af Svs i XC Guang To "HISTORY OF PHYSICS aurstorrg uw ov saerons's Naston , Qridtitte. an Galcles cintotde ws 6 OFGE wie aatha erou‘ane:os500. .Aieghey ted cot then Sten taventod go that ke dig sot have a ler which ve wowld fanstl7 Bae unter laseseet tee aunty ertaags ew Goat in Sela Sgarks sbaerwshtans and refines spetulntions on naturel ghencasua of SHES SESE TEST. Seat iaportects ols vas Bor he dia hie actence, TUS, Cenvintatpent shes at saps about seties by vesting Fs fv suero Fieptesense aasteler effort, f reetutence and Y velnaly. sue retined apecutations of Artatotie Led his to dintinpstsh botwsen the sutioe of the stars shich wen apresal, ané the wotion of hinge crearth. ‘Theos things covld wederge either natural notion and fall Tice a stone, or forces sotign and nove Mike & cart on 8 roed. Fur thernore, bodter sere claseiiied as saturealy heavy or Might, and 4 vis the Gature of Beavy bodies to Zell and Light bodies to rise. TE UR rendiiy bs underevsod, therefore, that Aristotle would provese for Sntural totion thut heyy boties #43) faster then Jeea heavy bosies. ie course) sbscrvations would support this, for + rock does fail Tanter thin a leat Thug for Aristotle the veteht (or bulk) of & body was in-direct proportion to its velocity: v a? > Ariatoleralse observed that a Dody Would £12 (oeturaly) ees fast SSSHIERUS GETHET tat rastsetate of tne peotun impeded cation Thur Arletotio vould write vs 1/a there R representa the resistance or the movie, Putting noth proportions. together we get v= #7 fe note that course obfenvettons on, ball Dearie son viscons iqutd Tike eit iead'to'w = 1/R whore i would represent the viscous reatetance of the Liquid (Stakes! Law) For forced rotion Aristotle argued that t was connon experience that a force had to be exerted on an object to cause it to move; and a Greater force vas Fequired to Rove it faster, thus v« F. Furthersore, the heavier the load the greater 4s the required force (for the sane velocity). Thus F= R vhere R represents the mage Doing saved. Com Dining Both proportions leads to ¥ = Rv. Aristotle woulé thus arrive at the dgansical equation or a lav of sotton for ell-earthly bodies: ‘Tals analysis of notion de deeply ingrained, alnost natural. Many children perceived and aniyge potion in these vays. Tor them F = Kv fs pore netural than F = Mx, It seeas therefore that students should not learn Newton's laa norely by vote, If they learn the Mstory as Belt they will gein ¢ fuller and coeper appreciation of then. KN a ke ai onions oF cavttso's Urs Sicmnigrrow 19 1s ecrevriere iain entice caisaeh, one of the Zoundre of wodoen ertrocoy snd exzeris 4 Guat castaeks ome oratts flan; Tealy fm 1504, te father who wae & Florentine noblewan encouraged biz in his intollectua and artistic pursuits. iis tnventivenose shoved ituelz at an early ago, snd shen Ro wes a young wedicel student he constructed eimplo tising device for tha monsurmeat of pulse rates. tn, 1599, he vedetved his first appotutuent to the Chair in Mathematics Th ihe University of Pira, While iz thia position, he also found tise Toconduct hia now fanous experiments in falling bodies. Ts these Siporisesta Ke set out simply to daseribe rather thaa to explain hoy Eile fall. te relied belle dovn Anclsned planes and found moans to neasure the digtance travelled and the tine taken. Thus the kinonatic Squations ike # ~ dgt® were verified and at the sano tino Gulileo bad {Ritlated sodern acientific methodology. The results of his experinents, Uhich algo denoustrated that the rate of « body's Zali was independent Sr ite weight, brought hin into direct confrontatfon with those senior professors who hold the Ardetotle view that the rate of fall was weight Blenencest (Pv). iis challenge tp the establishment incurred such Gpposition that Gallteo was forced to resign his char in 2601, is next appotmtzent, 4m 1592, was as a professor at Fodus, vhare ke Tensined oneil 1610. While there ho undertook the construction of + Tefisty of invtruonte, tmeluding telescopes, microscopes and a1z [nsrsosetors, Tha telescope. while not the invention of Galileo was, ESRINDLSSS gusge oaployed by Mu.in a solantific end methodical vey ‘avo of his wost notable discoveries with the telescope, which further Challenged the erthodoxy of the day vero. (4) the presence of spots of the sus; and Gi) the discovery of Jupiter’ voons (the 4 Galilean sateltit the first challenged the traditioial view that the sui was an “uiblentshed” vtetig creation, “tue second, provided s miniature "solar systen",-whtch saree ced Galileo's sliegianca to the boliocentzic theory of Copernicus. seeerne aatter which brought him into direct conflict with the (then) TEadine ot the Ronan Catholic Church - that the Eartl was the inuovable cee ine universe. The confiict celninated in Galileo's sunrons feiele the Inquisition vhere he received an injunction of fitence ~ we eectratn from prosoting of dofending the sun-contred bypothests. In 1652, Galtieo atteapted to ctrounvent this restriction by pubitshiag wa Siliistes in the two Creat World Gystens", which included « brilitant se uition of Coperatcan theory. TE was soundly condosned by the, Churen, sree ee a ted to a trial before tho Toqulsition. Galileo was humiliated ty elas forced to recent, on bis haoea, "the heresy Of the novenent of the Earth", Even after this, the story ds told, Galileo muttered "eppur a+ seetur = and yet At aoves. Whether true or not the story tells us sonsthing Shout the character of Geitleo as it vas perceived by others Im 1982, nore ‘than 200 yeare 1stor, the Rouen Catholic Church, at the bebest of Pope’ John Paul IL, absolved Galileo of aay ¥ro?s+‘THE _CONTATBUTEON OF GALILEO'S MeTovoLocy To THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTICR Toe buading of prywiea a4 a setence in the sodera context, uatting sheory and pxperinent in tts approach, only began with the work of . Galileo