fiber reduces micro bending resulting from external forces. Example 2.5: Two step index fibers exhibit the following parameters: (a) A multimode fiber with a core refractive index of 1.5, a relative refractive index difference of 3% and an operating wavelength of 0.82 1 m; (6) An 8m core diameter single-mode fiber with a core refractive index the same as (a), a relative refractive index difference of 0.3% and an operating wavelength 1.55. m. Estimate the critical radius of curvature at which large bending losses occur in both cases. Solution (a) The relative refractive index difference is given by ont Hence: nk =n - 2 A nj = 2.250 - 0.06 x 2.250 = 2.115 The Multimode fiber critical radius of curvature: ang a .82 x 1078 poeta __ 8 2.250%082 10" ag oum 4n(nj- nay 4nx (0.135)2 (b) The relative refractive index difference is given by nda} 2n?2.16. Communication and. n3 =n 2A n? = 2.250 - (0.06 x 2.250) = 2.237 The cutoff wavelength for the single-mode fiber is given by 1 _2 many (2 Az ~ 2.405 _ 2x 4x 107% x 1.500 (0.06) - 2.405 Substituting Equ 2.15 for the critical radius of curvature for the single-mode fiber gives; =1214pm 6 -6 Reg = ZOXLSSXIOTE| 9 74g _ 09.996 x Lbs ean 1.214610 (0.043)2 -3 } = 3d4nm 2.10 MID-INFRARED AND. FAR-INFRARED. TRANSMISSION In the near-infrared region of the optical spectrum, fundamental, silica fiber/attenuation is dominated by Rayleigh scattering and multiphonon absorption from the infrared absorption edge. Therefore, the total loss decreases as the operational transmission wavelength increases until a crossover point is reached around a wavelength of 1.55 4m where the total fiber loss again increases. because at longer wavelengths the loss is dominated by the phonon absorption edge. Since the near fundamental attenuation limits for near-infrared silica class fibers have been achieved, more recently researchers have turned their attention to the mid-infrared (2 to 5 1 m) and the far-infrared (8 to 12 4 m) optical wavelengths. In order to obtain lower loss fibers it is necessary to produce glasses exhibiting longer infrared cutoff wavelengths. Potentially, much lower losses can be achieved if the transmission window of the material can be extended further into the infrared by utilizing constituent atoms of higher atomic mass and if it can be drawn into fiber exhibiting suitable strength and chemical durability. The reason for this possible loss reduction is due to Rayleigh scattering which displays a 2-4 dependence and hence becomes much reduced as the wavelength is inereased. For example, the scattering loss is reduced by a factor of 16 when the optical wavelength is doubled. Thus it may be possible to obtain losses of the order of 0.01dB km”! at a wavelength of 2.55 41m, with even lower losses at wavelengths of between 3 and 5m Candidate glass-forming systems for mid-infrared transmission are Fluoride, Fluoridechloride, Chaleogenide and oxide. In particular, oxide glasses such a8 7‘Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers 217 Algo offer a near equivalent transmittance range to many of the Fluoride glasses and have benefits of high melting points, chemical inertness, and the ability to be readily melted and grown in air. Chalcogenide glasses, which generally comprise one or more elements Ge, Si, As and Sb, are capable of optical transmission in both the mid-infrared and far-infrared regions. A typical chalcogenide fiber glass is therefore Arsenide trisulfide (ASS). However, research activities into far-infrared transmission using Chaleogenide glasses, Halide glasses, Polycrystalline halide fibers (e.g. silver and Thallium) and hollow glass waveguides are primarily concerned with radiometry, infrared imaging, optical wireless, optical sensing and optical power transmission rather than telecommunications. Research activities into ultra-low-loss fibers for long-haul repeaterless communications in the 1980s and early 1990s centered on the Fluorozirconates, with Zirconium Fluoride (ZrF,) as the major constituent, and Fluorides of Barium, Lanthanum, Aluminum, Gadolinium, Sodium, Lithium and occasionally lead added as modifiers and stabilizers, Such alkali additives improve the glass stability and working characteristics. Moreover, the two most popular heavy metal Fluoride glasses for fabrication into fiber are Fluorozirconate and Fluoroaluminate glasses. Extensive work has been undertaken on a common Fluorozirconate