UNIT -II

Additive manufacturing (AM) technology was first introduced in the 1980s with the aim
of producing rapid and functional prototypes from various materials. Particularly, in May 1980,
Dr. Hideo Kodama from the Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute (NMIRI) applied
for a patent that describes a method of curing a spatial model of photopolymer material by
exposing it to ultraviolet (UV) light. Nevertheless, Kodama's efforts toward finding funding for
further research and development on the issued patent bore no fruit, even with support from the
government. The patent was consequently abandoned and never commercialized. Kodama is,
however, credited as the first inventor of this technology.

Printing Principle of Photopolymerization

In the photopolymerization process, a photopolymer, which is a light-curable resin, is
stored in a vat and treated with either visible or UV light. The curing light triggers and manifests
the polymerization reaction, which then forms chains of polymers or cross links them to form a
solid resin. As can be seen in Figure, three elements of the photopolymer mixture are monomers,
oligomers, and photo initiators. When exposed to curing light, photo initiators release creative
species that work as catalysts for the chain formation among monomers and oligomers. The
chain-forming chemical-thermal process is irreversible and prototypes cannot be changed back to
liquid form. Utilizing this principle, consecutive layers of resin are fabricated gradually from a
sliced STL file

Fig: Liquid photopolymer (on the left), induced polymerization by light (small
circle-monomer large circl-oligomer, star—photoinitiator).
Photopolymer Material Classification:
After curing, the models are dimensionally stable, hard or elastic (elastomers), and can
withstand very low and high temperatures. Each resin has different mechanical and chemical
properties and specific uses. In general, photopolymer materials are divided into standard,
structural, tough and durable, flexible and elastic, castable wax and ceramic.
1. Standard Resin: The most commonly used colors are grey, white, black, transparent,
turquoise, and blue. Within the standard resin family, there is draft resin, which can cure
3-4 times faster than the conventional one. Thus, the draft resin is an ideal solution for
quick prototyping with only one disadvantage being the height of the layer (300 pm),
resulting in the stair-case effect on the surface of the model. It should be noted that
“green” is used to name parts that are in their as-built condition, receiving no additional
post-treatments
2. Structural Resin: A typical example of structural resin for printing universal prototypes
is Grey Pro resin, which can deliver printed parts with high accuracy, slight elongation,
and low creep. Thus, it is applicable for conceptual modeling, reusable functional
prototypes, and precise templates for molding.
As for rigid structural resin, it can produce a combination of remarkably high
rigidity and accuracy thanks to the glass reinforcement, yielding a glossy surface. In
addition, this resin can be utilized to print thin walls and details, such as turbine blades,
fans, connections, tooling, electronic covers, and cabinets in the automotive industry.
Among the structural resin family, there is a heat-conductive one so-called High
Temp resin, which can withstand temperature up to 289 °C under a pressure of 0.45 MPa.
The material is suitable for parts under light pressure and high temperatures, such as
injection molding prototypes, heat-resistant fittings, hot gas, liquid piping, and electronics
covers.
3. Tough and Durable Resin: Durable resin is made from polypropylene (PP) or
polyethylene (PE), which has high ductility and deformation and impact resistance. It is
applicable for compressible parts and assemblies with low friction and non degrading
surfaces, as well as jigs and clamps undergoing significant impacts.
Additionally, there is Tough resin (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)-like),
which has high tensile strength and elastic modulus. The material is suitable for
 functional prototypes, such as jigs and clamps, which require high-stress resistance with
minimal deformation.
4. Plastic and flexible Resin: Elastomeric polyurethane (EPU) is a group of highly elastic
and flexible polymers that behave similarly to injection molded polyurethane (PU)
elastomers. EPU behaves elastically over a wide range of temperatures while maintaining
high flexibility, i.e., it possesses low stiffness and extreme ductility. Thanks to the
notably high elasticity, PU has been widely used in orthotic and prosthetic devices. A
typical example is sports fo otwear with a microrod construction, as listed later in the
Applications section.
Flexible polyurethane (FPU), on the other hand, is a semi-rigid material with re-
markably high resistance to impact, shock, and repeated strains. FPU behaves similarly to
injection-molded polypropylene (PP), with a mean stiffness and impact strength of 40 J
m°’. The FPU can be elongated by more than 280% before breaking at a stress level of 29
MPa.
5. Ceramic and Castable Wax Resin: Ceramic resin is a photopolymer filled with silica.
After printing and firing, the photopolymer network is burnt out, leaving the ceramic part.
Similar to working with ceramic paste, the ceramic resin has high malleability and can be
used for applications where the accuracy of the fired component is not critical.
Castable wax resin has been utilized to produce parts with precise details and
smooth surfaces. Thus, besides being used as quick prototypes, parts printed with this
material are employed as master patterns for investment casting applications. Castable
wax resin, with a 20% wax fill, can facilitate reliable casting without ash and with clean
melting.

