The Physics of Fitness

Chapter Sixteen
“Cross-Education”
& the Benefit of Uni-lateral Exercise

“Cross-education” is a neurophysiological feature whereby an

adaptive exercise benefit crosses over to an untrained limb following
unilateral resistance exercise with the opposite, contralateral limb.
The crossover benefits, although only in small percentages, include
improvements in muscle strength, muscle size, muscle elasticity and
coordination.

Contralateral benefit caused by unilateral exercise proves that there

are neurological adaptations to resistance exercise, in addition to the
more obvious muscle growth caused by direct (Ipsilateral) resistance
exercise.

It also suggests that performing “uni-lateral” (independent limb)

exercise provides benefits beyond those achieved with “bi-
lateral” (two limbs sharing a single instrument) exercise.

- - - - - -
In 1894, Edward Wheeler Scripture (1864 - 1945) - an American psychologist, physician
and speech scientist - published a paper in the Yale Psychology Laboratory, called “On
the Education of Muscular Control and Power”, in which he revealed this interesting
phenomenon.

Dr. Scripture reviewed an earlier study conducted by a German scientist named Alfred
Wilhelm Volkmann (1801 - 1877). In that study, Volkmann had demonstrated that touch
sensitivity would improve over time, with repeated training of one hand. But, more
importantly, he demonstrated that the untrained hand also improved its touch
sensitivity, although to a lesser degree.

1
Curious about this interesting “cross-over” improvement of touch sensitivity training, and
aware of other studies demonstrating increases of strength with repeated exposure to
exercise, Dr. Scripture conducted his own study, to see if these two types of benefits
could be combined.

He had two people perform two different unilateral (single arm) exercises - one
designed to improve strength and the other designed to improve skill (accuracy with
speed). The person performing the strength training increased her strength in the
trained arm by 70%, but also in the UN-trained arm by 40%. The person performing the
skill training improved her dexterity in the trained arm by 45%, but also in the UN-
trained arm by 25%. These were the degrees of benefit he reported, although
subsequent studies have found differing degrees of cross-over benefits.

In a 2007 article by authors Michael Lee and Timothy J. Carroll called “Cross Eduction:
Possible Mechanisms for Contralateral Effects of Unilateral Resistance Training”, a 35%
strength improvement in the Ipsilateral (trained) limb, and a 7.8% (average) strength
improvement to the untrained limb, was reported. (1)

A study conducted in 1997 investigated the concept of “cross-eduction”, in which the

strength level of both (right and left) Quadriceps of volunteers was measured before the
experiment. Then, a 12-week program of progressive resistance exercise was
performed, using only the left leg. At the conclusion of the 12 weeks, the authors
reported a “significant” strength increase in the un-exercised (right) Quadriceps of the
volunteers. ( 2 )

Two other studies, published in The Journal of Exercise Science and Fitness, reported
strength gains un-trained limbs that ranged between 5% and 15% of those achieved in
the trained limbs, depending on which limb was “dominant”. Cross Education is typically
more pronounced when the dominant limb is the one that’s doing the uni-lateral
exercise. ( 3 )

In addition to strength increases transferring from one limb to the contralateral limb of
the opposite side, one study found there is also a crossover enhancement of
endurance. That study demonstrated that there was enhanced activation of the genes
that support endurance, in the untrained contralateral limb, for several days after
exercising the opposing Ipsilateral limb. ( 4 )

“Cross Education” sometimes goes by another name - “Neural Integration of Interlimb

Coordination”. This is the name used by researchers Howard and Enoka in their study,
and makes more clear the apparent neurological connection between uni-lateral
exercise, and coordination / skill learning. ( 5 )

Most of the research has been on the “contralateral” benefit (from one SIDE of the body
to the other side of the body, in the opposing limb). However, it appears there may also
be some cross-over benefit from UPPER BODY to LOWER BODY, and vice versa. This

2
suggests a “systemic” benefit. This was reported by the authors of a June 2105 in the
“Journal of Sports Science and Medicine”. ( 6 )

Of course, the amount of benefit an un-exercised (contralateral) muscle receives will

always be significantly less than that which is received by the directly exercised
(Ipsilateral) muscle. But even a 5% benefit is extremely interesting and very useful, and
several studies report a much greater percentage of cross over benefit.