system comprising ZrF4-BaF,-LaF3-AlF,-NaF which forms ZBLAN, while an important Fluoroaluminate comprises AIF; -ZrF, - BaF ~ CaF - YF. Although ZBLAN can theoretically provide for the lowest transmission losses over the mid-infrared wavelength region, it has a significantly lower glass transition (melting) temperature than the Fluoroaluminate glass and is therefore less durable when subject to both thermal and mechanical perturbations. The fabrication of low-loss, long-length Fluoride fibers presents a basic problem with reducing the extrinsic losses which remains to be resolved. In practice, however, the most critical and difficult problems are associated with the minimization of the scattering losses resulting from extrinsic factors: such as defects, waveguide imperfections and radiation caused by mechanical deformation. The estimated losses of around 0.01 dBkm™! at a wavelength of 2.5541m for ZrF, based fibers are derived from an extrapolation of the intrinsic losses due to ultraviolet and infrared absorptions together with Rayleigh scattering. Moreover, refinements of scattering loss have increased this loss value slightly to 0.024dBkm™! which is still around eight times lower than that of a silica fiber. Nevertheless, practical fiber losses remain much higher, as may be observed from the attenuation spectra for the common mid- and far-infrared fibers shown in Figure 2.7 which the Fluoride fiber (ZBLAN) is exhibiting a loss of several decibels per kilometer.——— 4B m? Fluoride glass 0.01 or) 2 4 6 8 10) 12 140-16 Wavelength (jim) Fig. 2.7 Attenuation spectra for some common mid- and far-infrared fibers The loss spectrum for a single-crystal Sapphire fiber which also transmits in the mid-infrared is also shown in Fig. Although they have robust physical properties, including a Young’s modulus six times greater as well as a thermal expansion some ten times higher than that of silica, these fibers lend themselves to optical power delivery applications, not specifically optical communications. Chalcogenide glasses which have their lowest losses over both the mid- and far-infrared ranges are very stable, durable and insensitive to moisture. Arsenic Trisulfide fiber, being one of the simplest, has a spectral range from''0:7 to around Gum. Hence it has a cut. off at long wavelength significantly before the Chaleogenide fibers containing heavier elements such as Te, Ge and Se, an attenuation spectrum for the latter being incorporated in Fig (2.7). In general, Chaleogenide glass fibers have proved to be useful in areas such as optical sensing, infrared imaging and for the production of fiber infrared lasers and amplifiers. The loss spectrum, for the Polycrystalline fiber AgBrCl is also displayed in Fig (2.7), Although these fibers are transmissive over the entire far-infrared wavelength region and they were initially considered to hold significant potential as ultra-low-loss fibers because their intrinsic losses were estimated to be around 10-84Bm"1, they are mechanically weak in comparison with silica fibers. In addition, the estimated low losses are far from being achieved, with experimental loss values being not even close to the predicted minimum as can be ‘observed in Fig 2.7. Furthermore, Polycrystalline fibers plastically deform resulting” increased transmission loss well before they fracture. an Seoi in. Optical Fibers 2.19 Finally, a hollow glass waveguide spectral characteristic is also shown in Fig (2.7). This hollow glass tube with a 530 jm bore was designed for optimum response at @ transmission wavelength of 104m. Such hollow glass waveguides have been successfully employed for infrared laser power delivery at both 2.94m (Er:YAG laser) and 10.6 1m (CO, laser). In summary, the remaining limitations of high loss (in comparison with theory) and low strength have inhibited the prospect of long-distance mid- or far-infrared transmission for communications for even the most promising Fluoride fibers, while a range of alternative nontelecommunications applications for the various fiber and waveguide types have been developed. 2.11 CORE AND CLADDING LOSSES The core and cladding have different refractive indices because they are having different composition. Therefore core and cladding have different attenuation coefficient denoted 0 and a2 respectively. 