The liquid type AM technology process is classified into three categories. They are
1. Preprocessing
2. Processing
3. Post processing
1. Preprocessing : The 3D printing production process begins with a 3D model that is
designed with computer-aided design (CAD) software or 3D scanned from a physical
object. The 3D model is subsequently converted to the standard triangulation language
(STL) format. It should be noted that since 1987, STL has been the standard and most
 frequently used format for preparing data for AM production. Specifically, the STL
format solely describes the surface of the 3D model with a network of triangles of
different sizes, depending on the required resolution. The smaller the size of the triangles,
the more accurately the triangular mesh represents the desired surface, yielding a
smoother surface of the to-be- printed object. The stage in which preparing the desired
mesh model takes place is called preprocessing.
2. Processing: The second production stage is called processing. As a 3D printed object is
fabricated layer by layer, each consecutive layer has to be supported by the platform, the
pre- ceding layer, or extra support elements. After designing the correct and optimal
orientation of the model and the supports, the STL model, including the supports, is
sliced into layers with a plane parallel to the platform surface, namely, the x, y plane.
Each layer is then built consecutively in the z direction. The layer thickness depends on
the printer, AM technology, and quality requirements. The sliced model is subsequently
sent to the printer. Differing from the traditional subtractive manufacturing process
(machining), where the material is taken out of a work piece, AM offers more efficient
material usage.
3. Postprocessing: After the printing is finished, the model is removed from the platform
and other technical processing procedures are used to refine the printed object in a stage
called postprocessing. In the case of photopolymerization, the as-built models are rinsed
in a wash solution, most commonly, isopropyl alcohol (IPA), to get rid of the liquid layer
of resin. To enhance the mechanical properties, these models are subsequently artificially
cured with UV light or naturally exposed to sunlight. Other processes include support
removal, grinding, sealing, gluing, polishing, painting, varnishing, coating, sterilization,
inspection, and measurement. There are specific post-processing treatments for
photopolymer parts. It is noteworthy that the rinsing time, temperature, and duration of
the curing process play an important role in determining the mechanical properties of the
finished parts.
 A typical printing process with SLA technology is shown below in Figure

Applications:
1. Football helmet liner
2. Artificial ears
3. Hearing aids
4. Jewelry
5. Flexible electronics
6. Smart composites
7. Super hydrophobic objects

Case studies of the AM technology: Photopolymerization 3D printing technology encompasses

several different process that rely on the same basic strategy: a liquid photopolymer contained in
a vat (or tank) is selectively cured by a heat source. Layer by layer, a 3D physical object is built
until completion.
There are multiple types of curing devices in addition to the oldest technique, which is
based on lasers. Digital Light Processing projectors and even LCD screens are now a popular
way of photopolymerizing materials given their low cost and very high resolution. One of the
advantages of these two techniques compared to lasers is their ability to simultaneously cure a
full layer of resin, whereas the laser needs to progressively illuminate the whole surface by
drawing it.
Vat Photopolymerization: It uses a vat of liquid photopolymer resin, out of which the model is
constructed layer by layer. An ultraviolet (UV) light is used to cure or harden the resin where
required, whilst a platform moves the object being made downwards after each new layer is
cured.
As the process uses liquid to form objects, there is no structural support from the material
during the build phase., unlike powder based methods, where support is given from the unbound
material. In this case, support structures will often need to be added. Resins are cured using a
process of photo polymerisation or UV light, where the light is directed across the surface of the
resin with the use of motor controlled mirrors. Where the resin comes in contact with the light, it
cures or hardens.

Photopolymerisation – Step by Step:

1. The build platform is lowered from the top of the resin vat downwards by the layer
thickness.
2. A UV light cures the resin layer by layer. The platform continues to move downwards
and additional layers are built on top of the previous.
3. Some machines use a blade which moves between layers in order to provide a smooth
resin base to build the next layer on.
4. After completion, the vat is drained of resin and the object removed.
Advantages:
1. High level of accuracy and good finish
2. Relatively quick process
3. Typically large build areas:objet 1000:1000 x 800 x 500 and max model weight of 200 kg
Disadvantages:
1. Relatively expensive
2. Lengthly post processing time and reomval from resin
3. Limited material use of photo-resins
4. Often requires support structures and post curing for parts to be strong enough for
structural use
Different types of printers:
The most popular vat photopolymerization 3D printing technologies include the
following classification with regard to the method of curing. They are
1. Stereo lithography apparatus (SLA)
2. Direct light processing (DLP)
3. Continuous Direct light processing (CDLP)/ Continuous liquid interface production
(CLIP)

