Meet) to ite PRS LCL INTRODUCTION ‘The word ‘Geometry’ comes from the Greek. The ancient people faced several practical problems like measurement of land, ‘computing volumes of granaries, construction of pyramid, construction of altars (or vedis) and fie places for performing ‘edie rites, So the geometry was studied in various forms in every ancient civilisation, in Egy>t, Babylonia, China, India, Greece, ete. Buclid (325 BC — 265 BO), a teacher of mathematics at Alexandra in Egypt, collected all the known work and arranged it in his famous treatise, called ‘Elements’, He divided the ‘Elements’ into thirteen chapters, each called a book. Euclid’s Elements form one of the most beautiful and influential works of mathematics. These books influenced the whole world’s ‘understanding of geometry. In this chapter, we shall discuss Euclid’s approach of geometry and shall try to link it with the present day geometry(*}— pares ate Euclid began his exposition by listing 23 definitions in Book-! Definition 15, pp the Ec ememtat A circle is a plane figure contained by one line such that all the sis ka het oaaeami ee ee ce Definition 1 Definition 16 Definition 17 Aline is bresdthless length. Definition 3 A diameter of the citele is any straight line drawn through the centre and terminated in both directions by the circurnference of the citele, and such a straight line also bisects the circle, Definition 18 A semicircle is the figure cortained by the diameter and the The ends of line are points, Definition 4 . A straight line i line which les evenly withthe points on itself Definition 5 circumference cut off by it. And the center of the semicircle is A surface is that which has length and breadth only, the same as that of the cirele Definition 6 Definition 19 ‘The edges of a surface are lines. Rectilinear figures are those which are contained by straight lines, Definition 7 trilateral figures being those contained by three, quadrilateral those contained by four, and multilateral those contained by more than ‘A plane surfee isa surface which lies evenly with the straight four straight lines, lines on itself. Caen Of trilateral figures, an equilateral triangle is that which has its A plane angle is the inclination to one another of two three sides equal, an isosceles triangle is that which has two of lines in a plane which meet one another and do not lie in a its sides slone equal, and a sealene triangle is that which has its straight line. three sides unequal. Definition 9 Definition 21 ‘When the lines containing the angle are straight, the angle is Further, of trilateral figures, a rightangled tangle is that which clinica hhas a right angle, an obtuse-angled triangle is that which has an Bae een so acteanged Wenge i tht whch ha te ‘When a straight line standing ona straight ine makes theadiacent Definition 22 angles equal to one another, each of the equal angles is ight, and the straight line standing on the other is called a perpendicular to that on which it stands. Of quadrilateral figures, a square is that which is both equilateral and right-angled; a rectangle is that whichis right-angled but not equilateral; a thorabus is that which is equilateral but not right- Definition 11 angled; and a rhomboid is that which has its opposite sides and ‘An obtuse angle isan angle greater than a right angle angles equal to one another bu is neither equilateral nor right- Dennae Tai aa ei eles ‘An acute angle isan angle less than a right angle. Aree F ater Parallel straight lines are straight lines which being in the same ition plane and being produced indefinitely in both directions, do not ‘A boundary is that which is an extremity of anything. meet one another in either direction, Definition 14 ‘Afigureis that which is contained by any boundary or boundaries. IEEE If you carefully study these definitions, you find that some of the terms like part, breadth, length, evenly, ete. need to be further explained clearly. So, to define one thing, you need to defined many other things, and may get along chain of definitions without an ‘end. For such reasons, mathematicians agree to leave some geometric terms undefined. However, we have an institutional feeling of these undefined terms. In Euclid’s