Alternative feeding resources in use and practice

 Most of the conventionally available feed to the livestock in

Nepal comes from the farm, with the balance from stubble, forest,
terrace-rises and bunds.
 However, feed shortage have been widely identified as one of the
major constraints to improve the productivity of livestock species.
 Inadequate feed supply and poor nutrition, mainly during the
period of dry winter are major constraints to increase animal
nutrition.
 Available feed resources can be grouped as:
• Grasses
• Crop residues
• Herbaceous plant
• Legumes
• Tree and shrub fodder
• concentrates
 Alternatively, the other feed sources are also used across the
country. E.g sugarcane
 The crop is mainly processed for sugar which leaves and other by-
products : molasses and a fibrous residue termed bagasse.
 Bagasse is a high fiber, low protein product of very low
digestibility which is often mixed with the cane molasses for cattle
feeding.
 Likewise different species of brassica are also used to feed animal.
E.g rapes and cabbage
 Sugar beet, turnip may also be used for feeding farm animals.
 Care is, however, required in feeding since they contain a toxic
ingredient which may lead to extensive scouring and distress and in
extreme cases death.
 The conventional system of feeding, however, are not enough to
support DM requirements of the growing livestock population.
 Different alternative practices have been therefore promoted to
mitigate fodder shortage situation in the country. E.g the hills
leasehold forestry and forage development project (HLFFDP).

 It aims to correct the ecological and socioeconomic imbalances

existed in the country by planting timber, multipurpose and fodder
trees with the hope to develop grassland in the degraded forest
areas.

 In the recent years, quiet a significant amount of feeding materials

has also been produced by using agroforestry practice.

 Agroforestry is that land use practice where trees or other woody

perennials are deliberately grown with crops, pastures or animals in
the same land-management units.
Utilization and economics of unconventional feedstuffs.

 Unconventional feeds are those feeds that have not been

traditionally used for animal feeding because these are less
palatable and poorly digestible.

 These are also called non-conventional feeds and include the

agricultural and industrial by-products or waste product, which
are used in animal feeding up to a certain level.

 Due to shrinkage of land and shortage of feed and dry roughages,

the efficient use of unconventional feed is gaining importance for
livestock feeding.
Benefits to use unconventional feed
 To make the animal feeding economical.
 To reduce the gap between supply and demand of conventional
feed.
 To reduce the environmental pollution.
 Helpful during scarcity of conventional feed.
 Helpful for sustaining large animal population.

Characteristics of unconventional feed

 It should be easily available in sufficient quantity.
 It should be cheap and economical for animal feeding.
 It should not have any toxic or deleterious effect on animal
production.
Problems in unconventional feeding
 Non-availability of unconventional feed in sufficient amount
throughout the year.
 Unknown chemical composition and feeding value of
unconventional feed stuffs.
 Lack of processing techniques for efficient utilization of
unconventional feed stuffs.
 Technical and managemental problems during processing and
utilization of unconventional feeds with their antinutritional
factors.
 It may or may not be economical to feed unconventional feed
because of processing and managemental costs.
 Social and psychological constraints.
Classification of unconventional feed stuffs
 They are classified in concentrates and roughages as per their
chemical composition and substitute for concentrates or roughages
in animal feeds.

 Unconventional feeds from industrial waste and agriculture by-

products are classified as:

• Vegetable protein source

• Animal protein source
• Energy source
• Miscellaneous feed
Unconventional concentrates
Mango seed kernel, neem seed cake, rubber seed cake, tapioca
waste, water melon seed cake, salseed meal, mahua cake, blood
meal, meat meal, bone meal, maize germ, maize bran, maize glutein.

Roughages
Tree leaves, fallen tree leaves of peepal, bamboo, banyan, banana,
mulberry, neem, mango etc. water hyacinth, sugarcane by-products (
sugarcane trash, sugarcane tops, bagasse, molasses), vegetable and
fruit processing residue such as apple pomace, tomato pomace,
pineapple waste, citrus processing waste etc.
Silvi-pastoral system and its importance

 Silvi-pastoral system is a land management system, where in the

interspaces between two rows of forest tree species are utilized for
cultivation of grasses and grass legume mixtures.
 This system provides fodder, fuel wood as well as small quantity of
timber.
 It is believed that land which is not suitable for cultivating
agricultural crops should be developed for pasture and
multipurpose tree.
 If trees are with fodder value, they can provide pods and leaves as
well for stall feeding, especially during the lean period.
 Besides, planting trees on pasture land improves the micro-climatic
conditions such as regulation of wind flow over the area, shade and
shelter to the grazing animals.
Pasture under trees
• A variety of perennial warm or cool season grasses and legumes
can be used in silvopastures.