2.11.1 Step index fiber For step index fiber, the loss for a mode of order (v, m) is given by (v, m) = Pe 4 gy Pend : P F --(2.16) Peore Pi Where ~2%°, —24 are fractional power. For lower order modes, we know that Prore _ , _Pelad ee P P --(2.17) Substituting Eqn (2.17) in Eqn (2.16) Batt (oe em =o +( 08 (2.18) The total loss of the waveguide can be found by summing all over weighted by the fractional power in that mode. 2.11.2 Graded Index Fiber The attenuation co-efficient and modal powers are functions of radial co-ordinates. Loss at radial distance r from core-axis is expressed as2.20 tical Communication and Network! 2 (0) = 0? (r ni ate) 01 -( 4-1 206) - wo(219) Where o, and y are the axial and cladding attenuation coefficient respectively. 1 a 2 ml 1-26(£) | trosrse n= i 1 2 m (1-24) =ny(1-A)~ 1g forrza (2.20) Where o: defines the shape of the index profile. The loss at a particular mode is given by J amPor-a 0 Ogi = J Pwrar 0 (2.21) Where p(r) is the power density of that mode at distance r. 2.12 DISPERSION Dispersion means pulse broadening in optical fiber. ® Phase velocity vp = eB wA2,22) do Group velocity vg = So Fn GB (2.28) L Group delay wy 8 w(2.24) There are many spectral components associated with light pulse. Each spectral component is traveling with different wavelength. Because of this, a delay will be experienced between two spectral components at the receiving end of thefiber. This delay is called group delay and the corresponding velocity is called group velocity. Dispersion arises due to group velocity and group delay. 2.12.1 Dispersion Parameter i LL Group delay = 5-= 55 ap (2.25) =p. 9B whoo (2.26) Where L - length of fiber (2.27) (2,28) Delay difference per unit wavelength is given by dy _a/-Lap| dh dhl 2nCaa | =- 4 | 248 anCda| arae tons Commmunteation ent Netwrrting =-~ [wfgeangh| “2n0|" ar? (2.28) Dispersion in dve tothe fiat term 2228, The frat term io Kept a» iti and the second term is negligible. (2.30) The rms pulse width broadening is given by the following expression car da |™ ee (2.81) Where «, spectral width of the light souree ~gta[ 8] 2anC|" daz 2a? aw Og= o — 2x0 % +-(2.82) ea? B Dispersion parameter, D= ae pskm-nm (2.33), D=Dyaterial + Dwaveguide 2.84) ‘This dispersion is called Intra modal dispersion. Algorithm 1. Bring the relationship between group delay and group velocity. . Find ty by substituting © in equation 2.26.and simplify. 8. Calculate delay difference per unit wavelength (differentiate t, wrt )) | y 4. Write the rms pulse width broadening equation and substitute “. 5. The value of dispersion parameter is found.‘Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers. 223 2.12.2 Types of Dispersion The dispersion effect can be explained on the basis behavior of group velocities of the guided modes in the optical fiber. Intramodal dispersion Intermodal Dispersion 1. Material Dispersion ‘2, Waveguide Dispersion 2.12.3 Chromatic Dispersion Chromatic or intramodal dispersion may occur in all types of fiber and results from the finite spectral linewidth of the optical source. Since optical sources do not emit just a single frequency but a band of frequencies (in case of the injection laser corresponding to only a fraction of percent the center frequency, whereas for the LED it is likely to be a significant percentage), then there may be propagation delay differences between the different spectral components of the transmitted signal. This causes broadening of each transmitted mode and hence intramodal dispersion. The delay differences may be caused by the dispersive properties of the waveguide material (material dispersion) and also guidance effects within the fiber structure (waveguide dispersion). 2.12.4 Material dispersion Material dispersion is due to the variation of refractive index of the medium as it is a function of A. In dispersion medium, n is function of A. The propagation constant, p= 222 for dispersion medium. __ Ld Group delay, ty = anCda Group delay due to material dispersion is -?L d [2nnQ@ anC dhl 2X y= Tat ML an"-- 2b [seth +no[- v*]| __ ML dn) 4-1 = (4 209m QA *| L{_, dna g[-»4 dn +n] _L[_,dn@ [ ry +n Tmat = onl 2.35) Delay difference between spectral components per unit wavelength is given dtmat stmrle[t88 4] di i af Pir) dma, dna | c {9 by a > u dn di ax %(tmat )= aw ‘The rms pulse width broadening is given by mo) | d tat dd Omat op 2.96) Where o, spectral, width of the light source. - fn OL 1 Cc dn OD x ?nel “6 ar (2.37) Material dispersion parameter, Pm [EEO ae Joa” (2.38)‘Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers 2.25 Material dispersion can be reduced by using () Narrow spectral width light source like laser. Typically for multimode laser diode the spectral width is around (1-2) nm and for single mode laser diode, spectral width is around 107? nm. (ii) Longer wavelength operation, since refractive index variation is small or negligible. 