- - - - - -
Mechanism
Researchers are not entirely sure of the mechanism, but it’s clear that “cross-education”
involves the brain and central nervous system. It’s well-documented that there is a
neurological component in all resistance exercise, but especially in unilateral exercise.
Below are the two possible hypothesis by which scientists believe this phenomenon
might occur.

In a June 2105 article in “Arbeitsphysiologie” (European Journal of Applied Physiology)

entitled, “Ipsilateral resistance exercise prevents exercise-induced central sensitization
in the contralateral limb: a randomized controlled trial”, the author described two
potential neural mechanisms for how “cross education” occurs. The illustrations above
accompanied the article.

Unless you are planning a career in neurobiology, you do not need to be overly
concerned with how “cross education” works. However, as a person pursuing optimal
results in resistance exercise, and possibly a Personal Trainer, you do need to

3
understand that “cross education” happens - that there is a percentage of cross-over
benefit that is transmitted to a limb, when its contralateral limb performs unilateral
exercise.

According to evolutionary biologists, every aspect of our design stems from an

evolutionary need for survival. Over millennia, our survival has relied on our ability to
adapt to environmental conditions. Cross-education seems likely to have evolved as an
evolutionary aid for survival.

There is no doubt that symmetrical functionality is better than one-sided functionality,

and this would bolster the argument that evolutionary survival was the reason for its
development. It also gives support to the theory that humans (subconsciously) find
other humans “attractive” largely on the basis of visible symmetry. People who are
visibly symmetrical are probably more functionally symmetrical, and that would translate
to a person being better able to to survive, to provide shelter and food, and to pass on
those genes.

This might also explain the discrepancy, in terms of the differing percentages of cross-
over benefits observed by the researchers who conducted the various studies. It’s
possible that the people who experienced a greater percentage of cross-over benefit,
were those who were more genetically inclined for survival - more robust. Those who
are less genetically inclined to adapt to challenging situations may be the ones who
experienced a lesser percentage of cross-over benefit. However, it seems everyone
experiences a degree of contralateral benefit from unilateral exercise.

- - - - - -
Applications of Cross-Education
The most obvious application of this principle, in modern society, would be the
rehabilitation of an injured limb, or in case of a stroke. After a limb injury or a stroke, a
person might be inclined to stop exercising altogether. However, the better option is to
continue - or even start - exercising all the limbs and muscles that are not injured or
otherwise disabled.

A person can reasonably expect to get some degree of benefit in a disabled limb, by
exercising the opposite, “still-fully-functional” limb. Also, exercising the healthy limbs will
improve one’s systemic health, and also one’s psychological well-being.

Some people worry that if they continue exercising the stronger limb, while the injured /
immobilized limb performs no exercise, the stronger limb will get so far ahead of the
disabled limb, that the disabled limb will never catch up. This is inaccurate.

4
The limb that is stronger will not continue getting stronger and stronger, endlessly. It
will reach a genetically determined plateau, at which point its progress will either slow
considerably, or stop entirely. When the weaker side resumes exercising, its progress
will be much faster than normal, because it has more strength potential ahead. From
that point forward, it’s only a matter of time before the two limbs return to the pre-injury
difference. There’s always some degree of difference between opposing limbs, even if
an injury has never occurred.

The size and strength of an injured limb eventually returns to the size and strength it
had before the injury, once regular exercise resumes. This assumes the healing or
surgical repair was successful. I have proven this myself.

I tore my left Biceps tendon in 1998 (not in the gym, by the way), and had it surgically
repaired (photo, below-left). I was not able to use my left arm at all, for approximately
six weeks following the surgery. I was instructed to keep it immobilized, in a sling.
During that time, I continued working my right arm as normal. I also exercised all the
other muscle groups, to the degree that I could - all while having my left arm in a sling.