Galtiet (1564-1642). Ta this reapect, Mis work was a aajor contribution to the Selenttiie Revolution Tt Ls dizrieult to overemphasized the aigniticancs of Grlileo" methodology, espectallysince the prevailing intellectual climate was stilt doninated by Arietotle's views. Agatast auch a background, eti21. wareceptive to experimental metnods, we find Gslileo experimenting with Penduluns, with bodies rolling down duclided planes, with alr thermoneters. Ss voll as with mirrors and tight Gaiiieo"s methodology, rather than relying primarily on intellectual propositions and assusptions, employed experizentation to achleve insights into nature. Fron initiel observations of a phenomeson, ©.. falling bodies, hypotheses could be formulated and gubjected to further experinental vests. With enough of those, generalizations covld be made Am avproctse quantitative, fora, vhich would enable one to predict, future betaviour, In this way tt was Galileo, above all, who first latd the foundations for the standard of enquiry adopted in physics, a standerd which 9 80 Aslipaz! nf ohystes even foday. Sut he achieved even ore than this. In adeition to these technical daprovenenty in the practice of science, there vere two conceptual: noveltios lao. Tue first invoived him in « clear-eyed decision not te ask of nature why" questions but "how" questions. Ariatotlo had asked "wiy do bodies 40117" Ho got the uninformative ansver "because they are heavy". Galileo et out to descrine how an object fells and obtained the kinematic equetfons. “Viat Galltoo was Jean to be daing was asking the right qui ions ag well as attacking simpler probleas Ziret Secondly Galileo tdeelised. Where Aristotle wished to bare bis laws on raw nature, Galileo supposed, in the cage: of motion, what would happen 4m an ddeai situation, say 1m the absonceiof friction, Quicker (although Amprocise) answers were obtained viich allowed gone understanding of tke phenomenon of motion, Ageia Galileo chose the easier and nore sruteful path, ‘ Tdeatisation, "how" questions, the use of mathensticg and oxperiuentation all these cane together for the first tine in one man, Galileo, who thus sot the revolutionary path for seventeenth century science, Gattte0 fully appreciated that vith the crude instruments avatlabie to Rim, Lt ves not possible to measure the speed of treely-telling bodiea fo any dogree of precteton, Menon, be continued to ratard or slows ‘their tall through the Wee of an inclined plane ae shown here. By co doing, it then became toasible to tine the “fall” using a vater clock ~ consisting of a contsizer of vater vith « stopdock at the bottom, Tatervais of tue, 1.0, for bodies rolling dova difterent lengthe, vero measured by voighing the anout of wather viich floved fron the Container duriag the "Zall", Tm this vay, and by repeated nossurosonts, he was able to obtain sots Of measureaoats fon Length (x) and time (t), by which he could arrive at his low for felling bodies (shown below in graphical fora) b) Yipure 1 hy such as the rolling of bodies dovn Gaiiteots experimental approa: lure of quantitative "lave" (b) to Anclined planes (a), led to bi generalize auch behaviour. A Caption to .Figure Included for Gatiteo's methodotogy. (Reg.: Rothman, M., "The Lass of Physics”, PSE)fa 1saac_vewron's, (JOR CONTATBUTTON. "Fo PHYSICS -WATHEMATICS taasc Nevton was bore et Woolathorpe, England ip 1642, the sane year Ghat Galileo Wied. ile wae shy and sicHly but even as a schoolboy, tt tne Grantham public sclool, be dteplayed a versatile mechanical aptitude, He constructed water clocks, windatile ard even an NRotonatic™ carriage-2 Automtic 42 the sense that it required no tporee to pull it, In principle, it vas similar to the tricycle, Kor, over bis acedente performance wan, wt first, rather indifferent and Rls getter tock hip avey fron school to set hin up as a farmer, Tt Decare clear that he hed no aptitiude for farming and his nother we persusded to send hin back to school, He soon began to show sigas of Riz tntelieetual powers especially in Mathenetics. He entered Trintty College, Cenbridge 1m 2660, to read for Physics, and Mathematics. Ts Daysies, of particular interest to bin vere the writings of Jobane Kepler, and their relation to the problen of gravitation, Up wttl the tise of Newton there vas no evident connection between the notion of celestial bodies (expressed in Kepler's three lama of plnuetery wotion) and the motions of bodies on Earth. Nevton's sag~ Bifteast sehievenont was in Barmonizing there two ~ apparently Giatinet = Aristoteliaa regizes of notion, This he accomplished througs the forauletion of hia three lews of ction, the adoption of the Reliocentric viewpoint and bis lay of gravitation, Wie awe of sotions, unltke Kepler's enperical Javs, eabodied « precision end generality that has led ts their application over & Tide domain of physical phenomena, As a resuit, one finds Kepler's lave being deducible fron those of Newton, Fro within tho franework of bis osm nwa of motion, combined vith the heliocentric hypothesis, Nevton Was abic to formulate his lew of universal gravitation, This lav, exprossed quantitatively as FeGly¥o/r2, hes iteel? boon e ajor contribution to the developacat fof both astronoay and phyaica. No one before Newton, and perhaps only Einstein after Mim, Drought about such a radical renewel of physics through his theory of gravitation, For astronomy, it allowed the precise prediction of planetary positions, For physics, it denonstrated Ciirough the accurate antrouonicel predictions) that the lavs of motion applicable on Earth wore equally velid for celestial phenomena. | Ta eathesstics, Newton's most notable contribution vas hia "theory of flusions", which laid the foundations for the Celculus, © branch of Hathenatics vhich can describe instantaneous changes, ‘This "nathenatics Gf change" elao proved to bo, an snvalusble tool in