2.12.5 Waveguide dispersion 1, Waveguide dispersion is due to variation of group velocity as a function of wavelength for a particular mode. . The effect of waveguide dispersion on pulse spreading can be approximated by assuming that the refractive index of the material is independent of wavelength. . The group-delay that is, the time required for a mode to travel along a fiber of length L. . The group delay can be expressed in terms of the normalized prorogation constant ‘b’ defined as 2 Bo 2 Aina +(2.39) (my — 79) . For small values of the index difference 4=— Eqn (2.39) can be 1 approximated by b = b= ay mena bAng=B—np B-kng k bAng=22 tnt Communication and Networiing B=kbAngtkng B=kng(bA+1) A240) Hence assume that ng is not a function of A. Differentiate Eqn (2.40) w.r-t ‘h d ap =ng(1+b A) ft eeopa bicsea ABAD) The group delay ty, arising from waveguide dispersion is LdB oe" C dk wv 2,42) Substitute Eqn (2.41) in Eqn (2.42) L d (kb) ‘us| moms ak | (2.43) The normalized frequency V is given by 1 V=ha (nf - nh P ~ hang V2K (n=) ‘The approximation of v is valid for small values of A to write the group delay in Eqn (2.43) in terms of V instead of k, L d sean mae] wn(2.44) The first term in Eqn: (2.44) is a constant and the second term ts the group delay arising from waveguide dispersion. earce The waveguide parameter b and its derivatives d(Vb)/dV and vd?(Vb)/dV? plotted as a function of the V number for the HE}, mode is shown in Fig (2.8)Vaumber Fig. 2.8 Plot Vd*(VbydV" & d (VbydV against V Pulse broadening due to waveguide dispersion is given by, dwg -1. 4-4 one dx. {%. Pek om (2.45) Waveguide dispersion parameter ng A[ vd? (Vb) | on Dug= VV) | 6 ken tne = ee av? (2.46) RMS pulse broadening due to wave guide dispersion over distance L. Oug=L | Dug lo = p24] Ve? ve) Ue av |% (es) an rms spectral width of 0) = 20 mm. Material dispersion parameter,2.28 ‘Communication and . 0.055 3 x 10° (km/s) x 850 x (nm) = 2.15684 x 10" 1° = 215.68 x 107? skm™ ‘nm * Dynat = 215.68 pskim 'nm”* Rms Source spectral width =o, =20nm Rms pulse broadening, mat =L- | Prat |“ = 1km(215.68) pskkm~ !nm7! x 20 (nm) =4,313.6 ps (or) Omat = 4.313 ns Example 2.7: A silica fiber has nz=1.48 & A=0.2% at V=2.4 and the 2 om is 0.26. Calculate wavelength dispersion at a wavelength value A= 1820 nm. -ng Al Vd? (V,) Dwe=-Cx | ave ___ = 1.48x 0,002 x 0.26 ‘3x 10° pm ‘nm@! x 1320 nm 8 0.07696 3.96 x 10!° Dug =~ 1.94 pskm” ‘nm?Signal Distortion in.Optical Fibers 229 2.12.6 Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD) The effects of fiber birefringence on the polarization states of an optical signal are another source of pulse broadening. This is particularly critical for high-raie long-haul transmission links (eg 10 and 40 Gb/s over tens of kilometers). Birefringence can result from intrinsic factors such as geometric irregularities of the fiber core or internal stresses on it. Deviations of less than 1% in the circularity of the core can already have a noticeable effect in a high speed light wave systems. In addition, external factors, such as bending, twisting, or pinching of the fiber, can also lead to birefringence. Since all these mechanisms exist to some extent in any field-installed fiber there will be a varying birefringence along its length. A fundamental property of an optical signal is its polarization state. Polarization refers to the electric-field orientation of light signal, which can vary significantly along the length of the fiber. As shown in below Fig (2.9), signal energy at a given wavelength occupies two orthogonal polarization modes. A varying birefringence along its length will cause each polarization more to travel at a slightly different velocity. The resulting different in propagation times Atpyp between the two orthogonal polarization modes will result in pulse spreading. This is called polarization-mode dispersion (PMD). If the group velocities of the two orthogonal polarization modes are vg, and vg, then the differential time delay Atpyp between the polarization