1. Stereo lithography apparatus (SLA):

Stereolithography (SLA) is the most widely used rapid prototyping technology. It can
produce highly accurate and detailed polymer parts. It was the first rapid prototyping process,
introduced in 1988 by 3D Systems, Inc., based on work by inventor Charles Hull.
The liquid resin is solidified through a process called photopolymerization. During
solidification, the monomer carbon chains that compose the liquid resin are activated by the light
of the UV laser and become solid, creating strong unbreakable bonds between each other. The
photopolymerization process is irreversible and there is no way to convert the SLA parts back to
their liquid form. When heated, they will burn instead of melting. This is because the materials
that are produced with SLA are made of thermoset polymers, as opposed to the thermoplastics
that FDM uses.
SLA working principle:
1. It uses a low-power, highly focused UV laser to trace out successive cross-sections of a
three-dimensional object in a vat of liquid photosensitive polymer.
2. As the laser traces the layer, the polymer solidifies and the excess areas are left as liquid.
3. When a layer is completed, a leveling blade is moved across the surface to smooth it
before depositing the next layer.
 4. The platform is lowered by a distance equal to the layer thickness (typically 0.003-0.002
in), and a subsequent layer is formed on top of the previously completed layers.
5. This process of tracing and smoothing is repeated until the build is complete.
6. Once complete, the part is elevated above the vat and drained. Excess polymer is
swabbed or rinsed away from the surfaces.
7. In many cases, a final cure is given by placing the part in a UV oven. After the final cure,
supports are cut off the part and surfaces are polished, sanded or otherwise finished.

Characteristics of SLA:
1. Printer Parameters:
In SLA systems, most print parameters are fixed by the manufacturer and cannot be
changed. The only inputs are the layer height and part orientation (the latter determines support
location).
The typical layer height in SLA ranges between 25 and 100 microns. Lower layer heights
capture curved geometries more accurately but increase the build time (and cost) and the
probability of a failed print. A layer height of 100 microns is suitable for most common
applications.
The build size is another parameter that is important for the designer. The build size
depends on the type of SLA machine. There are two main SLA machine setups: the top-down
orientation and the bottom-up orientation. The top-down SLA printers place the laser source
above the tank and the part is built facing up. The build platform begins at the very top of the
resin vat and moves downwards after every layer.
 2. Support Structure:
Support structure is always required in SLA. Support structures are printed in the same
material as the part and must be manually removed after printing. The orientation of the part
determines the location and amount of support. It is recommended that the part is oriented so that
so visually critical surfaces do not come in contact with the support structures. Bottom-up and
top-down SLA printers use support differently:
In top-down SLA printers, support requirements are similar to FDM. They are needed to
print accurately overhangs and bridges (the critical overhang angle is usually 30 0). The part can
be oriented in any position and they are usually printed flat, to minimize the amount of support
and the total number of layers.
In bottom-up SLA printers, things are more complicated. Overhangs and bridges still
need to be supported, but minimizing the cross-sectional area of each layer is the most crucial
criterion: the forces applied to the part during the peeling step may cause it to detach from the
build platform. These forces are proportional to the cross-sectional area of each layer. For this
reason, parts are oriented in an angle and the reduction of support is not a primary concern.
3. Curling:
One of the biggest problems relating to the accuracy of parts produced via SLA is
curling. Curling is similar to warping in FDM.
During solidification/curing, the resin shrinks slightly upon exposure to the printer's light
source. When the shrinkage is considerable, large internal stresses develop between the new
layer and the previously solidified material, which results to curling of the part.
4. Layer Adhesion:
SLA printed parts have isotropic mechanical properties. This is because a single UV laser
pass is not enough to fully cure the liquid resin. Later laser passes help previously solidified
layers to fuse together to a very high degree. In fact in SLA curing continues even after the
completion of the printing process.
SLA Materials:
SLA materials come in the form of a liquid resin. SLA materials (thermosets) are more
brittle than the materials produced with FDM or SLS (thermoplastics) and for this reason, SLA
parts are not usually used for functional prototypes that will undertake significant loading. The
following table summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used
resins:
 S
Material Characteristics
S.No
Smooth surface finish
1 Standard resin
Relatively brittle
Transparent material
2 Clear resin
Requires post-processing for a very clear finish
Used for creating mold patterns
3 Castable resin
Low ash percentage after burnout
ABS-like or PP-like mechanical properties
4 Tough or Durable resin
Low thermal resistance
High temperature resistance
5 High temperature resin Used for injection molding and thermoforming tooling
High cost
Biocompatible
6 Dental resin High abrasion resistant
High cost
Rubber-like material
7 Rubber-like resin
Lower dimensional accuracy

Benefits of SLA:
1. SLA can produce parts with very high dimensional accuracy and with intricate details.
2. SLA parts have a very smooth surface finish, making them ideal for visual prototypes.
3. Specialty SLA materials are available, such as clear, flexible and castable resins.
Limitations of SLA:
1. SLA parts are generally brittle and not suitable for functional prototypes.
2. The mechanical properties and visual appearance of SLA parts will degrade overtime
when the parts are exposed to sunlight.
3. Support structures are always required and post-processing is necessary to remove the
visual marks left on the SLA part.
 2. Digital Light Processing (DLP):
DLP technology differs from SLA solely in the curing method. Instead of a mirror to
reflect a laser source, a digital light projector is employed. In comparison with SLA technology,
the DLP process is faster as each layer is entirely exposed to the curing light projected from the
digital screen. Since DLP technology utilizes a digital light projector, each layer appears
pixelized and the accuracy of the printed part depends greatly on the projector resolution. A
typical DLP machine and its components are illustrated below in Figure.