en¢oving the lave Of motion with a powerful predictive capability. TT 2 (See Cajoei, F. ~ History of Physics P63) Newton's other maser contributions to phyaea vere endo in the tleld (1) bie compuscutar theory of Light, ebich pletured Ligue as rye of sinus partities ¢'ecrposcles") ther noved 4a stesight Dice. te sesy vayo the theory was an extension of hin wechtsical concepts, but proved successtu) in secouttag for euch vhenoaeaa as reflection and retraction? (14) the application of nix optics! principtes tovard the construction of « reflecting selescope, and (4111) the demonstration, in 1666, that a bean of sunlight ean be decomposed into a spectruz of colours ‘The latter was of groot significance; ‘it waa also the birth’ of epec~ trocopy. Its significance vas that for centuries scientists bad struggled unsuccessfully vith the nature of colour; 4¢ vas Kevton who first denonstrated that vhite light vas composite: that there as no such thing t= separate coloured Light. Se — ROLE OF JOULE IN ESTANLTSAING ERINIPEE oF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Vati the mase-cnerzy equivalence relation of Einaten (2 = io), the concepts of energy and natter voro regarded as distinct. Ia. tho ninotoonth contury, certainly, energy was porcoived as capenlo of “infinite subdivision", unlike matter vhich could only ba divided up toa linit (atonsy To principle of conservation of energy = for which Janes Prescott Joule vas largely responsibie, was coon aa ono of the great scientific achLeve~ ments of the 10th century. Count Rumford earlier, may have beon "on the track” of this principle, but he never made the required percise Sessurouents, 4,0, as Joule had in determining tho correspondence betrien echanical work done and quantity of heat gonorated. Joule used an apparatus with a rotating axis, attached to which wore eral stirring paddles. The driving force was a weight suspended Scross a pulley. ‘Tho weight was slloved to fall freely, rotating the axts, snd the paddles into tho vator. Joule dizcovered that tho nec haniced potential energy (Zp) of the falling weight was convertad into hoat energy (fy) of the wator. That 4a, the vork done by the weights Kas transferred to the paddle end into the inveraal enezgy of the water. ‘The quantity could be calculated. Yor exanple, if the weights (me) were alloved to e110 tinos, zon a hoigat h, Joule assumed the?! A0agh = uchd where mchO is the total quantity of heat sanoctated with {8 temperature increase 9 for the water (due to inereused ‘enezey) of mass m and specific heat capacity ©.-4- i taking and careful nesouremente, lasting for alzost : fatupliahed the #olid evidence Zor the principle of con : servation of energy: energy can be neither created nor destroyed, only chengedtro one tors to another. ‘Thordovelopeent of beat. by hanmering « piece of natal for example As explained by saying thet compression increased the capacity of etal Zor caloric. However, thie should mean that the reverse pre erpanaion vould decrease Ate capecity, wales ofcourse in not thee ee AL THE NATURE OF HEAT 7 To rival theory of boat, the kinetic or sechanical theory, had its From an early period sn the history of scientific speculation, there ragiasitng ga tat Adare GP cater ne es 2 dsvetoped tvo Fivel theoriesvof the nature of Rent, Oae of these, Plato, who eanestod that "ent ta begotten by tnptct and rietion ~ known a2 the caloric theory, interpreted hest as « definite physical but this te motion", This theory interprets kent as the Linetle onersy RELRIGOY entity, aavindentructibie siuid edpebie of penetrating and conbiniog 4 of the individual particles of watter, 22 they vibrate or nove around BROGRES vith the! particios or ordinary mutter.” Tate cosbination pas sala 9 ate the substance, A produce the observable theresi effect. Tho name calO¥ic wan given pee : + © to this fluid, A het body possesses more caloric than a: cold body. tae tne, wo © te Be Auta, A hot Body pe lorie. th ta bears | eager zs she 27eh and 18th conturdee, ane scientists began to think of Ts ts perhaps naturel to regard heat as "sonsthing that flove" tron "Ht < AS Be Re eee eee eee ne ute: fone body to another. Even today, vith the calorie theory far behind nest 4s motiqn and nothing else” Francis Bacon that’ body can only hold certain voluse of fluid, The calorie reer beieadactiat theory was widely accepted 1s the late 16th and 27th contury, It fr dad cae escee eS ear os wed to explain adequately many heat phenonena e.g. best 1a alwaya wre ‘nothing else other then the brisk { Erspezonted from a hot boty” to's cold sody tm contact vith onch otter. “Vy di. Aeitation of the parte bf a body"; Robert Hooks. ‘aie wan explained thus: thevperticles of caloric are attracted: to tho-pertisies of ordinary natter but tend to repel each other. The Tosstll Hiner oe ablante SEE gs foe large number of particles in the hot body undergo uch repulsion that congluded that an nach moving partigie ne substaice ines kinetic sees Ahoy eve forced Intute we3d body ie nee fas RinwtLe ergy, beat is tho sum of all tho kinetic jenergies of the particles of the a ‘When substances at different temperatures are mixed,, the total amount ‘eory, tte main setback was the lack of experimental evidence, of heat de conserved. Heat lost by one substance = heat gained by the Gtners mats war seeributed to the #ltect transference of exlorse tree G20 objection which may have boon rijaed is the fact that the sun's Supplied to them and yet donot reach the game touperature, The cel- . | oriste explained this by saying that One doey was unable to alloy the free passage of caloric, by reason of {te physical constitution. . SAddition of heat to a gubstanco does fot necessarily produce a tea perature rise e.g. vaporation and fusion, The calorie theory wes : Adjusted to suit these phenomena by introducing the idee that the Combination of calorie or two kinds