components during propagation of the pulse over a distance L is Atpmp «-(2.48) An important point to note is that, in contrast to chromatic dispersion, which is a relatively stable phenomenon along a fiber, PMD varies randomly along a fiber. A principle reason for this is that the perturbations causing the birefringence effects vary with temperature and stress dynamics. In practice, the effect of this perturbations shows up as.a random, time varying fluctuation in the value of the PMD at the fiber output. Thus A tpygp cannot be used directly to estimate PMD. Instead statistical estimations are needed to account for its effects. ‘A useful means of characterized PMD for long fiber lengths is in terms of the mean value of the differential group delay. This can be calculated according to the relationship where Dpyp which is measured in ps/Vkm, is the average PMD parameter. Typical values of Dpyp range from 0.05 to 1.0 ps//km. As an example, one experiment measured values of PMD for three types of cable installations that were subjected to different environments. The setups were a 36-km over a 12 to 15-h period, the average PMD parameters were measured to230 ptt Communication and Networking be 0.028, 0.29 and 1.28 ps/Vkm, respectively. The larger value of PMD for the aerial cable is caused by both gradual and rapid stress variations in the fiber due to temperature fluctuations or form sudden movements of the fiber due to wind. Fig. 29 Differences in the polarisation-mode propagation times as an optical pulse passes through a fiber with varying birefringence along its length. To keep the probability of errors due to PMD low, a standard limit on the maximum tolerable value of A tpyp ranges between 10 to 20 percent of a bit duration, Thus Atpyp should be no more than 10 to 20 ps for 10-Gb/s data rates and 3 ps at 40 Gtvs. for example, taking the lower tolerance limit, this means that for a 10-Gb/s link which has 20 spans of 80 km each, the PMD of the transmission fiber must be less than 0.2 psVkm. 2.13 INTERMODAL DISPERSION (OR) MODAL DELAY Fig. 2.10 Ray path in step index FiberSignal Distortion in Optical Fibers. 231 The paths taken by the axial and an extreme meridional ray in a perfect multimode step index fiber is shown in Fig (2.10). In Multimode fiber, many modes are propagating along fiber at a time. Different modes are taking different ray path and they reach at different time at the output end of the fiber. So, a time delay is experienced between modes. This is called intermodal delay and pulse broadening occurs due to intermodal delay is called intermodal dispersion. The time required for axial ray to travel over fiber is given by, 7, «distance 'min= velocity distance =L Velocity = & ny ml Cc w(2.49) In A abe, Apply snell’s law at core-clad interface, A na sin = We know % = 90-8 [from Fig 2.10] . _ ne sin (90° - 6) => m (2.50) From Aabe Consider small length ab =A L. e=Z Lt Ave cos O= 5\ 232 tion and” r L distance d= ae +(2.51) ‘The time required for meridional ray to travel over the fiber is given by distance Tmax = Velocity ++(2.52) Time delay between meridional and axial ray at the output end of ‘iber is given by, B7.= Tmax ~ Tin (2.58) 5 . ny We know that index difference Kane \Distortion in. Fibers. 2.33 2 Lni 2 8T= Gi, la= = = 1.7 Mbit"! 20 287, 00x 10-® : Alternatively an improved estimate may be obtained using the calculated rms pulse broadening 0.2 0.2 By (max) = —= = ——""~_. ” % 86.7x10°® (d) Using the most accurate estimate of the maximum bit rate from (c), and assuming return to zero pulses, the bandwidth-length product is Bop, x L = 2.3 MHz x 6 km = 13.8 MHzkm 2.14 OVERALL FIBER DISPERSION The overall dispersion in multimode fibers comprises both chromatic and intermodal terms. The total rms pulse broadening or is given by: 1 or=(oe+o5 y (2.58) Where o, is the intramodal or chromatic broadening and a, is the intermodal broadening caused by delay differences between the modes (i.e. 6, for multimode step index fiber and cy for multimode graded index fiber). The chromatic term 6, consists of pulse broadening dué to both material and waveguide dispersion. However, since waveguide dispersion is generally negligible compared with material dispersion in multimode fibers, then 0, = Gm. = 2.3 Mbits” + Example 2.9: A multimode step index fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.3 and a core refractive index of 1.45. The material