3. Continuous Digital Light Processing(CDLP)/ Continuous Liquid Interface

Production(CLIP):
CDLP/CLIP employs digital projection with LEDs and an oxygen-permeable window
instead of a normal glass window. This oxygen-permeable window forms a so-called dead zone
as thick as a human hair, which allows the liquid resin to flow between the interface of the
printed part and the window. This uncured resin flow remarkably increases the resolution of the
printed part, as well as decreasing the risk of printing failure due to the peeling force. Moreover,
as opposed to the layer-by-layer method, CDLP/CLIP machines are designed with continuous
movement of the build platform, thus, allowing for undisrupted prototype printing at speeds of
several hundred millimeters per hour. A typical CDLP/CLIP machine and its components are
illustrated below in Figure
Material jetting:
The Material Jetting 3D printing manufacturing technique is often compared to the
standard 2D ink jetting process. Utilizing photopolymers, metals, or wax that solidify when
exposed to light or heat (in a similar fashion to stereolithography) ensures that physical objects
are built up one layer at a time. The material jetting manufacturing process allows for different
materials to be 3D printed within the same part.
Material jetting dispenses a photopolymer from hundreds of tiny nozzles in a printhead to
build a part layer-by-layer. This allows material jetting operations to deposit build-material in a
rapid, line-wise fashion, which can be compared to other point-wise deposition technologies that
follow a path to complete the cross-sectional area of a layer, also called a slice. As the droplets
are deposited to the build platform they are directly cured and solidified using UV light. Material
jetting processes require support, which is often 3D printed simultaneously during the build from
a dissolvable material. The support material is then removed during the post processing step.
Several techniques make up the material jetting term, the most popular being:
Drop On Demand: (DOD) DOD material jetting printers have two print jets: one to deposit the
build material and another for dissolvable support material. Like all additive manufacturing
machines, DOD 3D printers follow a pre-determined path and deposit material in a point-wise
fashion to build the cross sectional area of a component. These machines also employ a fly-cutter
that skims the build area after each layer to ensure a perfectly flat surface before printing the next
layer. DOD technology is typically used to produce wax-like patterns for lost-wax
casting/investment casting and mold making applications, making it an indirect 3D printing
technique.
PolyJet : 3D printing technology was first patented by the Objet company, now a Stratasys
brand. The photopolymer materials are jetted in ultra-thin layers onto a build tray in a similar
fashion compared to inkjet document printing. Each photopolymer layer is cured by UV light
immediately after being jetted. The repetition of jetting and curing steps, layer after layer
produces fully cured models that can be handled and used immediately. The gel-like support
material, which is specially designed to support complex geometries, can easily be removed by
hand or by using water jetting.
Nano Particle Jetting (NPJ): This material jetting technology, patented by XJet, uses a liquid,
which contains building nanoparticles or support nanoparticles, that is loaded into the printer as a
cartridge and jetted onto the build tray in extremely thin layers of droplets. High temperatures
inside the build envelope cause the liquid to evaporate leaving behind parts made from the
building material. This technique is suitable for metals and ceramics.
Material jetting 3D printing technology is a great choice for realistic prototypes,
providing an excellent level of details, high accuracy and smooth surface finish. Material jetting
allows a designer to print a design in multiple colors and with a number of materials in a single
print. To designate a different material or color to particular areas of the part, the model must be
exported as separate STL files. When blending colors or material properties to create a digital
material, the design must be exported as an OBJ or VRML file, because these formats allow the
designation of special properties (such as texture or full color) on a per-face or per-vertex basis.
The main drawbacks to printing with material jetting technologies are the high cost and
the fact that UV activated photopolymers lose mechanical properties over time and can become
brittle.
Binder jetting:
The binder jetting 3D printing technique consists of the deposition of a binding adhesive
agent onto thin layers of powdered material. The powdered materials are either ceramic-based
(for example glass or gypsum) or metal (for example stainless steel).
During the binder jetting 3D printing process, the 3D print head moves over the build
platform depositing binder droplets, printing each layer in a similar fashion to 2D printers that
print ink on paper. When a layer is complete, the powder bed moves downwards and a new layer
of powder is spread onto the build area. The process is repeated layer by layer until all parts are
complete. After printing, the parts are in a green, or unfinished, state and require additional post
processing before they are ready to use. Often an infiltrant substance is added to improve the
mechanical properties of the parts. The infiltrant substance is usually a cyanoacrylate adhesive
(in case of ceramics) or bronze (in the case of metals). Another strategy is to put the workpiece,
in its green state, inside an oven to achieve a sintering of the grains of matter. Interestingly, the
term 3D printing originally referred to a process that deposited a binder material onto a powder
bed with an inkjet printer-like heads layer by layer.
The binder jetting 3D printing process encompasses several techniques honed by
different manufacturers. The most famous for the general public being:
ColorJet Printing (CPJ) by 3D Systems. ColorJet Printing is a trademark of the company
ZCorp, now a 3D Systems company. ColorJet Printing 3D prints are fully colored. The final
parts resemble sandstone and exhibit a somewhat porous surface. The sandstone material is
inkjet colored and glued together during the 3D printing process. At the end of the 3D printing,
an infiltration is required to solidify and bond the part. Hundreds of thousands of colors are
available, almost the full CMYK spectrum. The final prints are not intended for functional
applications as they remain porous and must be kept away from humidity to avoid discoloration.
The binder jetting 3D printing process can work with a variety of materials including
metals, sands, and ceramics. Some materials, like sand, require no additional processing.
Binder jetting is great for applications that require good aesthetics and form, such as
architectural models, packaging, toys and figurines. It is generally not suited for functional
applications due to the brittle nature of the parts.
 Compared to Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) 3D printing techniques, the binder jetting
method has the advantage of not employing heat during the build process, which prevents the
creation of residual stresses in the parts.
Metal-based binder jetting parts have relatively good mechanical properties thanks to the
infiltration process. They can be used as functional components and have relatively good
mechanical properties thanks to the infiltration process. They are also more cost-effective than
SLM (Selective Laser Melting) or DMLS (Direct Metal Laser Sintering) metal parts, but have
poorer mechanical properties because the grains of materials do not entirely fuse together.