After the initial six weeks, I was able to begin exercising my left arm with very light
weight. I started doing left-Biceps Curls with a one pound weight, and even that was
painful. However, I soon progressed to 3 pounds, then 5 pounds, and so on. Within six
months, my left arm had returned to approximately 90% of its normal size and strength.
Within a year, it was impossible to see any difference whatsoever between my two
arms. 18 months after the injury, I was competing again (photo, below-right).

5
 Compensation for a Weaker Side

All people have some degree of imbalance of muscular size, strength and shape, from
one side to the other. Curiously, it’s not always the dominant side that’s stronger or
larger.

It’s also not consistent either. In other words, it is usually not the entire right side - or
entirely the left side - that is larger and stronger. We might have a stronger left Biceps,
but a stronger right Triceps. Also, if one has had a previous injury, there may be a
slight, but permanent, weakness in the muscle of that particular side.

The good news is that - with Cross Education - we can be confident that some of the
benefits from the stronger side will cross over to the weaker side. In fact, the research
suggests that the percentage of contralateral benefit is usually greater to the weaker
limb, when it’s the stronger limb doing the work. That would make sense, of course,
given the apparent tendency of the human body to seek symmetry.

This allows us to use whatever weight is manageable for each side, even if we must use
a lighter weight on the weaker side. This is advisable, in fact. It would not be wise to
use a weight that is “too heavy” for the weaker side, simply because that is the weight
we’re able to use on the stronger side. We tend to do that, because we’re afraid we’ll
perpetuate or exacerbate the asymmetry. However, that ignores the benefit of “cross
education”. Further, using a weight that is too heavy for the weaker side will encourage
bad form, which increases the risk of injury.

Defining “Unilateral”

The studies that have been done in regard to Cross Education demonstrate that
performing an exercise with one limb - independent from the opposite limb - has a
benefit beyond that which is only gained by the working limb.

If we are able to get a 5% to 10% cross-over “bonus benefit” to the opposing limb, by
working its contralateral limb independently - when we’re injured - it is likely that we get
a similar cross-over benefit when we’re not injured. The degree of benefit might be
less, simply because there would be less asymmetry for which to compensate. But it’s
reasonable to assume that there is some degree of cross-over benefit any time
unilateral exercise is performed. But what exactly is “unilateral”?

The Cross-Education studies that were done involved the use of only one limb,
because the point of the study was to measure the benefit that could be achieved by the
inactive limb. In those studies, this was typically referred to as “unilateral” exercise.

The fitness industry, however, has defined “uni-lateral exercise" as “one limb working
at a time”. This is not quite an accurate description, because the issue is not “timing” -
but rather “independence”.

6
The reason “unilateral” exercise has extra value is because that limb is working
“independently”. If we perform a dumbbell curl with the right arm, it is working
independently, even if the left arm is also curling a dumbbell at the same time.

The term “unilateral” should be equated with “independence”, instead of with “timing”.
All exercises, during which a limb is working independently, could (and should) be called
“unilateral”. Two dumbbells, being curled simultaneously, would still be “unilateral”.

Consider the two bicycle riders, riding side-by-side, in the photo below-left. Their paths
and speed coincide, but each is working separately. This would be like two arms curling
separate weights, simultaneously.

Now consider the two bicyclists riding “tandem”, in the photo above-right. They are
sharing the same instrument, so they are sharing participation in the movement of that
singular instrument. Neither person is solely responsible for the movement of that
instrument, and each rider’s actions affects the other rider, to a degree. They are not
working independently. This would be like a person using two arms, both of which are
contributing to the movement of a single barbell.

The term “bi-lateral” has traditionally been used to describe an exercise where a
person is using two arms simultaneously, even if each arm is using its own separate
weight. However, the term “bilateral” should not be used to broadly describe “both arms
working simultaneously”, because it does not stipulate whether the arms are working
independently of each other (e.g., two dumbbells), or are sharing an instrument (e.g.,
one barbell).