• They tolerate shade and avoid competition with the trees by

growing in different seasons or rooting at different depths.

• Simple grass/legume mixes can be overseeded with other species

to extend the grazing period.

• By designing tree row spacing to accommodate haying equipment,

forage can be mechanically harvested until the trees are tall enough
not be harmed by some livestock browsing or rubbing.
Selection of tree and crop for silvi-pasture

Tree
• Deciduous tree
• Compatible and have a complementary associate effect on pasture
species.
• Highly palatable, nutritious and with minimum toxic effects.
• Have a long tap root with minimum superficial root.
• Fast growing, hardy with light crown and are multipurpose.
• Possessing good coppicing power and are tolerant to lopping.
• Easy regeneration capacity through seeds, cutting and root
suckers.
• E.g ipil-ipil, badhar, kavro, kimbu, koiralo, khanyu, tanki, khayer
etc
Crop
• Shade tolerant
• Perennial crop
• Palatable, nutritious and high yielding
• Have a good competitive ability preferably of erect bunchy growth.
E.g amriso, blue panic
Importance of grazing
• It is the only natural way of feeding animals and is a convenient
method.
• Animals grow at a comparatively faster rate and are a seldom sick.
• Best breeds of cattle (e.g ongole breed of cattle) had been developed
in areas with pastures.
• With the expansion of communications, utilization of grazing lands
for growing economic crops, cutting down of forests, etc facilities
for grazing have almost ceased. Consequently, the condition of our
animals has also deteriorated.

Economy in pasturage
• Grazing/pasturing of animals has been found to be cheapest and the
most economical method of feeding livestock because no expense of
cutting, transporting or feeding is involved.
• So the cost of production of both livestock and dairy produce is the
lowest since feeding alone costs 50-75% of cost of their production.
Characteristics of good pasture
• It should be easily accessible to the dairy animals and should be at a
reasonable distance from the cattle shed. The dairy animals should
not be made to walk long distances to reach the pasture.
• The pastureland and cattle sheds of a dairy should be connected by
a private roads and the animals in reaching the pasture should not
cross a public road or come in contact with other animals.
• The pasture land should be enclosed with wire fencing.
• The soil of pastureland should be compact so that it does not get
loose when cattle graze on it.
• If the soil gets loose under the pressure of hooves of grazing
animals, it will be washed off with rains and would lead to the
erosion of soil.
• When pasture have to be maintained with irrigation, the land should
be leveled so that irrigated water may spread over the whole area
quickly.
• The species sown in the soil should be palatable and easily
digestible.
• The density and growth of plants in a grazing land should be high
and quick so that maximum amount of forage may be available.
• Besides this, chances of erosion are greatly minimized in a densely
sown pasture.
• The pasture should contain a mixture of grasses and legumes suited
to the class of livestock to be grazed.
• The species should be compatible and adapted to the soil and
climatic conditions.
• Pastures should be free from weeds and poisonous plants.
• There should be a number of shady trees in the pastureland so that
animals may cool themselves in summer when the sun in hot.
• Water facilities and salt and multi-mineral licks should be arranged
in the pasture.
Guidelines for pasture establishment
 Pastures must be well established to be highly productive. Before
establishing new pastures or renovating existing pastures,
producers must evaluate the farms forage needs.

 It is important to consider whether the forage will be used for

grazing or hay, what forage species are best suited for the area,
and what resources are available in terms of equipment, money
and time.

 The decision of whether or not to renovate a pasture should be

based on existing percentages of the desirable species present in
the pasture.

 The following criteria should be used in such a decision:

• If the pasture contains 75% or more desirable species, consider not
renovating and instead concentrating on management.

• If the pasture contains 40 to 75% desirable species, consider

overseeding and considering on management.

• If the pasture contains less than 40% desirable species, consider

reestablishing.

Some of the steps involved in establishing or renovating a pasture:

• Soil testing and correcting sol nutrient deficiencies.
• Selecting species adapted to the specific area.
• Implementing the correct seeding method and rate.
• Implementing a weed control program, and
• Using proper management to maintain a productive stand.
Renovation
• Over time, legumes and productive or palatable grasses may be
lost from pasture because of overgrazing or disease and pests.