of calorie with matter can ovcur in txo ways, one of vhich is undetecteble to @ theraoneter.ante Produced. Rumford advangad.the following argument: "the supply of heat’) ba a ie TTompr Aad spid fab bok wee pied don Ibe bs 4 pingonp aR AS Nadne thety ple, unr oath by CRUgREE by. — oat oe EEL Ente cer He peately Un eu coust Runtord (Benjants Thonpton, 173-1818) var wot 2 profenrianel SUN I, piyrielat. ie wus nate inaproter Generel oy Areiliery fer’ toe aperien Ao tray aod vas thus rospoueibie tor the production of ailitery guns ard RS, caaton. iu" ehe anpenah of Kuateh, Ko AGupind cantoncorere 89 enable EHS Sa to conduct beat experiments, "Tn one enperinent, he ured a brant’, BR fA tal borer, which produced so auch eat that dt boiled 2$ guilons of° mache Se Vater, iia experinents revesied further vesinessen in the enteric eeorsOo Oe Sf Ge shen borer wus wed eanto ceatty of. hea an nated ye Bivings wat proivced than then using s blungevoreis osttne ettorte theory, the heat produced vee due tothe giciier capacity of the Zea acd thr rerresorie when Ite" eutey‘aivites tom than intuit, “norever, hs SO ‘Sino tmpunt of het war reltnad yhether say of fer patil eaiog core which powered the machine. There is limit to the amount of water which Nola un be obvaisee by aquoezing n vet apmuge {colori tivo), bets cieeiog Sela Ait continve to prosuce energy colony an Le io seruak (uechoatead este sheen). fevthing witch cabo fratehedwithou 2ittttton fom sa asf Lclated aysten etanet possibly be tiesteiet eens sete tae anforaia eaperionts bad the ettect of detying te eatorte theory, e2 SSG Sonparason or Kivel TMeortes of Light ‘Avong the early 17th contury selentists to apecuiate on the nature of Right was Descartes. Ho attespted to explain the lev of refraction o& tho assusption that ight consists of suall particles ia Iinear notion, He waed the analogy of » bell brvexing through a thin cloth, whore ste velocity couponent perpendicular to the cloth dacreases, but thet Parallel to the cloth rensins constant, The tetel velocity therefore decreases and the ball's path bends towards the cloth, Since raya bend sway fron the normal in loss dongo wedie, dt zollows that volocity decreases as Light passes into lean dense substance, Reflection Was said to be due to the rebound of these particles fron a surface. Descartes also proposed another theory that Itght consints of w pressure OF action transaitted trom object to eye through the natter of a sure rounding space. Sone scientists followed up the pertieulete theory, while others developed the idee of transmitted action/aotion. Among the latter vere Fermet and Francesco Grimaldi. Grimaldi noticed taat the edges of sbadors 40 blurred, Tis supports a vave thoory, of Light vaves uevally bend around the edge of an obstacle, le thought that light itenlf wer 4 fluld cepeble Of vave-1ske motion, the different colours being represented by different frequencies. = 10 - Muygoos theory cane much closer to the classical vave theory. He regarded the fluid or ether as boing stationary while Light consis: Tou of Longitudinal vaver progressing through it, Each particle of Ghe ether thus oxciliated sbout « mean position, transmitting ite notion to every other surrounding particle, This produces # series of aphertcel vaves moving svay from every point of cisburbance, The ether, according to Huygens, tilled ull transparent subatancer, Dut dova oa passing through these because they had t6 go around the particles of the wubatance itself, Huygens found ditticulty: in explaining cortain observable phenonena on this theory ‘e.€, the origin of colours, the double refraction of Light in crystal of Teoland Spar, polarization, rectilinear propagation, colours to. thin films, colours at the edgex of shadows - In Bis publication OPTICKS (1704), Nowton adopted « particulate theory of lights. He held that 1.ghe ithel consists of moving particles, the motion of which produce vibrations in the surrounding ether, iene vibrations could either reinforce or hinder the motion of the Light perticles, He explained partial reflection at a boundary by saying that particles vhieh vere reinforced could pass through; others whlch vere hindered were made to rebound. Newton viewed the differant colours as Gitterent kinds of particles, sone of which were nore refractiole tha Norton aleo-nertorsed exnerinents with thin pista, whiem produced al= fersate bright and dark concentric chrcles (Nevton's Rings), ie was srully svdre that thin phonowenon vas satisfactorily explained by the lundulatory (wave) theory, His main objection to the vave theory vA the {act that, according to hin, 1t failed to adequately account £or rectilinear propagation of Light . rare vere feu developments in thie area during the 16th contury, von Wat eciontints accapted the corpuscular theory. (It 4a thought’ that ils van Largely due to Newton's influence and authority) In 1801, Tomas Young revived the wave theory. is experiment shoving the interference of 1ight var az tuportant development, Interference ism phenonenon characteristic of waveforms, joie big experiment, be calculated the wavelength of ight. ult vas of the order of 10-Fm, Young, grva the extrese amalinons of the waver Length compared to the size of visible objects as the reason why sharp shadows could be cast, and the dittraction colours of scratched surfaces, be also explained by the interference principle, Attonpts Bad Deon made to explain ifsraction tringen by the corpuscular Geory, iatroducing theoratigel lave of attraction and repulsion between the light particles and the edges of the obstacles, To renove these Cpjection«, Augutin Fresnel designed an experiment which did not use cbataolen ~ placing tvo plane inirrore at an angle of slmost 180°, he ured reflected beans to produce interference. me colours of thin platAfter 1835, the entasion (particle) theory bad been abandoned by mort pbysiciats, Hovever, a» conclusive verification of the wave theory came sDoUL the middle of the century, with Foucault: S84 velosities of Light in air and water, The particle theory predioe a greater value for water than air. Foucault found that the velocity creased in vator and that the ratio of the velocities 1a equal to that of the refractive tndices of water and air, which van predicted by wave theory, RECALL TEST _IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPERIWENTS HAVE PROVIDED EVIDENCE THAT LIGHT WAS BOTW A PARTICLE AND A WAVE NATURE ‘Though, the experiment of Foucalt led to # resunctatién of "corpuscular" sheorien of 1ight, the dava of the twentieth century fav a revival of the Sexpuscutar view.’ Tie led not so auch to « conflict, J.m. Between weve And particle theories, but rather # duality, One had te accept the reality. Wat Light could benave ae both wave aad partici, A problom in the last decade of the 19th century was how to account for fhe observable intensity nt» nody (eng. ater) tadietiog av stest waver lengths, whoo theory predicted the intensity ahould be tnsinrte. toe golution tp this dtleana vas proposed, by Max Planck is 1800, Ho postulated ‘that radiation entttod trox a body occurred Ln deacrete of energy, rather than continously 4# NAG Always been supposed, He celled the "bundles" quanta, and shoved that, 1 the postulate war accepted ther tBvory could be brought into agreement with observation ‘Tats propoual of Light occuring in “corpuscula:" bundles called quants or gbotons was sudsequeatly reinforced in 190 by Albort Hidetein. ‘Ie a Basterful exposition (for vaich be later received the Nobel Prize) Hsnstoin explained the voll-know “photoelectric effect” on the b the photon concept He shoved that the effect could moat easily be explained by assuming light to be composed of « stresz of Light vburiata” OF photods, snd that tor each of these "Dullete” tucident on a setel, np electron was liberated. As the nlinber and. diversity of “quantua” phenosena grev in the twentieth century, it becee abundantiy clear thet a "photon" or corpussle concept yas hore to stay. This did sot in auy way ddtract, however, from other ‘refines experiments (e.g. in polarisation, interference and diffraction) which continued to show that light algo dehaved as vaves. Indeed, the budding science of spectroveopy found the wave interpretation most suitable in the ongoing stucy of various epectrel lines of elements, Thu as due to the fact thet spactral liney occurred at discrete frequencies ~ which vere aise wave-lengthe (since © £4) 1 Buy perhaps sonowhere 1 the goth century wave-perticle duality evident gore strongly team in the equation of Planck's for the caergy of 1 ghaton Tis simpte equation: z= ke tnmediately senociates the photogs Perticular euergy ita 4 vavdleogth. Yor the tira’ tine » “corpusele” As aafociated vith « wave, through their energy". Thus wat the setouding Age of modern paysice shered in ‘FOUCAULT’ 8. CRUCIAL EXPERIMENT F Foucault's experizent, perforsed in 1850, measured the velocity of Light 4m water; but it did'nore than that. It provided evidence, waten sar ‘accepted by the physics community, that light van of a wave aetene Now 4 bad bi particulat * contentious issue for @ long tine vhether Light was as Novton hed believed (Nevton more accurately, bertevee Ap a Shoory which sav light as partially particle and partially wave), OF vaverLtke as Huygens had proponed. Various optical precousaa eoeed be saplained on either theory, refraction and reflection, for exasore Although ptenonens like polarisation could not be explaised oa ene Particle theory no serious stteapt vas made to explain it on the save {heory. Up to the beginning of the sineteeath contury Nowtonten cheery wae doctueat, oe of digcrisinating betvoos tnd an oxperinental toot vas probably the post suesoie. ‘Such avtant had boon available, in principle, for sone ties. Dese®ites who supported Newton theorised about the velocity of tight 4a fvo dizferent media. If it te ¥, to air and Vy an glass acys then the SIEGES Andon of ginny vith rlapoet to air Myouta oe My, = Vee Since n,, >} for Descrates ¥, > V. und light vould travel! “tast8e Mia glass ths tn air. for Forndt whd roltowed Huy ¥, © ¥, and Liget ohoula travel nore slowly tn gis eaat fod van an experiment to measure the velocity of Light in ate dium, This is exactly what Fouewulé provided , to appreciate the 1421 eigotticance of this experiment we muah cite te work of Young 4a the enrly aineteesth century. ie began 4m 1600: 4 serien of experiments using slits to produce whet were called interference patterns, These pattorns were interproted by bin and others et the cine fs the natural reqult of ight being of a vave nature. There da sow ae doubt chat thous effects should be #0 Anterpreted. lovavel, Young's views sot vith stife resistance partly because his explanations were not very clear and hie mithenatice were difficult to uderatend Although betveon 1619 and 1824 Fresnel ‘produced a mathenstical description of Young's 1st patterns vhich va comprehensible and vas accepted it could de said that phyictats vere till evaiting for an saporinent like Foucaust"soie ‘me basic experiment vas suggested by Fizean in 1049; it van different tonnt for the fizat tine the velocity of Light could be measured eatirely (a eurth, Hovaver, it required « distance of about ‘five miles 40 that oo eee prea aot be measured du veter or glass, for exenple, Foucoult SES TTAST Ene cuperiwent to 1880, uring + revolving aixror, and this alloved re egteinene to be done in a lsboratory room. Te pany reflections of reat Deia"the airror produced es efsective path Zor light of the required Hike allen, Tein nodifieation #180 menot that the velocity could be EEMAEUIA water, for exenple. When Foucault, in fact, measured the Velocity tn air and in vater ne found Y,,_ > ‘Thus Newton! wiificulete eneary