geometry a point, a line and a plane ate taken as undefined, But we can represent them intuitiviy and explain them with the help of ‘Physical models"Introduetion to Eucit's Geometry SAU POM OLN NOL nO) Starting with his definitions, Euctid assumed certain properties, which were not tobe proved. These assumptions are actually ‘obvious universal truths’, He divided them into two types: postulates and common notions (or axioms). He used the term ‘postulate? for the assumptions that were specific to geometry. Common notions often called axioms, on the other hand, were assumptions used throughout mathematies and not specifically linked 10 geometry. Some of Euclid’ notions or axioms), notin his order, are given below: Euclid’s Axioms 1, Things which equal the same thing also equal one another. [Note that, this common notion can be apply to plane figures only.] fequals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal {Note that, magnitude of only same kind can be added.) If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal {Note that, magnitude of only same kind can be subtracted from larger one.) 4. Things which coincide with one another are equal one another. [Note that, if two things are identical, then they are equal.) 5. The whele is greater than the part. 6. Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another. 7. Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another. Tari Euclid’s five postulates are given below: Postulate 1 ‘A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point. This first postulate says that for given any two points such as 4 and B, there is a unique line AB whose end points are Aand B. Postulate 2 A terminated line can be produced indefinitely. oF Euclid’s terminated line is now called line segment. So, according : a ae to the present day terms, the second postulate say that a line | “4 segment can te extended on either side to form a Kine Postulate 3 circle can bs drawn with any centre and any radius Postulate 4 Al sight angles equal one another Postulate 5 {fa straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side ofit taken together less than two right angles then the two sraight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the sum of the angles is less than the two right angles. For example, in the figure, the line PQ falls on lines AB and CD such that the sum of the interior angles 1 and 2 is less than 180° on the left side of PO. Therefore, the lines 4B and CD will eventually intersect on the left side of PO, ifthe produced infinitely. Now-a-days, ‘postulates’ and “axioms” are terms that are used interchangeably and in the same sense.[rs] Mathomatics Equivalent Versions of Euclid’s Fifth Postulate Euclid’s fifth postulate is very significant in the history of mathematics. There are several equivalent versions of this postulate One of them is *Playfair’s Axiom (given by a Scottish mathematician John Playfair in 1729), as stated below: “For every line / and for every point P not lying on f, there exists a unique line m passing through P and parallel to Tine From figure you ean see that ofall the lines passing through the point P, only line mis parallel t line f ‘This result can also be stated in the following form: ‘Two distinet intersecting lines cannot be parallel to the same line, COREE A system of axioms is called consistent if it is impossible to deduce from these axioms a statement that contradicts any axiom or previously proved statement. (XSLT E TST TTI After Euclid stated his postulates and axioms, he used them to prove other results, Th results by applying deductive reasoning, The statements that were proved are called propo: using these results, he proved some more ns or theorems, Euclid deduced 465 propositions in a logical chain using his axioms, postulat chain, lefintions and theorems proved earlier in the Now, we prove a theorem, which is frequently used in different results: Theorem Two Proof For the time being, let us suppose that the two lines intersect in two distinct points, say P and Q. So, you have two lines passing through two distinet points P and Q. But this assumption clashes with the axiom that only one line ean pass through two distinct points. So, the assumption that we