Characteristics of Binder Jetting:

1. Printer Parameters
In Binder Jetting, almost all process parameters are preset by the machine manufacturer.
The typical layer height depends on the material: for full color models the typical layer height is
100 microns, for metal parts 50 microns and for sand casting mold materials 200-400 microns.
A key advantage of Binder Jetting over other 3D printing processes is that bonding
occurs at room temperature. This means that dimensional distortions connected to thermal effects
(such as warping in FDM, SLS, DMSL/SLM or curling in SLA/DLP) are not a problem in
Binder Jetting.
As a result, the build volumes of Binder Jetting machines are amongst the largest
compared to all 3D printing technologies (up to 2200 x 1200 x 600 mm). These large machines
are generally used to produce sand casting molds. Metal Binder Jetting systems typically have
larger build volumes than DMSL/SLM systems (up to 800 x 500 x 400 mm), which allows the
parallel manufacturing of multiple parts at a time. The maximum part size though is restricted to
a recommended length of up to 50 mm, due to the post-processing step involved.
 Moreover, Binder Jetting requires no support structures: the surrounding powder provides
to the part all the necessary support (similar to SLS). This is a key difference between metal
Binder Jetting and other metal 3D printing processes, which usually require extensive use of
support structures, and allows for the creation of freeform metal structures with very few
geometric restrictions. Geometric inaccuracies in metal Binder Jetting come mainly from the
post-processing steps, as discussed in a later section.
Since the parts in Binder Jetting do not need to be attached to the build platform, the
whole build volume can be utilized. Thus, Binder Jetting is suitable for low-to-medium batch
production. To take advantage of the full capabilities of Binder Jetting, it is very important to
consider how to fill effectively the whole build volume of the machine (bin packing).
2. Full Color Binder Jetting:
Binder Jetting can produce full color 3D printed parts in a similar way to Material Jetting.
It is often used to 3D print figurines and topographical maps, because of its low cost.
Full-color models are printed using sandstone powder or PMMA powder. The main
printhead first jets the binding agent, while a secondary print head jets a colored ink. Inks with
different colors can be combined to produce a very large array of colors, in a similar way to a 2D
inkjet printer.
After printing, the parts are then coated with cyanoacrylate (super glue) or a different
infiltrant to improve part strength and enhance the vibrancy of the colors. A secondary epoxy
layer can then also be added to further improve strength and color appearance. Even with these
extra steps, full-color Binder Jetting parts are very brittle and they are not recommended for
functional applications.
To produce full-color prints, a CAD model that contains the color information must be
provided. Color can be applied to CAD models via two methods: on a per face approach or as a
texture map. Applying color on a per face basis is quick and easy to implement, but using a
texture map allows for more controls and greater detail. Refer to your native CAD software for
specific instructions.
3. Sand Casting Cores and Molds:
The production of large sand casting patterns is one of the most common uses for Binder
Jetting. The low cost and speed of the process make it an excellent solution for elaborate pattern
designs that would be very difficult or impossible to produce using traditional techniques.
 The cores and molds are generally printed with sand or silica. After printing, the molds
are generally immediately ready for casting. The casted metal component is usually removed
from them after casting by breaking the mold. Even though these molds are used only once, the
time and cost savings compared to traditional manufacturing are substantial.
4. Metal Binder Jetting:
Metal Binder Jetting is up to 10x more economical than other metal 3D printing
processes (DMSL/SLM). Moreover, the build size of Binder Jetting is considerably large and the
produced parts require no support structures during printing, enabling the creation of complex
geometries. This makes metal Binder Jetting a very appealing technology for low-to-medium