dispersion parameter for the fiber is 250 psnm='km~1 which makes material dispersion the totally dominating chromatic dispersion mechanism. Estimate (a) the total rms pulse broadening per kilometer when the fiber is used with an LED source of rms spectral width 50 nm and (b) the corresponding bandwidth; length product for the fiber.28 ptoat Communication and Networking Solution (a) The rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion may be obtained from oy LA c @n, dv ym(1km) = oH LM =60x 1250 pekm ? = 12.5 nek * ‘The rms pulse broadening Per kilometer due to intermodal dispersion for the step index fibers is given by Lay _ 10° x 09 4V8n4C 4VB x 1.45 x 2.998% 10° The total rms pulse broadening per kilometer may be obtained using Equation where 6,~O;,. As the waveguide dispersion is negligible and o, = 0, for the multimode step index fiber. Hence 6, (1 km) = = 29.9 nskm™* or=(oh+ef P-(s25?+mn9? F324 nck? (b) The bandwidth length product may be estimated from the relationship given by. 2.15 SINGLE-MODE FIBERS ‘The pulse broadening in single-mode ‘fibers results almost -entirely from chromatic or intramodal dispersion only a single-mode is allowed to propagate. Hence the bandwidth is limited by the finite spectral width of the source. Unlike the situation in multimode fibers, the mechanisms giving chromatic dispersion in single-mode fibers tend to be interrelated in.a complex manner. The transit time or specific group delay ty for a light pulse propagating along a unit length of single-mode fiber may be-given, LER eh ae (258) where C is the velocity of light in a vacuum, B isthe -propagation constant . for a mode within the fiber core of refractive, index n, and K is the propagation constant for the-mode in-a vacuum.‘Signal Distortion in Optical flbers nar The total first-order dispersion parameter or the chromatic dispersion of a single-mode fiber, Dr is given by the derivative of the specific group delay with respect to the vacuum wavelength A as dy, Dp=—* da +-(2.60) In common with the material dispersion parameter it is usually expressed in units of psam”'km™! . When the variable A is replaced by w, then the total dispersion parameter becomes a 4, 2 Dp=- 254-9 FB Ado” dda’ (2.61) The fiber exhibits intramodal dispersion when f varies nonlinearly with wavelength . B may be expressed in terms of the relative refractive index difference A and the normalized propagation constant ‘8’ as 1 B=kn,[1-2a0-b) P (2.62) The rms pulse broadening caused by chromatic dispersion down a fiber of length L is given by the derivative of the group delay with respect to wavelength as | dt, Total rms pulse broadening =o, L | a. _ Lan ap 0 ak? (2.68) Where o, is the source rms spectral linewidth centered at a wavelength When Eqn (2.58) is substituted into Eqn (2.59), detailed calculation of the first and second derivatives with respect to k gives the dependence of the pulse broadening on the fiber material's properties and the normalized propagation constant 5. This gives rise to three interrelated effects which involve complicated cross-product terms. However, the final expression may be separated into three composite dispersion components in such a way that one of the effects dominates each term. The dominating effects are as follows: . 1.. The material dispersion parameter Dy defined by 4/C | d?n/d 2? | where n=ny or ng for the core or cladding respectively.20 ptat Communication and Networking 2. The waveguide dispersion parameter D,,, which may be obtained from Eqn (2.61) by substitution Tg is defined as: n-ne). d? wb) bw=-[ x0 \v av? (2.64) where V is the normalized frequency for the fiber. Since the normalized propagation constant 5 for a specific fiber is only dependent on V, then the normalized waveguide dispersion coefficient Vd2(Vb)/dV° also depends on V. This latter function is another universal parameter which plays a central role in the theory of singlemode fibers. ; da 3, A profile dispersion parameter D, which is proportional to 77: This situation is different from multimode fibers where the majority of modes propagate far from cutoff and hence most of the power is transmitted in, the fiber core. In the multimode case the composite dispersion components may be simplified and separated into iwo chromatic terms which depend on either material or waveguide dispersion. Also, especially when considering step index multimode fibers, the effect of profile