started with, that two lines can pass through two distinet points is wrong ‘Therefore, we conclude that wo distinet lines cannot have more than one point in common. (ESTERS All the attempts to prove Euclid’s fiflh postulate using first 4 postulates failed. But they led to the discovery of several other geometries, called non-Euelidean Geometries inct lines cannot have more than one point in common, Euclidean Geometry is valid only for the figures in the plane, On the curved surfaces, it fils, Creation of non-Euelidean geometry is considered a landmark in the history of thought because tll then every one had believed. that Euclid’s was the only geometry and the word itself was Euclidean.Introduction to Euclia's Geometry [] -——————_ iene} ——_— SOLVED E) AMPLES——— 1. If, Band Care three points on a line, and B lies between A and C (Fig), then prove th: es ae a AB + BC= AC. Sol. In the figure given above, AC coincides with AB + BC. Also, Euclid’s Axiom (4) says that things which coincide with one another are equal to one anotuer. So, it can be deduced that AB * BC=AC. "Note that in this solution, it has been assumed that there is a unique line passing through two points. 2. Consider the following statement : There exists a pair of straight lines that are everywhere equidistant from one another: Is this statement a direct consequence of Euclid’s fifth postulate? Explain. Sol. ‘Take any line and a point P not on f, Then, by Playfait’s axiom, which is equivalent to the fifth postulate, we know that there is a unique line m through P which is parallel tof. Now, the distance of a point from a line is the length of the perpendicular from the point to the line. This distance will be the same for any point on m from £ and any point on ¢ from m. So, these two lines are everywhere equidistant from one anoth. P Cer ->m art Ly 3. If and mare intersecting lines, ¢ |p and m ||, show that p and g also intersect. Sol. Since ¢ and mare intersecting and f |p = mand p intersect. Now, m and p intersect and mig. = pandg intersectEXERCIS (aU en os i Match the Columns : DIRECTIONS: Complete the following statements with an appropriate worditerm to be filled in the blank space(s). are the assumptions which are obvious universal truths, 2. Things which are equal to the same thing are to ‘one another. 3. equals are subtracted trom equals, the remainder are 4. Things which are double of the same things are... One another. S. Two distinct intersecting lines cannot be to the same Tine. 6. “For every line (and for every point P not lying on J there ‘exists @ unique line m passing through P and parallel 10 7. Lines which ate parallel to the same line are to each other. rue / False DIRECTIONS: Read the following statements and write your answer as irue or false. 1. Infig, if B= PQ and PO = XY, then 4B = XY, ‘Only one line can pass through a single point. If'two circles are equal, then their radii are equal. ‘A terminated line can be produced indefinitely on both the sides 8. There are an infinite number of lines which pass through two distinet points, 6. Aline segment has one end-point only. DIRECTIONS: Each question contains statements given in ‘nwo columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B, C, ‘D) in Colunn-t have to be matched with statements (p, 4." ) in Colunell ‘Column: (A) Postulate 1 ‘Column-IT A terminated line can be produced indefinitely. Allright angles are equal to fone another. A straight Tine may be drawn from any one point to any oth- cr point. Accircle can be drawn with any centre and any radius. Veneers DIRECTIONS: Give answer in one word or one sentence. 0) (B) Postulate2 —(q) (© Postulate3 (D) Postulated —) 1. Solve the equation u— use here. 2. IEP, Qand R are three points on a line and Q is between P and R, then prove that PR ~ QR = PQ. 3. What are the three basic concepts in geometry? 4. Whatis the least number of distinet points which determine a unique line? Short Answer Questions : DIRECTIONS: Give answer in 2-3 sentences, 5 and state the axiom that you 1, Tis known that x + y = 10 and that x = 2. Show that zty=10. 