metal production.
The main drawback of metal Binder Jetting parts are their mechanical properties, which
are not suitable for high-end applications. Nevertheless, the material properties of the produced
parts are equivalent to metal parts produced with Metal Injection Molding, which is one of the
most widely used manufacturing methods for the mass production of metal parts.
5. Infiltration & Sintering:
Metal Binder Jetting parts require a secondary process after printing, like infiltration or
sintering, to achieve their good mechanical properties, as the as-printed parts basically consist of
metal particles bound together with a polymer adhesive.
Infiltration: After printing, the part is placed in a furnace, where the binder is burnt out
leaving voids. At this point, the part is approximately 60% porous. Bronze is then used to
infiltrate the voids via capillary action, resulting in parts with low porosity and good strength.
Sintering: After printing is complete, the parts are placed in a high temperature furnace,
where the binder is burnt out and the remaining metal particles are sintered (bonded) together,
resulting in parts with very low porosity.
Characteristics of metal Binder Jetting:
Accuracy and tolerance can vary greatly depending on the model and are hard to predict
as they are greatly dependant on the geometry. For example, parts with length up to 25 - 75 mm
shrink between 0.8 to 2% after infiltration, while larger parts have an estimated average
shrinkage of 3%. For sintering, the part shrinkage is approximately 20%. The dimensions of the
parts are compensated for shrinkage by the machine's software, but non-uniform shrinkage can
be an issue and must be accounted for during the design stage in collaboration with the Binder
Jetting machine operator.
 The post-processing step can also be the source of inaccuracies. For example, during
sintering, the part is heated to a high temperature and becomes softer. In this softer state,
unsupported areas might deform under their own weight. Moreover, as the part shrinks during
sintering, there here is friction between the plate of the furnace and the lower surface of the part,
which may lead to warping. Again, communication with the Binder Jetting machine operator is
key here to ensure optimal results.
Sintered or infiltrated Binder Jetting metal parts will have an internal porosity (sintering
produces 97% dense parts, while infiltration approximately 90%). This affects the mechanical
properties of metal Binder Jetting parts, as the voids can lead to crack initiation. Fatigue and
fracture strength and elongation at break are the material properties that are most affected by
internal porosity. Advanced metallurgical processes (like Hot isostatic pressing or HIP) can be
applied to produce parts with almost no internal porosity. For applications where mechanical
performance is critical though, DMLS or SLM are the recommended solutions.
An advantage of metal Binder Jetting compared to DMLS/SLM, is the surface roughness
of the produced parts. Typically, metal Binder Jetted parts have a surface roughness of Ra 6 μm
after post-processing, which can be reduced to Ra 3 μm if a bead-blasting step is employed. In
comparison, the as-printed surface roughness of DMLS/SLM parts is approximately Ra 12-16
μm. This is particularly beneficial for parts with internal geometries, for example internal
channels, where post-processing is difficult.
Common Binder Jetting Materials:
Binder Jetting powders come in range of materials. The final application of the part
defines the most appropriate powder. The cost of the ceramic powders is usually low. Metal
powders are more expensive, yet more economical than DMSL/SLM materials.
S.N
Material Characteristics
o
Full colour non-functional models
1 Full Color Sandstone
Very brittle
Very high thermal resistance
2 Silica Sand
Excellent for sand casting applications
Good mechanical properties
Stainless steel (bronze
3 Can be machined
infiltrated)
10% internal porosity

4 Stainless steel (sintered)
5 Inconel alloy (sintered)
6 Tungsten carbide (sintered)
Very good mechanical properties
High corrosion resistance
3% internal porosity
Excellent mechanical properties
Good temperature resistance
High chemical resistance
Very high hardness
Used for the production of cutting tools

Benefits of Binder Jetting:

1. Binder Jetting produces metal parts and full-color prototypes at a fraction of the cost
compared to DMLS/SLM and Material Jetting respectively.
2. Binder Jetting can manufacture very large parts and conplex metal geometries, as it is not
limited by any thermal effects (e.g. warping).
3. The manufacturing capabilities of Binder Jetting are excellent for low to medium batch
production.
Limitations of Binder Jetting:
1. Metal Binder Jetting parts have lower mechanical properties than DMSL/SLM parts, due
to their higher porosity.
2. Only rough details can be printed with Binder Jetting, as the parts are very brittle in their
green state and may fracture during post processing.
3. Compared to other 3D printing process, Binder Jetting offers a limited material selection.
Material extrusion:
Material Extrusion 3D printing technology uses a continuous filament of a thermoplastic
material as a base material. The filament is fed from a coil, through a moving heated printer
extruder head, often abbreviated as an extruder. The molten material is forced out of the
extruder's nozzle and is deposited first onto a 3D printing platform, which can be heated for extra
adhesion. Once the first layer is completed, the extruder and the platform are parted away in one
step, and the second layer can then be directly deposited onto the growing work piece. The
extruder head is moved under computer control. At least three axes are required for the extruder
to move in Cartesian architectures, but polar and delta systems are also becoming increasingly
popular. One layer is deposited on top of a previous layer until the object’s fabrication is
complete.
Material extrusion is known as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) and is one of the most
popular processes for hobbyist-grade 3D printing. The proprietary term Fused Deposition
Modeling (FDM) was coined by S. Scott Crump in the late 1980’s and was commercialized in
1990 by the Stratasys company. With the expiration of this technology’s patent, there is now a
large open-source development community called RepRap, as well as commercial and DIY
variants, which utilize this type of 3D printing technology. This has led to a measurable price
decrease. However, the material extrusion technique has dimensional accuracy limitations and is
very anisotropic.
Materials used:
A wide variety of materials can be extruded, the most popular being thermoplastics, such
as Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), PolyLactic Acid (PLA), High-Impact Polystyrene
(HIPS), Thermoplastic PolyUrethane (TPU), aliphatic PolyAmides (PA, also known as Nylon),
and more recently high performance plastics such as PolyEther Ether Ketone PEEK or
PolyEtherimide PEI. Additionally, paste-like materials such as ceramics, concrete and chocolate
can be extruded using this 3D printing technique.
As it became possible to equip a 3D printer with multiple extruders, for speeding up the
fabrication process or opening multi-material capabilities, the availability of composite
fabrication became possible. Composite Filament Fabrication (CFF) is one of them. This term
was coined by the company Markforged and uses two print nozzles. One nozzle operates
following the typical material extrusion process; it lays down a plastic filament that forms the
outer shell and the internal matrix of the part. The second nozzle deposits a continuous strand of
composite fiber (made with carbon, fiberglass, or Kevlar) on every layer. These continuous
strands of composite fibers inside 3D printed parts add a strength to the built object that is
comparable to parts made of metal. In addition to using composite materials for strong parts, the
strategy used to lay down layers can affect part strength. Markforged distinguishes two
strategies: isotropic fiber fill or concentric fiber fill.

Even composites can be 3D printed with the material extrusion technique on machines
equipped with only one extruder. The sole condition is that the base material (a thermoplastic) is
present in sufficient quantities to guarantee a fusion between layers. Therefore, a mix of two
materials within a single filament made wood 3D printing (wood particles embedded in PLA),
metal 3D printing (metal particles embedded in thermoplastic) and even carbon 3D printing
(carbon fibers embedded in thermoplastic) possible.

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) or Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF):

It is an additive manufacturing process that belongs to the material extrusion family. In
FDM, an object is built by selectively depositing melted material in a pre-determined path layer-
by-layer. The materials used are thermoplastic polymers and come in a filament form.
FDM is the most widely used 3D Printing technology: it represents the largest installed
base of 3D printers globally and is often the first technology people are exposed to.
 The FDM printing process
FDM working process:
I. A spool of thermoplastic filament is first loaded into the printer. Once the nozzle has reached
the desired temperature, the filament is fed to the extrusion head and in the nozzle where it melts.
II. The extrusion head is attached to a 3-axis system that allows it to move in the X, Y and Z
directions. The melted material is extruded in thin strands and is deposited layer-by-layer in
predetermined locations, where it cools and solidifies. Sometimes the cooling of the material is
accelerated through the use of cooling fans attached on the extrusion head.
III. To fill an area, multiple passes are required (similar to coloring a rectangle with a marker).
When a layer is finished, the build platform moves down (or in other machine setups, the
extrusion head moves up) and a new layer is deposited. This process is repeated until the part is
complete.