dispersion is negligible. Although material and waveguide dispersion tend to be dominant in single-mode fibers, the composite profile should not be ignored. However, the profile dispersion parameter Dp can be quite small (eg. less than 0.5 psnm™'km™), especially at long wavelengths, and hence is often neglected in rough estimates of total dispersion within single-mode fibers. Strictly speaking, in single-mode fiber with a power-law refractive index profile the composite dispersion terms should be employed. Nevertheless, it is useful to consider the total first-order dispersion Dy in a practical single-mode fiber as comprising: Drp= Dy + Dy + Dp (psnm= "cm" }) 085) Which is simply the addition of the material dispersion Dy, the a dispersion D,, and the profile dispersion Dp components. However, in standard single-mode fibers the total dispersion tends to be dominated by the material dispersion of fused silica, This parameter is shown plotted against wavelength in Fig (2.13). It may be observed that the characteristic goes through zero at @ wavelength of 1.274 m. This zero material dispersion (ZMD) point ean be shifted anywhere in the wavelength range 1.2 to 1.4m by the addition of suitable dopants. For instance, the ZMD point shifts from 1.27 4m to approximately‘Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers 239 1.87 4m as the GeO» dopant concentration is increased from 0 to 15%. However, the ZMD point alone does not represent a point of zero pulse broadening since the pulse dispersion is influenced by both waveguide and profile dispersion. With ZMD the pulse spreading is dictated by the waveguide dispersion coefficient Vd"Vb)/dV?, which is illustrated in Fig (2.12) as a function of normalized frequency for the LPo; mode. It may be seen that in the single-mode region where the normalized frequency is less than 2.405 the waveguide dispersion is always positive and has a maximum at V=1.15. In this case the waveguide dispersion goes to zero outside the true single-mode region at V=3.0. However, a change in the fiber parameters (such as core radius) or in the operating wavelength alters the normalized frequency and therefore the waveguide dispersion. Fig. 2.12 The waveguide parameter Vd*(VbydV? as a function of the normalized frequency V for the LPo, mode. The total fiber dispersion, which depends on both the fiber material composition and dimensions, may be minimized by trading off material and waveguide dispersion while limiting the profile dispersion (i.e. restricting the variation in refractive index with wavelength). For wavelengths longer than the ZMD point, the material dispersion parameter is positive whereas the waveguide dispersion parameter is negative, as shown in Fig (2.13). However, the total dispersion Dp is approximately equal to the sum of the material dispersion Dy and the waveguide dispersion D,, following Eqn. (2.64). Hence for a particular wavelength, designated Ao, which is slightly larger than the ZMD point wavelength, the waveguide dispersion compensates for the material dispersion and the total first order dispersion parameter Dp becomes zero. The wavelength atication_and_Networkir 1.58 | Commun! Short Question and Answers J 1. State Snell’s Law. ny sin o; = Ng sin bg sing; 22 singg M1 1= Incident angle g= Refracted angle n,= Refractive index of medium 1 ng= Refractive index of medium 2 2. State law of reflection ‘The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection ie 20; = 202 3. Define Refraction When light ray travels from medium 1 (air) to medium 2 (glass), bending of light ray may occur. This is called refraction, 4. What is critical angle? When we increase the incident angle with respect to normal, at some incident angle the dielectric of surface and 6 becomes 90° and such incident angle is called critical angle 5. What is total internal reflection? When a light ray is passing from medium 1 to medium 2 with its incident angle greater than critical angle ($, > 6,), the light ray is reflected back to medium - 1. There will not be any light transmission (refraction) in medium - ae called total internal reflection. eee 6. Define Numerical Aperture. Numerical aperture is a figure of merit which re i ; - presents light collecting capacity of the fibre. Its value ranges from 0 to 1. tis ean Numerical aperture for step index fibre can be calculated by the followin expression. a NA=\nj-nIntroduction to Optical Communication System 7. Define Acceptance angle. 