7
A Standing Barbell Curl (below left) does not have the exact same mechanical /
neurological effect on the Biceps, as does a Standing two-arm Dumbbell Curl (below
right). Therefore, they should not BOTH be called “bi-lateral”. The “Cross Education”
studies prove that there is an added benefit to having the limbs work independently.
Therefore, the description of an exercise needs to identify whether the limbs are
working independently or not.

“Bi-lateral” should be defined as “Both limbs contributing to the movement of a singular

instrument”.

“Uni-lateral” should be defined as “A limb working independent of its opposing limb,

regardless of the timing of the two limbs”.

“Unilateral” (independent limb) exercise can be performed three ways:

Isolated Unilateral Exercise: Only one limb working

Alternating Unilateral Exercise: Two limbs working alternately (left, right, left, right)

Simultaneous Unilateral Exercise: Two limbs working simultaneously and

independently.

All three types of unilateral exercise share in common the fact that the limbs are working
independently of the other. The only difference is timing.

8
 - - - - - -
When To Use Which
There are circumstances (exercises) during which each of the above versions of
“Unilateral” is ideal. Sometimes this has to do with exercise stability, while other times
is has more to do with “bi-lateral deficit”. Other times has to do with “uni-directional
focus”.

For example, in the exercise below, I am doing a “One Arm Side Cable Raise”. This is
an excellent exercise, and the best way of performing it is using one arm at a time -
“Isolated Unilateral”- performing all the reps of the set with the one arm, and then
switching to the other arm.

There are two reasons why it’s best to perform this exercise this way. First, it would be
difficult to set up two pulleys at this exact height, but in opposing directions. Although it
could arranged, the cable handles would collide in the middle, which would make it
cumbersome. The more important reason, however, is because it’s BETTER to focus
ALL of one’s attention on producing movement toward the right side, or movement
toward the left side - rather than trying to divide one’s focus on producing movement in
two opposite directions. This will be more fully explained, shortly.

In the exercise below - “Standing Alternate Cable Curls” - I am using both arms,
alternately but independently. This type of unilateral exercise would be considered an
“Alternating Unilateral” exercise. There are two reasons why this would be best way
of doing an exercise like this (also includes Alternating Dumbbell Curls).

9
Curling one arm at a time loads the lower back 50% less than would curling both arms
simultaneously. Of course, this matters more when the weight being used is very heavy.
The more important reason, however, is because of “bi-lateral deficit”. This is a
neurobiological phenomenon which allows more weight to be lifted by using one limb at
a time, versus two arms at a time (i.e., more than 50% of the total load with each arm
when working alternately, as compared with two arms working simultaneously). This is
explained in greater detail below.

The exercise below - Decline Dumbbell Press - would be classified as a “Simultaneous

Unilateral” exercise. Each arm is working independently, but at the same time as the
other arm. In this case, the advantage of using both arms simultaneously is better
stability. As we saw in the previous chapter, using only one arm at a time (especially
when using a heavy weight) would pull the user over to one side. Using both arms
simultaneously provides stability. Yet each arm is still working independently, so the
cross-over (contra-lateral / neurological) benefit is not lost. Dumbbells also have the
advantage of better range of motion, as compared with using a barbell.

10
In all three of the exercises above, I am doing a different version of a Unilateral
Exercise. In all three cases, the arms are working independently of each other. The
only difference between the three, is the timing between the repetitions. In the first
exercise, I perform all the repetitions with one arm, and then all the repetitions with the
other arm. In the second exercise, the timing is “left / right / left / right” (alternating). In
the third exercise, the timing is simultaneous.

There are numerous other exercises where each of these types of “uni-lateral”
repetitions are best applied, and the same logic would be applied in all cases. The goal
is to seek stability, to use proper form, to avoid straining areas that are not the target
(muscles and joints), to optimize your ability to focus on the task at hand, and to benefit
from “bi-lateral deficit” or “in-directional focus” when applicable. Whenever it is practical
to do so, try to allow the limbs to work independently.