Characteristics of FDM:
1. Printer Parameters:
Most FDM systems allow the adjustment of several process parameters, including the
temperature of both the nozzle and the build platform, the build speed, the layer height and the
speed of the cooling fan.
The typical layer height used in FDM varies between 50 and 400 microns and can be
determined upon placing an order. A smaller layer height produces smoother parts and captures
curved geometries more accurately, while a larger height produces parts faster and at a lower
cost. A layer height of 200 microns is most commonly used.
2. Warping:
It is one of the most common defects in FDM. When the extruded material cools during
solidification, its dimensions decrease. As different sections of the print cool at different rates,
their dimensions also change at different speeds. Differential cooling causes the buildup of
internal stresses that pull the underlying layer upwards, causing it to warp, as seen in figure 3.
From a technology standpoint, warping can be prevented by closer monitoring of the temperature
of the FDM system (e.g. of the build platform and the chamber) and by increasing the adhesion
between the part and the build platform.
The choices of reducing the probability of warping:
 Large flat areas (think of a rectangular box) are more prone to warping and should be
avoided when possible.
 Thin protruding features (think of the prongs of a fork) are also prone to warping. In
this case, warping can be avoided by adding some sacrificial material at the edge of the
thin feature (for example a 200 microns thick rectangle) to increase the area that touches
the build platform.
 Sharp corners are warping more often than rounded shapes, so adding fillets to your
design is a good practice.
 Different materials are more susceptible to warping: ABS is generally more sensitive to
warping compared to PLA or PETG, due to its higher glass transition temperature and
relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion.

Schematic showing edge warping of an FDM part

3. Layer Adhesion
Good adhesion between the deposited layers is very important for an FDM part. When
the molten thermoplastic is extruded through the nozzle, it is pressed against the previous layer.
The high temperature and the pressure re-melts the surface of the previous layer and enables the
bonding of the new layer with the previously printed part. The bond strength between the
different layers is always lower than the base strength of the material.
This means that FDM parts are inherently anisotropic: their strength in the Z-axis is
always smaller than their strength in the XY-plane. For this reason, it is important to keep part
orientation mind when designing parts for FDM.
For example, tensile test pieces printed horizontally in ABS at 50% infill were compared
to test pieces printed vertically and were found to have almost 4 times greater tensile strength in
the X,Y print direction compared to the Z direction (17.0 MPa compared to 4.4 Mpa) and
elongated almost 10 times more before breaking (4.8% compared to 0.5%).
Moreover, since the molten material is pressed against the previous layer, its shape is
deformed to an oval. This means that FDM parts will always have a wavy surface, even for low
layer height, and that small features, such as small holes or threads may need to be post
processed after printing.

Schematic of the FDM layer-by-layer construction

4. Support Structure:
Support structure is essential for creating geomentries with overhangs in FDM. The
melted thermoplastic cannot be deposited on thin air. For this reason, some geometries require
support structure.
Surfaces printed on support will generally be of lower surface quality than the rest of the
part. For this reason, it is recommended that the part is designed in such a way to minimize the
need for support.
Support is usually printed in the same material as the part. Support materials that dissolve
in liquid also exist, but they are used mainly in high-end desktop or industrial FDM 3D printers.
Printing on dissolvable supports improves significantly the surface quality of the part, but
increases the overall cost of a print, as specialist machine (with dual extrusion) are required and
because the cost of the dissolvable material is relatively high.
5. Infill & Shell Thickness:
FDM parts are usually not printed solid to reduce the print time and save material.
Instead, the outer perimeter is traced using several passes, called the shell, and the interior is
filled with an internal, low-density structure, called the infill.
Infill and shell thickness affect greatly the strength of a part. A guide for choosing the
best shell and infill parameters for FDM 3D Printing can be found here. For desktop FDM
printers, the default setting is 25% infill density and 1 mm shell thickness, which is a good
compromise between strength and speed for quick prints.

The internal geometry of FDM prints with different infill density

Post Processing:
FDM parts can be finished to a very high standard using various post-processing
methods, such as sanding and polishing, priming and painting, cold welding, vapor smoothing,
epoxy coating and metal plating.
FDM Materials: One of the key strengths of FDM is the wide range of available materials.
These can range from commodity thermoplastics (such as PLA and ABS) to engineering
materials (such as PA, TPU, and PETG) and high-performance thermoplastics (such as PEEK
and PEI).
The material used will affect the mechanical properties and accuracy of the printed part,
but also its price. The most common FDM materials are summarized in the table below.
S.No Material Characteristics
Good strength
1 ABS Good temperature resistance
More susceptible to warping
Excellent visual quality
2 PLA Easy to print with
Low impact strength
High strength
3 Nylon (PA) Excellent wear and chemical resistance
Low humidity resistance
Food Safe
4 PETG Good strength
Easy to print with
Very flexible
5 TPU
Difficult to print accurately
Excellent strength to weight
6 PEI Excellent fire and chemical resistance
High cost
Benefits of FDM:
1. FDM is the most cost-effective way of producing custom thermoplastic parts and
prototypes.
2. The lead times of FDM are short (as fast as next-day-delivery), due to the high
availability of the technology.
3. A wide range of thermoplastic materials is available, suitable for both prototyping and
some non-commercial functional applications.
Limitations of FDM:
1. FDM has the lowest dimensional accuracy and resolution compared to other 3D printing
technologies, so it is not suitable for parts with intricate details.
2. FDM parts are likely to have visible layer lines, so post processing is required for a
smooth finish.
3. The layer adhesion mechanism makes FDM parts inherently anisotropic.