• Renovation techniques can restore these stands to a high level of

production without destroying the existing sod.

• There are 3 forms of renovation for such sites: limited tillage, no

tillage with chemical sod control and no tillage with animal
grazing for sod control.

 Species selection
 Seeding methods
 Seeding time
 Seeding rates
Pastures maintenance
• Fertilization
• Pest control
• Fencing
• Water
• Shade
• Animal handling facilities
• Grazing pressure and stocking rate
Pasture establishment
 Pasture establishment is the first and basic of many stages which
determines the growth and consequence production of pasture.
 Establishment can be defined as the period between sowing seeds
and the emergence of seedlings capable of continued, normal
growth.
 It covers mainly two components, seed germination and seedling
growth through the covering soil.
 The success of establishment depends on the quality of the seed
sown, and also on how that seed is affected by factors associated
with the soil, the environment and the method of establishment.

 New pasture could be established to:

• Renew old/existing pasture.
• Introduce new species and/or cultivars.
• Build up soil fertility as part of the rotation in a given cropping
pattern.
Factors affecting successful establishment
 Phases of establishment
• Successful establishment from broadcasting depends on the seed
reaching a favorable site, its ability to germinate and subsequent
growth compared to existing established plants.
• Establishment of seedlings is dependent on the weather,
competition and grazing management.
• Regular and controlled grazing is needed for up to a year after
broadcasting to minimize the competition on establishing plants.
• Management inputs such as fertilizer and grazing management
must continue to favour the improved species for dependable,
long term survival in hill pastures.
 Time of broadcasting
• Broadcasting of seed is usually undertaken before the
commencement of rain so that plant can be established during the
rainy season.
 Pest and disease
• Establishment from broadcast seed can be reduced by birds eating
seeds, insect harvesting seed, pest such as caterpillars, and slugs
eating seedlings and fungal disease.
• Seeds can be coated with insecticides and fungicides.

Management of newly introduced pastures

 The early management of a newly sown pasture is aimed at
maintaining the population of seedlings that have emerged so that
as many individual plant as possible become self regenerating.
 For perennial pastures this requires the encouragement of
vegetative generation so that the stable density of tiller population
and branches is attained.
 In case of annual pasture species, sufficient plant population
should be aimed to set seed so that the sward is replaced in the
following season that assures the successful establishment.
 Up to one year period is very critical for a successful
establishment depending on environment and management
factors associated with it.

 A newly established pastures aiming to graze for high milking

dairy animals should be grazed as soon as possible after plants
can withstand the pull test.

 In general seedlings are ready to graze when 10-12cm high and

tillering is beginning.

 The timing of the first grazing depends on the time of the year
and the plant species used in pasture. Perennial ryegrass may be
grazed first time after 6 weeks of sowing whereas the tall fescue
may require 10 weeks.
Objectives of grazing a new pasture
 To encourage tillering.
 To prevent fast establishing species such as perennial ryegrass in
the mixture that could shading out slower establishing species such
as white clover and cocks foot.
 To control weeds and to consolidate cultivated soil.

Packages of practices for improvement of degraded natural

grasslands under rainfed conditions
• Protection against grazing
• Bush control
• Soil conservation measures
• Choice of species
• Introduction of legumes
Grassland Management
• Burning
• Reseeding of grasses
• Weeding and clearance of undesirable plants
• Grazing management : continuous, controlled, deferred, rotational
grazing.
• Soil and water conservation
• Protection
• Introduction of improved fodder grasses and legumes
• Application of manures and fertilizers

Selection of pasture grass species

The following characteristics should be looked for in pasture
grasses:
• Nutritive value
• Compatibility with legumes
• Persistence and regeneration
• Drought tolerance
• Tolerance of flooding
• Tolerance to fire
• Tolerance to frost
• High seed production and ease of harvest
• Easy establishment from seed
• Adaptability to a wide range of soils
• Response of fertilizers
• Resistance to pests and diseases
• Toxicity
Deleterious effects of pasture/Antiquality constraints and
disorders
 Herbage though rich in nutrients may cause disorder in animals due
to presence of certain alkaloid or deficiency or excess of certain
chemical constituent.
 The benefits of pasture as a cheap and readily available source of
nutrients have well documented.
 However, certain metabolic problems can occur in stock grazing
pastures.
 This includes:

 Hypomagnesemic tetany
• spring pasture often could have a low concentration of magnesium
and invariably contains high concentration of potassium.
• It interferes with the absorption of calcium and magnesium from
the digestive tract.
• This predisposes lactating animals to grass staggers or
hypomagnesemic tetany.
• For this reason, dairy animals are routinely drenched with
magnesium in spring as a preventive.
 Bloat
Soluble proteins, particularly those in some legumes form stable
foams preventing the escape of rumen gases. E.g alfa-alfa, white, red
and sweet clover
 Nitrate toxicity
• Rapidly growing immature pastures can accumulate nitrates,
particularly on high fertile soils during warm, wet conditions.
• Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in the rumen and this can oxidize Hb,
so that toxic symptoms arising from a deficiency of oxygen at the
tissue may occur.
 Facial eczema
Fungal spores accumulating in dead herbage during warm, humid
weather conditions produce a toxic compound sporidesmin which
causes liver damage and photosensitivity.

 Phyto-estrogens
Oestrogenic compounds found in a certain legumes, especially lucern
and red clover can cause reproductive problems, particularly in
sheep.
 Fescue foot
• It is a soreness of foot and not a foot rot and occurs in animals
grazing tall fescue over a long period of time.
• There is loss of body weight, rapid breathing, increased
temperature and rough hair coat.

 Prussic acid poisoning

• HCN or hydrocyanic acid is problem in sorghums, johnson grass
and sudan grass.
• It is high in these forages following drought, frost or freeze.

 Bleeding disease
• During heating or spoilage of hay of sweet clover, coumarin gets
converted into dicoumarol which prevent blood clotting.
• Animals with slight wounds or internal haemmorrhaging may
bleed to death if fed on spoil sweet clover hay.
 Oxalate
• Tropical grasses contains varying amount of oxalic acid.
• A study revealed that oxalic acid content in Paspalum to be low as
0.2%, while in Napier it was as high as 2.6%.
• Formation of calcium oxalate ties up blood calcium and thus
causes poor coagulation of the blood and hypocalcaemia.

 Mimosine toxicity
• Ipil-ipil contains up to 0.5% of the nitrogen as toxic AAs,
mimosine.
• Diet containing large quantities of this legume can result in wool
shedding and abortion in sheep and loss of hair on the rump and
tail and loss of weight in cattle.
• Prolonged grazing of cattle on pasture containing leucaena
resulted in enlarged thyroid glands, low live weight gains,
excessive salivation and hair loss.
 Ryegrass staggers
• A fungal endophyte growing in the tissue of perennial ryegrass
produces lolitrem B, an alkaloid which interferes with central
nervous coordination, causing animal to stagger or fall repeatedly
and interfering with their ability to graze and ergovaline, which
makes animal intolerant of heat stress.
• These effects can be more serious, particularly in hot, dry summer
conditions.

Nutritional Deficiency disease

Magnesium
Copper
• A copper deficiency condition known as enzootic ataxia which is
associated with pasture low in copper content (2-4mg/kg DM).
• The signs range from a complete inability to stand to various degree
of incoordination particularly of hind limbs of the newborn lamb.
Cobalt
• Pinning is associated with a dietary deficiency of cobalt caused by
low concentration of the element in the soil and herbage.
• Pinning can be prevented in these areas by feeding with small
amount of cobalt.
• When cobalt is depleted, there is gradual decrease in appetite with
consequent loss of weight followed by muscular wasting, pica,
severe anemia and eventually death.

Selenium
• Selenium in traces (0.05-0.2ppm) is an essential nutrient despite its
toxicity in larger intakes.
• Deficiency of selenium in the diet causes myopathies or ill-thrift in
sheep and cattle.
• The clinical signs include loss of weight and some time death.
• Selenium toxicity brings about a disease known as alkali disease
and blind staggers.
• It is a chronic form of disease which affects cattle, buffaloes,
sheep, goat and horses.
• The symptoms include stiffness of joints, lameness, and loss of
hair from mane and tail and skin lesions on the legs.

Molybdenum
• Molybdenum toxicity in animals (ruminants) suffers from
extreme diarrhea, loss in weight and reduced milk yields. This
condition is known as teartness.
• Forage in the affected areas contain 30-40ppm of Mo whereas
those in healthy areas contains 5ppm.
• The toxicity due to Mo is also called molybdenosis.