- - - - - -
“Uni-Directional Focus”

With most skeletal muscles, the direction of movement produced by the muscle on the
LEFT side of the body, is the same as the direction of movement produced by that
muscle on the RIGHT side of the body. For example, the left and the right Biceps BOTH
produce movement in the same direction - “forward / upward”. The left and the right
Triceps BOTH produce movement that is “forward / downward”. This is also true of the
Quadriceps and Hamstrings. This is because these muscles are facing the same side
of our body. For example, the Biceps are both facing the front, and the Triceps are both
facing the rear.

11
However, there are a few skeletal muscles which face opposite sides of the body, and
produce movement in opposite directions. For example, the right Lateral Deltoid faces
toward the right, and the left Lateral Deltoid faces toward the left. Therefore, the right
Lateral Deltoid produces movement toward the right, and the Left Lateral Deltoid
produces movement that is toward the left. These are OPPOSITE directions.

Although you may be unaware of it, moving in two different directions requires a type of
“split focus” that ultimately compromises the exercise. This compromise does not occur
when we do Triceps Pushdowns, or Standing Dumbbell Curls - because we are able to
use “Uni-Directional Focus” during those exercises. We either focus our effort
“downward” or we focus our effort “upward”. We either lean forward or we lean back.
We either brace against a left side resistance, or we brace against a right side
resistance.

As you can see in the exercise shown below, the motion of the arms is directly
opposite each other at the beginning - one to the left and the other to the right. So, we
are forced to focus our efforts in two different directions, simultaneously.

12
As the arms move around their respective shoulder axis (pivots), their pathway
becomes progressively less “opposite”. But they never quite get to the point where both
arms move in the same direction. The movement ends just before the arms arrive at
that point.

This is the primary reason why the One Arm Side Cable Raise exercise shown above
(as well as any other Lateral Deltoid exercise) is best done one arm at a time. It allows
the user to focus all of his attention on a movement that is in one direction.

The exercise below - One Arm Seated Side Dumbbell Raise - also allows “Uni-
Directional focus”. This exercise (below) is not “early phase” loaded, so it’s not nearly
as productive as the cable version above. Nevertheless, the principle of “uni-directional
focus” still applies, as does the next principle we’ll discuss: “bi-lateral deficit”.

13
I encourage you to try the experiment shown below, the next time you’re at the gym.
Perform a heavy “Triceps Pushdown” with one arm, and a heavy “Standing Cable Curl”
with your other arm - simultaneously.

14
Then perform a two-arm Triceps Pushdown, and a two-arm Cable Curl (shown below).
Then, compare the two exercises in which you moved both arms in the same direction,
with the exercise in which you moved your arms in two different directions.
Specifically, note how much weight you were able use with each version, and also your
ability to control and contract the muscle that each movement targeted.

15
What you’ll discover is that it is more awkward - and less powerful - to perform two
opposing movements at the same time, as compared to doing either one direction or
the other. The difference in strength potential between the two versions could be as
much as 20%. Typically, we are able to move more weight, and contract the target
muscle better, if our efforts are either entirely upward or entirely downward - entirely to
the left or entirely to the right - entirely forward or entirely backward.

16
Since our objective is to achieve optimal muscular development, it makes sense to
perform an exercise using methods that allow us to have the most control, to use the
most weight (with good form, of course), and to achieve the best contraction.

If your objective is “optimal dexterity”, or to challenge brain / body coordination (instead

of optimal muscular development), then doing exercises which produce movement in
two separate directions would not necessarily be bad. But this book is intended for
those pursuing optimal physique development, and the methods recommended here
are with that in mind.

Which Other Muscles Produce Movement in Opposite Directions?

The Lateral Deltoids are the primary muscles that produce movement in opposite
directions. The Latissimus dorsi is the next most primary muscle, for which this rule
applies. The origin of the Lats is on the spine, so the ideal movement for the Lats would
be inward (toward the spine) - not “downward” (vertically) nor “backward” (posteriorly).

In other words, the left Latissimus ideally produces a movement that originates from the
left side and moves inward, in a right-bound direction. The right Latissimus ideally
produces a movement that originates from the right side and moves inward, in a left-
bound direction. These are opposite directions of movement.