became untenable anf'The #i88*%heory triumphed. Such ib iaperivent ta called « crvotel experivent for 1f unambiguously dis sagidiad netween tvo possible theories, « distinction watch vas accept thle to everyoue NEWTON: w_ PRISM EXPERIMENTS (ND SCLERTINIC METHODOLOGY yor centuries scientists hud argued and theorised about the nature of Ligat and colour. Sone thought that chere vas one thing called light and sonething else catled coloured Light. Others felt that while they sight aerate arate things there could st11},be ifferencs of opinion a# to URS Bliare of thot difference. Te common view wae that coloured Light SEE SNUG of nea walte ight Laceracteo with entorials Like glace petane Newton bocine interested ‘to colours, while he way eti21 4 student at cisclage Usiversity, Decaues do attempting to build « telescope be seeerncered certeie probiene. The asin problen was that the image 18 the seeeeaee res zringed with colours vaien nade the image defective, Teta BEITEERS Tile ve now call chromatic mberration. lie study of the dezect ‘ee nie to pupiien Bie firet weientific paper at the age of 29, titled vi New Theory of Lignt and Colours" nore others nae theorived only, Nevton experimented. He arranged sunlight eee eat paisa iu 2 darken Foo and observed « spreading cut of “coloured” Mest ae da Figure 2. Le was Navton who {iret calles this ‘spread « Jeet te Myocaaturally, ‘wondered vhat vas the cause of the colours: in sree elde te yet an ancvar lie Weed different thicknessee-of glara; changed Seen ee ees varied he position of the prism with respect to the Role, ee ated othr yariebles. He vas clearly oxperimenting is « modern vay wee renelog one variable ut a tine, Eventually be plaed « second prism by SmAning Pe Yigure and found that op w-screon placed beyond the prisms ripaten of white Ligst var formed. F : dn the basta of these experineste Newton ergued, vLat be bed belteved from on et innings that tue two priva oxyerisentscould be interpreted ss Niewporttion of coloured beams into the original sachezore the coloured beans from the firet prii seertiea’ of the opiginal waite besu: white 1sght is composed of colcure aoe esee liaply detracted by 4 prism They) are aot produced by the prism. PRISM exPeRruent abt 49 rezvacted into « Spectrum ‘the spectrus Pectrus 18 recompored into white light PicuRE 2 Violet Blue Yellow Oramge15+ The tone 1d the arguvent are plausible eves persvanive: 1f 4 prim pro- duced colours it tx not conceivable ihow by changing its orientation Lt could “unproduce” then. Mowever, Newton proceeded to tent whut effec other than refraction, « single priza would have on a single bekm of colouved Tight. He cut « bole into the screen on which the epectrua, fell, small enough to let through one Beaw only, He found that « pris Placed 08 the side of the acres had no effect on the coloured bean except that of refraction. The second prism gid not. for axe the colour of the beam, This vas conclusive Newton's. theory vas accepted (eithough there vere fer who refused to accept it). He had resolved.a problen that bad existed for several bundred yours and bad done it by exploying « crucial experiment. Such an axperineut dectdes clearly Between’ teo (or sore) poraibie theories, and vo are to see auch another in the bands of Foucault. However, Nevtou's experiments had even greater significance, for it exemplified (osperinontal) scieucitie sethodology 42 a vay that not even Galileo's experiments did, Tuore 1s hypoth experimentation; changing of verieoles; sné thoroughsoss, No ove had done At this vay before: certainly mot successfully, Everyone Des done At that vay lace with ip oe FARADAY. Fanaviyes ganty ure > = . aD ACHE VEU santte ce Michao1 Faraday vax born the son of a London bi 4 Mionsor e son of & London biacksaith in 179%. He eined his fret job at tho age of 13, working as an efzead boy for ‘the bockbinder's apprentice. he sae of aoe are Young Faraday, hovover denonstrated a deep and abtdtn 5 soos renter, 1 id abiding interest in science. entific texte to which he’ had aecens aa beckbia spprentice ~ end elzo begea to periorn witpie eosetianste eae By to ago of 20, Porn ), Fosnday van sogulaciy attending pittotopy (ol recursor of payeien) tet mapa Tooettaeionr idan hel te Bad occasion’ to host dour ieceares gives Nh See oat chemist, Six Humphroy Davy, in 1812, eae a lectures tn natural By the age of 22, 4pillustonod with the Job of journeyman bodkhinder Faraday Becane totant at the Royal Institution, Faraday TiETioC JE 1021, and was elected to the prestigious Royai Society in or ch latter, Lronicatty, boing opposed by Dory Apparently, his TEESE, Tae, foglous of tho young man'a tapressive ackiovenents (he bad 'y published his tizet paper 4a 1616). By 1925, Forday had bocose Diroctor of the Royal ‘he had attended lectures years earlier. secre eee a 3 P.2401 Cape, E1 — Pappont Unight, P.66 » shore = 18s AIGUAEL FARADAY WLchaol Faraday (179} - 1087) hon boon basled as the grosteat cxpert= ental phystetet of the nineteenty ceatury, ia the azee of elec tnd angnotion, Portips Lif nost outstanding contribution to physice vas the discovery bf electronagnetic induction. {aspired by erated’s (1820) denons— Cialion that'an electric curfent 4m a getel conductor produces = nagne fold, Fereday sought further parallels betvoon electricity and magne iss,” He reatoned that f an eloctrio eirrent cold produce magnettan, ther quite possibly, neguetion could give use to an electric provided that the appropriate technique and apparatus wore ws Yor nore than 10 years, Faraday vaa engaged in esearch for the appro priate apparetus asd technique ~ failing many tines, Finally, in Augs Saal, be cbtained a positive result by winding t¥o separate sets of conducting vire around opposite aides of a aoft ‘tron ringt To the wire fags or ore side, he connected « dattery, ané to the vire on the o pide a galvanosoter ection of the