2, Two salesmen make equal sales during the month of ‘August. In September, each salesman doubles his sale ‘of the month of August. Compare their sale in month September, 3. Look at the fig, show that the length AH > sum of lengths of AB + BC + CD. 09 0 9 GonCone tdeld a 6. EXERCIS a Which of the following statements are true and which are false? Give reasons for your answers, (i) Only one fine ean pass through a single point. i) There are an infinite number of lines which pass through two distinet points. (iii) terminated line can be produced indefinitely on both the sides. iv) Iftwo circles are equal, then their radii are equal (¥) IFAB=PQ and PQ = XY, then AB = XY, te nel) ne Give a definition for each ofthe following terms. Are there ‘other ferms that need to be defined first? What are they, and how might you define them? (@paralll lines Gi) perpendicular lines Gi) line segment (iv) radius ofa circle () square Consider two “postulates” given below: (i) Giver any two distinct points A and B, there exists @ third point C which isin between A and B. ‘Thereexist at least three points that are noton the same line Do these postulates contain any undefined terms? Are these postulates consistent? Do they follow from Euclid’s postulates? Explain, If a point C lies between two points A and B such that AC= BC, then prove that AC = AB/2, {In Question 4, point Cis called a mid-point of line segment AB. Prove that every line segment has one and only one (i) a “universal truth”? (Note that the question is not about the fifth postulate) How would you rewrite Euclid’s fifth postulate so that it ‘would be easier to understand? 9, Does Euclid’ fifth postulate imply the existence of parallel lines? Explain. Steere 2. 3 In the figure, we have X and Y are the mid-points of AC and BC and AX = CY. Show that AC = BC ¢ /\ x e Inthe figure, if OX =X¥. PX show that XY = XZ, x A y % In the figure, we have, ZABC = ZACB,23= 24 Show that Z1= 22In the figure, we have AB = BC, BX = BY. Show that AX = CY, A c Inth. figure, if Z1= 23,22= 4 and 23= 24, write the relation between £1 and 22, using an Euclid’s axiom. In figure, we have: AC = XD, C is the mid-point of AB and Dis the mid-point of XY. Using an Euclid’s axiom, show that AB = XY. BOX 10. euerentes 1 Mathematics The number of dimensons,a solid has @ (b) 2 © 3 @ 0 ‘The number of dimensions, a surface has @ 1 () 2 © 3 @ 0 ‘The number of dimensions, a point has @ 0 1 © 2 @ 3 Euclid divided his famous treatise “The elements” into (a) 13 chapters (b) 12 chapters (©) I chapters (@) 9 chapters The total number of propositions in the elements are (@) 465 (b) 460 © B @ 35 ee Read the following statement : “A square is a polygon made up of four line segments, out of which , length of three line segments are equal to the length of fourth one and all its angles are right angles”. Define the terms used in this definition which you feet necessary. Are there any undefined terms in this? Can you Justify that all angles and sides of a square are equal? Prove that every line segment has one and only one mid- point. Ifa point O lies between two points P and R such that PO OR, then prove that PO = PR.Introduction w Euctit's Geometry Mineo en DIRECTIONS: This section contains multiple choice questions. Each questions has 4 choices (a), (6), (c) and (d) out of which ONLY ONE is correct. i &h 6. ‘The word geometry comes from the Greck word "geo" and “meterrion’ which means (2) ‘Geography’ and ‘meter? (©) “Globe and ‘meter* (©) ‘Go’ and ‘to measure’ (2) “Bart and ‘to measure’ ‘The first known proof that “the circle is bisected by its diameter was given by (a) Pythagoras (b). ‘Thales (©) Euclid (2) None of these ‘A point i defined as (@) thatwhich has no length no breadth no height (&) small part ofa line with no length (6) no cimension, but represented by dot only (€)_ undefined term, represented by a dot Difference between ‘postulate’ and ‘axiom is (@) there isno difference (©) few statements are termed as axioms and other as Postulates (©) ‘postulates’ are the assumptions used specially for geomerty and ‘axioms’ ate the assumptions used throughout mathematies, (@) None ofthese For every'line *P and a point P not Iying oni, the number of lines that pass through P and parallel to 7 are @ 2 >) 1 (©) no line @ 3 Greeks emphasised on: (a) deductive reasoning (b)_ inductive reasoning (©) practical use of geometry (@) infinitely many solutions ‘Which ofthe following needs a proof? (a) Axiom (b) Theorem, (6). Postatate (@) Definition Axioms are assumed: (a) universal trths in all branches of mathematics (b) theorems. © (4) universal truths specific to geometry 9. ‘Lines are parallel if they do not intersect’ is stated in the form of: (a) a postulate (b) a definition (©) anaxiom (@) aproof 10. [tis known that ifx+ y= 10, then x + y+2= 10 +z. The Eulid’s axiom that illustrates this statement (a) first axiom (b) second axiom (©) third axiom (a) fourth axiom More Than One Option Correct DIRECTIONS: This section comains multiple choice questions Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out of which ONE or MORE may be correct. 1, Which of the following is/are correct? (a) A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight line on itself. (b) A surface is that which has length and breadth only. (©) Aline is breadthless length, (4) A point is that which has no part 2. Which of the following is/are Euclid’s axioms? (a) Things which are equal to the same thing are never equal to one another, (b) equals are added to equals, the wholes ate equal. (©) The whole is greater than the part (4) ‘Things which are halves ofthe same things are equal to one another, 3. Which of the following is/are Euclid’s postulates? (@) Asstraight line may be drawn from any one poini any other point, (b) circle ean be drawn with any centre and any radius, (©) Aterminated line cannot be produced indefinitely. (d)_ Allright angles are never equal to one another, 4. Which of the following isare incorrect? (a) A triangle whose sides are equal, is called a scaler. triangle. (b) A triangle, each of whose angle is less than 90°, is called an acute triangle. (©) [Fall sides of a polygon are different, it is called a regular polygon, (@)__A triangle with one of its angles greater than 90°, is known as an obtuse triangle,Hianes i 1. Axioms 2, equal «3. equal 4. equal 3. parallel 6. 7. parallel 1 Tue 2 Fale 3, The 4, True 5. False 6 False L AFM BIO; O76; Oo 3) u-S=15 ‘On adding 5 to both sides, we have u-S+5=15+5 (Euclid’s second axiom, when equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal) or u=20 2 P QR In the ebove figure PQ coincides with PR-QR So, according to axiom, “things” which coincide with one another are equal fo ‘one another’, We have, PR-QR=PQ 3. The thiee basic concepts in geometry + Point + Line + Plane 4. Two distinet points determine @ unique points. Eee Sea 1. The given equation is: xty=l0 “i and, x= Ai) ‘Subtracting (i) from (i) xty-x=10-z [1+ Ifequals are subtracted from equals, the remainders care equal] Pyeienenrcens Ol Selected Questions y=l0-z = y+ [:+ equals are adiled to equals, the wholes are equal] Let sale of salesman A in August = x and, sale of salesman B in August Given, x=y “ In September, each salesrian doubles his sale Sale of salesman A in September = 2x ‘and, sale of salesman B in September = 2y From Euclid’s second pastulate, if equals are added to ‘equals, then the wholes are equal 2x=2y Thus, their sales in month of September are equal AH=AB+BC + CD +DE+EF +FG+GH Now, AB+BC +CD= AD Since AD is a part (fraction) of AH, therefore AH > AD or AH>AB+BC+CD (Axiom 6: Whole is greater than any one of the part) Eianaas () False, As we know that there are various points in a plane such that A, B,C, Dand E, Now by first postulate E; 4 We can draw a line from A to B, Ato C, Ato E and Ato D. It proves that many lines can pass through point A. Similarly, we conclude that infinite lines can pass through a single point, i) FalseIntroduction to Euctie's Geometry Mark two points A and B on the plane of paper. Fold the paper so that a crease passes through A. Again fold the paper so that a line passes through B. Clearly infinite numberof lines ean pass through B. Now fold the paperin such a way that a line passes through both A and B. We observe that there is just only one line passes through both A and B, Git) Tw. In geometty, by a line, we mean the line in its totality ‘and nota portion oft Since a line extends indefinitely in both the directions x B So iteannot be drawn whole on paper: in practice, only portion of aline is drawn and arrowheads are marked at its two ends indicating