17
Technically speaking, the Lats pull mostly inward, toward the spine. So, the motion
should ideally begin from a mostly lateral / slightly upward origin, and move inward and
downward. The Lats participate more in Pulldowns and Chin-Ups (downward
movements), than they do in Rowing motions, but neither movement is as ideal as a
Pull-In (diagonal / inward) - shown below. Performing this movement “one arm at a
time” (Isolated Uni-Lateral) is significantly better than doing it with both arms
simultaneously.

It would be difficult to produce this exact motion, with both arms simultaneously.
You’ll notice (in the photos above) that as the arm is pulled inward, there is a natural
lean of the torso, toward the resistance - as well as a slight rotation of the torso, toward
the resistance. Using both arms at the same time would prevent this natural torso lean
and rotation from occurring.

It’s also very easy to brace one’s self with one’s foot against a block, to prevent being
pulled off the seat. This eliminates the need to “counter-balance” yourself by doing the
other side at the same time, the way we do during Supine Dumbbell Press. During
Supine Dumbbell Press, there is no way of bracing yourself from falling to one side, if
the movement was only done with one arm. Therefore counter-balancing (using both
arms simultaneously) is required when doing Supine Dumbbell Press. But that’s not the
case with One Arm Lat Pull-In, provided you find a place to brace your foot.

The (Internal and External) Obliques also face opposite sides of the body, and perform
motion in opposite directions. The Obliques muscles MUST be worked “one side at a
time” (Isolated Uni-Lateral), and not only because they move the torso in opposite
directions. These muscles also fall into the category of “Reciprocal Innervation”
because they are on opposite sides of the same “limb” (i.e., the torso). They are
agonist / antagonist. This is not the case with right and left Lateral Deltoids, nor with the
right and left Latissimus.

18
The Obliques also participation in “forward flexion” of the torso, but not as directly as
they do when performing lateral spinal flexion. In other words, when doing Ab
Crunches, both left and right Obliques engage, but only as assistants - not as primary
functions. In any case, the left Obliques and the right Obliques also must be exercised
one side at a time (Isolated Uni-Lateral).

The muscles on the sides of the neck (Splenius capitus and Sternocleidomastoid -
shown below left) move the head laterally - toward one side or the other. However, both
sides CAN participate simultaneously when flexing the neck posteriorly / back (the
Splenius capitus) and flexing the neck anteriorly / front (the Sternocleidomastoid). Like
the Obliques, right side neck flexion and left side neck flexion, should be performed
separately - each with its own separate direction of resistance. The same is true with
forward and backward flexion of the neck - one side at a time.

The left side / right side of the middle Trapezius (above-right) are best worked
simultaneously - due to the stability factor. However, each side should have a its own,
separate direction of resistance - ideally speaking. The left middle Trapezius pulls
inward, toward the spine, so it should have its resistance coming from a left-lateral
direction. The right middle Trapezius plus inward, toward the spine, but - as you can
see - this is the opposite direction as that of the left middle Trapezius. Therefore, its
resistance should come from a right-lateral direction.

These two directions of resistance can, and should be engaged simultaneously, for the
sake of stability. Performing a one-sided scapular retraction would tend to inadvertently
cause (or encourage) torso rotation. For this reason, it makes more sense to work the

19
two sides simultaneously. The best exercise for the middle Trapezius is the Scapular
Retraction, which is discussed in Chapter 19.

The Gluteus medius (below left) and minimus (shown right) produce femural
movement in opposite directions (lateral hip abduction), although not exclusively. These
muscles also participate in posterior movement (hip extension). Generally speaking,
these small muscles don’t “need” dedicated Lateral Abduction exercise, especially when
normal Hip Extension exercises (Squats, Lunges, Glute Extensions, etc.) are
performed. Nevertheless, they can be worked by way of Lateral Abduction - either one
side at a time, or on a Hip Abduction (“Outer Thigh”) machine. The strength capacity of
these small muscles is not great, so “Uni-Directional Focus” is not required in this case.