gulvanonetor Faraday noted, vith gone astontshaent, that « deflects jo gxtvanone Reedle ~ iadscating a current - only occurred when he changed the corres Th'the "primary" cizeuit (Loe. connected to the battery). Tate could atcoupiished by either breaking the primary ouycuit, ox reversing ‘meso dad other experinente in eloctronagustisa led Faraday to, davelop hie ception of tines of ™ vied "ray-utbrations" Tellaption of Linea of maguetic.fores which ke called “ray-vibrathons™. seiradutay, for example, the pattern saguned by tron filings aprineled around Svar anguet shoved crudely the outline of thege “ray-vibrattons™, hich Tataday viruetived an fLiling 21 the apace around tho onguet, These Tinee | Ce Tonde wore orfontot tn eiifernos stvoceions at Gittorest Deeitiont the nepuot, tnd filings outlined those directions, eae fbr0t propoged publicly sts meeting of the Royal Institution, of which Seesbers in 1640. ; wares clive pee verads) alah conducted a ausbpr of experiments tn olectrotyets, Ipseod élacovered the lows goverming tt, Aacluding; (4) the anoust of water decomposed 48 proportional to the quantity of electricity peesing throug the Liquid, | itopective of electrode area or Liquid conductivity: ctrode, A so quanity of gas berated e.g. at an electrode, (10 Wedclue ensure of the ancunt of electricity passing However, at school, like Newton, he showed no particular acadenie promise in the trasitionel sense, thee 4a hho eas not an “A atudent, His liberal background encouraged hie {nctination to study only what he liked; indeed ae the age ‘ot 17 he Jett Gernany tor Svitseriand because he digiived the regientation at his school. What he mostiy xoad wore physica and mathematica texts and he gained auch confidence, 23 well as underatanding of thean aubjectes, Soe oe MMs teachers: once accused him of believing that he knew more than eay= fone else. Hovever when he eat the examinstion for the Zurich Pegs fockate he tailed since the range of hig knowledge wan narfov. te gyentuatiy passed the examinations and'gradusted but thon could not {18d the kind of tonebing Job he would have Liked, iostesd be found binsolf a9 tutor at a boarding school. He tailed at this job for he encouraged the students to becone interested in physics and taink about ‘the subject, rather than eran all the facts for exeatanthons, Ho was diestanod,” We sco that hin attitude tovards edestion wae cone ototent; indesd, a friend once characterised Einatain'a gouius eo thet OF goneone who reed little but thought such 1p 1003 Einstein obtained a job im the Patent Office in Berne, Switzerland, He hed the opportunity to use his knowledge of ecience to pesy judgecort on various inventions subsitted to the office. Me also had tine fer working at and thinking about his beloved Phostee-4- ' ‘The recults of al this opere tine activity are well knowa; tm 1905 in © Gergaa Jourael there were published three 7 te of which changed the taco of physics, [a this anaua mirabilis oF Yonder ful year wore published bis spectal Relativity Theory; Ma theory of the Photoelectric Ersect and an analysie of Brownian aotlon It was gone tino before Einstein's work besase well Koovn and understood but he soon gained sone recognition by being appointed to a post at fhe University of Berne and soving soon after that, in 1900, toe professor ship at the University of Zurich. Ia the poantioe bis vork coutiaued aad he began publisiiing papers witch were to lead to his great theory Of Coneral Relativity which vas published in its final form in 1918. Te etsplaced Nevton's yravitational theory since it produced wore accurate Fogults. Dy the 1820s vben his Ceneral Tasory ves experizentally (and succesaZully) tested by the British, and Ne Bad received the Nobel prize tor the photoelectric effect, he vas an internationally fenun figure. Lge ves mot always eauy for him, honever; Ain Jevish ancestry was Aincrance. Even after his early papers vore vell known, Marie Curte had to write « letter on his behalz to obtain a professorship in Gernaty. Won Hitler case to power in Germéhy in the 19302, Einatein had to emt grate to Anerica, However, Einstein's sense of humour helped him. When bis Genera? Theory wan about to be tested he wrote, "If ay relativity fheorses prove right, the Germans will may I an German, the Preach that Tam Svien, tho Brition that I anEuropeat, If they prove wrong the Britin Gon't gay anything". f Esnatein did not seen to be greatly afzected by these ‘slings and arrows of outrageous fortune’. He waa a sinple, charaing ma of great serenity and confidence and did not Nave much tine for the provocations of the World: when he was not pleying his violin he vas thinking asout aia paystes. WE_INPACT OF EINSTEIN'S REVOLUTIONARY THEORIES OW CLASSICAL PANSTCS ‘Tho sejor revolutionary physical theories of the twentieth contury are the Relativity theories and the Quantum theory, Einsteia could bo wald to be alone responsible ror the former vhile ii the Latter he played « sajor role: indeed, he obtained the Nobel prize for werk ia thie field, His theory of special relativity ravoluttontsed conceptions ebout the nature of space, tine and physical theory. His general theory carried this revolution’ further while at the eauo tine spect tically challenged she universal validity of Euclidean geometry. iii quantum explans tion, Of the photoelectric effect unsettled the conceptions ef physscieta Who henceforth had to accept that light vas both a wave and a particl =li— 22. Tn classicai theory Af tvo events vore aincltaneous on Sirius they would be regarded as simultaneous on earth. Simvltaneity vas absolute. Einstein's thoory alowed that simvltanesty was relative, depending om the (Foletive) yoloctty ef observers, In this respect tho theory ‘onpbasiaed that even the sinpleat, most obvious ideas needed to be criticised, and so special Relativity spavsed an intense philosophical concera