that it extends indefinitely in both directions. (iv) Tre, On superimposing the region bounded by one circle ‘on the other ifthe circles coincides. Then, their centres and boundaries coincide. Therefore, their radi will be qual ) Te. As we know things which are equal to the same thing, are equal to one another. Lines which do not intersect anywhere are called parallel lines Gi) Two fines which are ata right angle to each other are callec perpendicular lines. (iii) Line Segment It is a terminated line, (iy) Radius of a cirele: The length of the line-segment joining the centre of a circle (o any point on its circumference, (8) Aquacrlateral with all the four sides equal and all the our angles of measure 90° each is called a square. 3. ‘There are several undefined terms which should be ‘These postulates are consistent (says thatthe given two points A and B, there isa point C lying on the line in between them: (Gi). says that given A and B, we can take C not lying the line through A and B, ‘These'postulates' donot follow from Euclie’s postulates, However, they follow from axiom stated as given two dlistint points there isa unique line that passes through them, 2 @ st. B ic A AC=BC = AC+AC=BC+AC [Equals are added to equals) => 2AC=AB= AC=AB2 Given: Cis mid-point of AB To Prove: C is the only mid-point of AB. Let a line AB have two mid-points, say, C and D. Then, ac=Lap and “a so-lan ‘ From (i) and (i) \C=AD. (> Things whichare equal tothe same thing are equal to one another) AC=BD wo AC=AB + BC [B lies between A and C] (ii) BD=BC+CD [C lies between B and D] (ii) Substituting (i) and (ii) inf), we get AB +BC=BC*CD => AB=CD [Subtracting equals from equal] This is true for any thing in any part of the world, this is a universal truth. ‘The two facts about the a (i) There isa line through P which is parallel 10 (ii) There is only one suc ine Ifa straight line / falls on tWo steaight lines m and n such that the sum of the interior angles on one side of # is two right angles, then by Euclid fifth postulate the lines will ‘not meet on this side of f. Next, we know that the sum of the interior angles on the other side of line will also be two right a the other side also. So, the lines mand 7 never meet and are, therefore, parallel es. Therefore, they will not me Given: AX= CY Also, AX=CX (X and ¥ are mid points of AC and CB) and CY = BY AX = CY=BY=CX AX =CY AX +CX=CY+CX axsex=cr= BY ACC (ane pore Given: ox=!xy, Pxatxz andOX= Px3 8. 1 9. 4M. = bavelye Dyn > XY=XZ Hence proved Given: ZABC = ZACB and 23= 24 Wehave, ZABC = 1+ 24 ZACB= £24.23 At ihe 2243 A= 22423 > Lia 22. Hence proved Given, AB = BC, and BX = BY AB=BC AB-BX = BC-BX. AB-BX = BC-BY AX=cY Henee proved Here, 230 24, 21= 23 and 22= 24, Bul’ fist axiom says, the things which are equal to equal thing are equal 0 one another. So, 21= 22 AB =2AC (C is the mid-point of AB) XY =2XD (Dis the mid-point of XY) Also, AC = XD (Given) ‘Therefore, AB = XY, because things which are double of the same things are equal to one another. © & @) 10. (@) @ ‘The terms need to be defined are = Polygon : A simple closed figure made up of three or more line segments, Line segment : Part of Line : Undefined term Point : Undefined term [Angle :A figure formed by two rays with a common initial point. Ray : Part ofa line with one end point. ine with two end points. Right angle : Angle whose measure is 90° Undefined terms used ae: line, point Euclid’ fourth postulate say that "all right angles are equal tocone another." Ina square, all angles are right angles, therefore ll angles are equal (From Euclid’ fourth postulate). Three Line segments are equal to fourth line segment Given). ‘Therefore, all the four sides of a square are equal. (by Euclid’ frst axiom "things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another”) 2. Proof: Letus prove this statement by contradiction method. Let us assume that the Ine segment Phas two midpoints Rand. P RS + => PR and, PS = Pr 2 (Ce Rand S are mid-points according to assumption) => PR=PS But this is possible only if R and S coincide. 3. Proof: From fig., PO +OR = PR “i PO~ OR (given) i) P oO PO + PO= PR {using (i) in ()] Eien 1 @ 2% 3 @ 4 6 5. (b) 6 O % © (@) 9. (a) 10. (b) 1 @bed) 2 (bed) 3. (ab) 4 @0)