“Bi-Lateral Deficit” (BLD)

“Bi-Lateral Deficit” is a term which refers to how (many times, but not always) the sum
of the weight lifted by both limbs individually is greater than that which is lifted with
both limbs simultaneously.

For example, if we Curl a pair of dumbbells with both arms simultaneously, our strength
is less than if we Curl a pair of dumbbells alternately - one arm at a time. That’s why it’s
called a “deficit”. The sum total of the two dumbbells we curl simultaneously (as a

20
maximum effort), is generally less than the sum total of the two dumbbells we curl
alternately.

This is true even if we were to pause longer between repetitions, when curling the two
dumbbells simultaneously. So, it’s NOT the slightly longer “rest” time between
repetitions - as would occur when curling alternately - that accounts for the slightly
stronger capability that occurs by curling “uni-laterally”, compared with “bi-laterally”.

Interestingly, the sum total of curling two dumbbells simultaneously, would also be less
than the weight of a single barbell being curled (percentage of effort being equal) with
both arms. Of course, using a single instrument reduces the need for as much
coordination and stabilizing, as compared with simultaneously lifting two separate
dumbbells. This is why we can usually move more weight with a barbell, than we can
with two dumbbells, during the same type of movement.

Here’s how “Bi-Lateral Deficit” is described in the reference cited below: “When the
sum of the torque (force) generated by each limb (individually) in the unilateral
condition is greater than that generated by both limbs simultaneously (bilateral
condition), it is termed the bilateral limb deficit”[1].

[1] Botton, C.E. et al. Bilateral deficit between concentric and isometric muscle actions. Isokinetics
& Ex Sc. 2013; 21: pg 161-165

[1] Botton, C.E. et al.

21
[1] Bobbert MF. Et al Explanation of the bilateral deficit in human vertical squat jumping. J. Appl
Phsiology 2006; 100: p 493-499.

Scientists / anatomists have not yet reached a consensus as to how BLD occurs.
However, below are the theories currently being considered.

• An increase in electrical activity may cause a greater recruitment/activation of

muscle fiber types while performing an exercise with one limb.

• During BL (bi-lateral) activity, both brain hemispheres are activated

simultaneously, possibly resulting in an interhemispheric inhibition, reducing
motor unit (muscle) recruitment and torque generation.

• BLD may be a result of higher muscle shortening velocities.

It may be something similar to what occurs during “uni-directional focus” - one’s cerebral
attention, as well as greater percentage of one’s energy, is directed toward one direction
of movement, rather than divided between two directions of movements.

Also, there is the issue that (sometimes) we use slightly different mechanics when using
both limbs simultaneously, versus only one limb at a time - depending on the exercise.
As occurs during “uni-directional focus”, the body may “need” to turn or lean toward the
side that’s operating, but cannot turn or lean toward both sides simultaneously.

In the scientific literature, two of the most commonly cited examples of “BLD” are the
Single-Legged Deadlift (below-left) versus the regular Two-Legged Deadlift, and the
Single-Leg Jump (below-right) versus the Two-Legged Jump.

22
A person may notice that doing a Two-Legged Deadlift with 10 pounds is not
significantly easier than doing a One-Legged Deadlift with 10 pounds. The supposed
expectation is that using both legs would make it twice as easy, as using only one leg.

However, there are other factors at play here as well, besides “one leg” versus “two
legs”. The legs are not the only component in a DeadLift. For example, the Erector
Spinae plays a role in both the One-Legged version, and the Two-Legged version.

Also, when the One-Legged DeadLift is performed, the leg which is not on the ground,
is raised backward (instead of being left alongside the other leg). That weight of the
raised leg then becomes a counter-balance, which offsets the Kettle Bell which is in
front (photo below).

This can be easily proven by putting an ankle weight on that back leg, and seeing how
much more it actually assists in lifting the front end upward. If a person attempted to
do a One-Legged DeadLift, while keeping both legs together (even though one foot is
not touching the ground), the outcome would be very different.