with physical theory. Tae theory iso relativieed apace and tine shoving that: throught; ad (3) they vere not ax separate as w (41) the ength of an object and an interval of tine could be difterent Tor (two) different observers, At the sane tue Einstein's spectal theory “shoved” that the velocity of Light vas absolute, unlike other velocities, in that it was the saxo for all observers, Furthoxnore there emerged fron tho theory the 1den of a maximun velocity, that 4a c, voich idea had not existed before. The General Theory of Relativity,challenged and replaced the notion of space being fat and Euclidean vith that of space-tine being curved find ton-Euclidean. Siuplistically, this seant replacing Puclid'e postulate that two parallel izes never met vith the postulate that they might, Furthermore this theory carried forward the idea tntro~ duced by Faraday and Maxwell that physical voality might not be matter but « feld, ‘The {dea of field inca being used to represent and explain electromagnetic pnenonena ia femiiler. In Einstein's theory field replaces natter and a star Aa s4aply a rogion is space-time at which the denaity of {old lines ie great. not resolve the controvecay but confounded ¢ by saying that Lat could bo BOM, the eisssicat uncertainty alvara zevolved «round EEhtsn/on: 1¢ was ioglestly inconceivable thet 44 could pe both. Elnstela'a theory helped to éigabuse physicists OF that "pregudtca". atcal To ell of these ways Einstein's theories had an depact upon eh physics. Tt aight be said to Rave had an inpact upon physica in tonerel by disubusing physicists of he idea that actonce La 9 Einiohed: that any theory can oven Ue accepted es Deine the fon the subject.-23- For observer 0 roving with train and at its middle, the Zuonts af A and B appear simultaneous ~ since the distanc Sye"ay fe equal and volocity of Light f# same in onch oa For obsorver of at “rest relative to the train, event A Sppeara to occur before B, so A and B are not sinultencous. This Ja duo to the train approaching at groat speed, #0 X appears contracted compare to X,. rig ~ showing staultanoity 16 not “absolute” - Dut depends on relative aotion of observers Aa - mes \ HORT ES iow waves SANS ff 0 1 sun —) po eA f, ey, 4! hd \ Nan ¢ “ee \S st Direction of Rotation Tiiuatration of Constancy of speed of Light i L Observer 0 on surface of Harth obdervos both Star 1 and Star 2. Star I 1s moving tovarda hin and Star 2, avay from hin. But by Einstein's principle of the constancy of speed of Light, the Light travola at the sane speed for either star ~ C. Im the classical view, the relative yoloctty for Star 1 would bo given -as (V+ 0), walle that for Ster 2 would be (C-V).~ BS - ‘EINSTEIN'S SCTENTTIC AND ‘POLTETGAL ROLE IN GOSKECTION ane OU SOS with regard te the developuent of the ‘atomic bonb, Hinstein's scientific THER reeere eetieal rather than practicel, Ts e paper published 40 role var theore quertin of @ Body Depend on its Energy Content?”) he 3805 Cree! ples developed irom bio special relatively theory to formunate weed Pigaience between sage and energy. Thus he expressed the fo78 Seay eich ie now unually written in the stangard fora E = Ke since "Cv ie the velocity at vhich Light travels, Einstein was, 12, fecty sien reihat Light hae ase (inertia), Conversely, enersy "Ate 1200 sayee ctonarey which could, porbapr, be Liberated for use, Binesess peenecees ermen at the ead of his paper. To any cage, what he had sone, suinteed wey the Hey formia rendering the ute of atontc enerEy posstbie me tecnnological feasibility of the stonte bosb, on the other hand, rae a icuntil the discovery of uranium fission in the 1020's did not tribe process, « uranium nucleus was split (e.g. by neutron aa eee sees t geo evo approximately equel evalier nuclei. Those did coe eeeeer, aed up to the nase.of the original nucleus. Rather) tte Bee Gove ver ges converted fo gherey 42 accord with Binstein's equation, JRiseing pane” [bod it was recgedizeasthat to. obtain vastly more onerey, Tron ear}y 22 be Hiberated inva bps, "chain reaction" vas essential. see ee aie senction” mede use of succoBsive geutront energing as bY wReaucts from she inkttal sission, to further interact vith the urasins products fen crite accuauleting amounts of energy. Oa December 2) Tugy tale "practical baste” for the atonic pos was rentived: 0» sete etlee’Poral end bia colleagues, working at the University 0 Shits EP itcended in mounting « muatetnable chain reaction for te #2790 Chicago, evetnereby made avaiiable, practicaliy, a new and terrible powers ReSretically forecast over 35 yeare and earlier by Binstein, sma potiticnl role of Einstein, in reiation to the use of atomic vosponts se eit tith eLetter written to the US President, ‘Prankin Delano toosevelts Tee reser ne letter had folloved gonsubtations with Netle Bohr and Osher | 42 1000; jontietsl who hed Fecently arrived in the US trom urope: 1307 sects aetea ef the recent unasbiguous identi fication of fission an aeeeey warainga of the prospect of a Nazi ato bony tn bis lotter,zinatein strongly suggested to phe American presides’, thet see are a the Dest interests, of America and her allies 1f attention At outa eed cowards the development of an stonic weapon, This, develoP” wre aarecyitn the ‘Manhattan Progect™, Ted by Enios Forte and others Rent cimoating tn the production of actual atone boas tn 2045. Ere gad culminating 12 Seo east theorgticaliy avare of the magnitude of 9S0r87 Binetotny noet have boon thoroughiy eppaiiod by the effects. These vere involves. jo the nenory of the world vith the atonie besbs dropped om Rirosbime end Nageaaki, Japan 1p 1043. rev porhape th full recognition of the extent of distruction soe kezen Teves perbape ght oy the atonic bond, which led Einstein to * pact line guttering vrowetuaining yeara.Tuut, vo find in his writings & eteadsee’ sane te A che te of atomic weapons, £5 4 ceant of Waging war