1.59 Acceptance angle is the maximum angle with which the light ray may enter into the core to be propagated along the fibre. 8. Differentiate between Mono Mode Fibre and Multimode Fibre. S.No Mono Mode Fibre Multi Mode Fibre 1 Only one ray passes through fiber. More than one ray passes through fiber at a time. 2 |Ray passes along the axis-axial ray|MMSI - Meridional and Skew rays. MMGI - Paraxial rays 3 [Core diameter is small Core diameter is large (typically 10-12. m) (typically 50-200 pm) 4 |Intermoda! dispersion is not present|Intermodal dispersion is present 5 |Fabricating single mode fibre is|Fabricating multimode fibre is easy difficult | Coupling efficiency is less Coupling efficiency is large LED is not suitable source for single mode fiber LED is suitable for multimode fiber 9. What are the limitations of Optical Fibre Communication system? . Optical fibre is made up of glass because of the impurities present within the fibre it result in absorption which leads to loss of light in the Optical fibre. Maximum limitation of the bandwidth of the signals can be carried by the fibre due to spreading of pulse. + It is costly. . Optical fiber has limited bend radius (~ 10 mm) 10. Difference between Step Index fibre and Graded Index fibre. Skew ray S.No Step Index Fiber Graded Index Fiber 1 |The core has uniform refractive|The core has high refractive index index but step change injalong the axis which gradually core-cladding decreases towards the clad-core interface (radially decreases) 2 |Axial ray Paraxial ray in MMGI Meridonial ray } - MMSICommunication_and Networkin, Graded Index Fiber =] S.No Step Index Fiber | ie reduced | 3 [Intermodal dispersion is present in Intermodal dispersi' mm MMSI MMGI arene [Numerical Aperture is constant [Numerical Aperture 18 8 inction of radius 5 |Step index profile Graded index profile %- Profile factor 6 |Number of modes, M=V2/2. Step|Number of modes, M=V7/4 index supports twice the number of| modes than Graded Index Fiber. 7 Fabrication is easy Fabrication is difficult 11. What is Meridonial Ray? Meridonial ray is a ray which is passing through fibre axis. Meridonial rays are confined to the meridial planes of the fibre which are the planes that contain the axis of symmetry of the fibre (the core axis) 12, What are Skew Rays? ‘The rays which are not passing through the fibre axis and taking helical path during the propagation are called Skew rays. 13. What are Leaky Rays? The Leaky rays are only partially confined +o the core of the circular optical fibre and attenuate as the light travels along the optical waveguide. 14, Compare Ray Optics and Wave Optics. S.No Ray Optics Wave Optics 1 JL 2 It is used to represent the direction|| of light propagation It is used to study reflection and refraction of light 15, Define Mode. Mode is the pattern of distribution of electric and magnetic fields Transverse Electric Mode (TE) Transverse Magnetic Mode (TM) . . It is used to analyze mode theory It is used to analyze diffraction and Interference of light wavesIntroduction to Optical Communication System 4st 16. List out ways to minimize leaky modes. A mode remains guided as long as f satisfies the condition nak Refractive index of core and cladding K=2n/r B2n9K= To prevent power leaks out of the core. 17. Define Phase Velocity. Within all electromagnetic waves, whether plane: or otherwise, there are points of constant phase. For plane waves these constant phase points form a surface which is referred to as a wave front. As a monochromatic light wave propagates along a waveguide in the direction these points of constant phase travel at a phase velocity, v, 8 Where © is the angular frequency of the wave 18. Define Group velocity. The velocity with which the envelope of modulated wave propagation takes place in free space is called Group velocity It is related to phase velocity and free space velocity VpV,=C”, where C is velocity of light. 19. What are the three windows of Optical Communication? The three wave lengths 850 nm, 1300 nm and 1500 nm are three optical windows of optical communication system. Since only at this wavelength silica fibre loss is minimum. 20. What is meant by linearly Polarized mode? “ The field components HE, EH, TE, TM forms linearly polarized modes. ¢ Linearly polarized modes are labeled LP;,, where J and m are integers designation mode solutions.