Now, let’s look at the mechanics of the One-Legged Jump, below. It usually seems as
though a person can jump almost as high when using only one leg, as when using both
legs. Most people expect to only be able to jump HALF as high, when using only one
leg. However, the upward thrust is NOT produced only by the legs.

23
Some of the upward momentum (propulsion) is produced by the Erector spinae (lower
back) and also by the gyration of the arms. This same momentum is produced in both
the One-Legged and the Two-Legged versions.

Of course, anyone who has DeadLifted 405 pounds (i.e., an Olympic bar with four 45
pound plates on each side) knows it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
DeadLift 200 pounds, using only one leg - even if one leg was lifted backward with an
ankle weight. There would also be a much greater risk of injury in doing so. So, “Bi-
lateral Deficit” does not work in all scenarios.

Nevertheless, the principle of “Bi-Lateral Deficit” can be used productively for physique
development and general fitness, as part of the preference for “independent” limb work,
whenever stability is not compromised.

- - - - - -
Summary
Cross-education is a bio-neurological characteristic that allows exercise which is
performed by a limb on one side of the body, to transmit a degree of benefit from that

24
exercise, to the contra-lateral limb on the other side of the body - even though that
contra-lateral limb may not have been exercised at all.

This is useful in the rehabilitation of an injured limb, and also for “evening-up” muscular
development differences that are on opposite sides of the body.

The studies demonstrating “cross-over benefit” to a contralateral limb, caused by the

exercising of an Ipsilateral limb, suggest that there is a distinct advantage in doing uni-
lateral / independent limb exercise. Therefore, using dumbbells likely provides more
muscular / neurological benefits than does using barbells.

The traditional definitions of “uni-lateral exercise” and “bi-lateral exercise” have failed to
identify “independent” versus “non-independent” limb exercise. The traditional
definitions have only accounted for repetitions which are simultaneous - regardless of
whether that “simultaneous-nous” is happening with a single instrument (i.e., a barbell)
or with two separate instruments (i.e., dumbbells or cable handles).

Whether the repetitions are simultaneous or not, matters much less than whether the
limbs are working independently of each other.

The timing of the repetitions - whether they are simultaneous or alterating - also
matters, as evidenced by the “Bi-lateral Deficit” studies. There seems to be an
advantage in performing repetitions alternately (left side, right side, etc.) or as an
Isolated Uni-Lateral exercise, whenever it does not compromise stability.

Muscles which are on the opposite sides of the body, and which produce movement in
opposing directions, are best worked one side at a time.

The Lateral Deltoids and Latissimus dorsi are the two muscle groups that most benefit
most from Isolated uni-lateral exercise (one side at a time) - as compared with
simultaneous uni-lateral, or alternating uni-lateral.

Opposite direction movements (i.e., movement to the left or to the right) seems to
function better when using “Uni-Directional Focus”.

( 1 ) School of Medical Sciences, Health and Exercise Science, University of New South Whales, Sydney,
New South Whales, Australia

( 2 ) Hortobagyi T, Lambert NJ, Hill JP. Greater cross education following training with muscle lengthening
than shortening. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29:107-112.

( 3 ) Zhou, Shi. Cross-Education and Neuromuscular Adaptations During Early Stage of Strength
Training. Journal of Exercise Science and Fitness. 2003. 1(1), 54-60.

Lee, M., Carroll, T. Cross-Education: Possible Mechanisms for the Contralateral Effects of Unilateral
Resistance Training. Sports Medicine. 2007. 37(1), 1-14.

25
( 4 ) Milène Catoire, et. al., Pronounced Effects of Acute Endurance Exercise on Gene Expression in
Resting and Exercising Human Skeletal Muscle, Plos One, 7:11 (2012)

( 5 ) Howard JD, Enoka RM. Maximum bilateral contractions are modified by neurally mediated interlimb
effects. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70:306-316.

( 6 ) “Unilateral Plantar Flexors Static-Stretching Effects on Ipsilateral and Contralateral Jump

Measures” Several articles have reported non-local, as well as cross-over (contralateral muscle)
effects with an exercised muscle affecting the performance of a non-exercised muscle when monitoring
fatigue.

26