UNIT OF COMPETENCY-2

PROVIDE FORAGE
 LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Prepare area for forage plantation.

2. Plant forage species.
3. Maintain forage plants.
4. Produce silage.
5. Perform work to completion.
PREPARE AREA FOR
FORAGE
PLANTATION
 Preparing Forage Area
Intensive Feed Garden
• Planting of forage and leguminous trees together on a
piece of land as potential nutritional source of animal
feeds throughout the year. It requires 200 sq. meters to
feed cattle.

• The concept of IFG aims at maximizing the production of a

fodder in a limited area (10 m x 20 m) through extensive
cultivation of leguminous trees, shrubs and other
grasses. This technology is recommended where
compound farming is practiced and livestock has to be
confined. It is appropriate where feed is scarce and not
readily available or for a cut and carry system.
 Benefits of Intensive Feed Garden
1. Provide renewable and inexhaustible source of nutritious and palatable
fodder fuel and green manure
2. Curbs soil erosion, consumes soil moisture and increases soil fertility.
3. Increase the productivity of a given piece of land by inter-planting of
diverse species of fodder trees, shrubs and grasses.
4. Provide a stable agricultural system for semi-arid tropics, drought
stricken areas and other adverse environment.
5. Reduce danger of toxicity problems noxious weeds and contaminated
poisons.
6. It can help lessen feed cost.
7. Wide adaptability.
8. Ease of propagation.
9. Economy of production.
10. Increase the income of the farmers.
 REQUIREMENTS FOR MAKING INTENSIVE FEED GARDEN

1. Good Water Supply- water is important in

forage growth. In the dry season, it is a vital
requirement of forage growing. You should plant
your forage in a site where you can easily obtain
water for the plants.
2. Good Soil Drainage- establish your garden on a
slight slope to provide drainage, especially during
rainy season. If your land is flat, dig drainage
channels of ditches around the planting site
3. Soil Fertility- soil is a natural medium for plant
growth and is the primary resource of agriculture.
The soil in your garden should be fertile enough to
make plants grow.
4. Sunlight Availability- your garden site should
receiver sunshine through the day. Growing forage
grasses needs sunshine to manufacture foods.
5. Good Air Circulation- air circulation refers to the
intensity of wind passing through your garden site.
Strong wind is not good for forage grasses;
your site should leave natural windbreaks around
including hills, trees and leaves.
6. Labor- garden laborer is the most important support
in your garden. If you don‟t give emphasis in the labor
works in your garden, it will not last to sustain your
forage/ pasture needs.

7. Time Allocation and Tender Loving Care-as a

gardener time allocation and tender loving care are
necessary to your garden. It needs 2-3 hours a day or
caring for your planted forage grasses.

8. Interest- the willingness to adapt new technologies

 Unwanted Vegetation and Debris
Observe Animal Behavior to Help Grazing Management
• Observing grazing animals can provide the livestock producer with
valuable information on the quantity and quality of the forage
available to the animals.
• Ruminant animals graze wherever and whenever forage is available,
therefore, a producer can say that he does practice "grazing
management".
• Grazing occurs either by design, when controlled by a knowledgeable
manager, or by default, when animals are allowed to graze on their
own without regard for plant and animal requirements.
• A livestock producer must visit his pastures frequently, not only to
check the animals, but also to check the forage. This allows the
producer to monitor what is happening with the pasture and to
anticipate and correct any potential problem before it results in
reduced livestock performance.
A grazing management plan must be designed with both
plant growth and animal performance in mind. For long-
term sustainability, there must be a balance between plant
and animal requirements.
• Plant growth is maximized when they are "harvested" (or
grazed) at maturity, but at that point the forage quality is
low and animal performance may suffer because the
nutritional needs of the animal are not met.
• Animal performance is maximized if the plant is grazed while
it is actively growing (i.e. producing high-quality feed), but
repeated, uncontrolled grazing will result in animals
selectively consuming the highly nutritious and palatable
plants while leaving the unpalatable ones. Over time, this
will cause the disappearance of desirable plants (called
decreasers) and the predominance of less desirable and
undesirable ones (called increasers and invaders).
Some points to consider when observing animals
and interpreting their grazing behavior are:
• less time is spent grazing when forage is plentiful
and of good quality; more time is spent grazing
when quantity or quality is limited;
• herd animals tend to graze as a group when forage
is plentiful and as individuals when forage is scarce;
• a well-established browse line indicates excessive
grazing pressure (a browse line is a well-defined
height to which browse such as leaves, twigs and
woody growth has been removed by animals);
• midday grazing during hot weather indicates that
forage is limited.
Debris
• Small and large debris carried onto your field by the flood waters pose
no agronomic issues other than acting as obstacles during any field
operations.
 For example, small debris such as clumps of grass, stones, and garbage
will affect seed and fertilizer placement and smother growth, leaving
dead patches to deal with later.
• Large debris such as fence posts, trees and large stones simply limit field
travel and must be removed before renovation can begin. Many
producers pull drag bars (multiple I-beams or stacks of old grader
blades) behind their tractors to help collect this debris and
simultaneously scrape the bark off any small woody growth to control it.
• If a burn is conducted, it should be recognized that burning will make
nutrients more available to immediate plant growth but that up to 90%
of nitrogen and sulphur are lost in the process, phosphorus and
potassium less so.
PLANT FORAGE
SPECIES
What is Crude Protein?
Features of Major Types of Forage
Forage Type Quantity Digestibility Protein Other Uses

Tree legumes Low High High Firewood

Timber
Green manure
Shade
Herbaceous Medium High High
legumes
Grasses High Medium Low Thatching
Weaving
 Kinds of Grasses
Grasses
There are many different kinds of grasses in the tropics. Every climatic
region has grasses which are adapted to the region. Sometimes it can be
profitable, if you have some extra money and labour available, to
improve your grassland by introducing better grasses. Buy the seeds and
sow them in a prepared field, or sow extra grass among your existing
pasture. Discuss with your local extension worker whether it is likely to
be worthwhile resowing the grass. The extension worker can help you
work out what the benefits are likely to be, but also how much they will
probably cost you. A better quality of grass also means extra inputs such
as manure or fertilizer to maintain this quality. In a zero-grazing unit
you need to be especially aware of the danger of a mineral deficiency in
the soil of potassium, nitrogen or phosphorus. You need to be able to
take appropriate preventive measures.
There are a few easy ways to measure the quality of the grass (see
Table 1). If the grass is old and dry it contains a lot of dry matter, and
the quality will be very low.
Table 1: Quality of grasses.
Good feed Bad feed
Dark green & juicy grass Light green & dry grass
↓ ↓
Tasty for the cow Less tasty for the cow
↓ ↓
High quality: Low quality:
less needed for maintenance requirement more needed for maintenance requirement

higher production potential lower production potential

Note: Grass production during flowering is zero. By way of man- agreement you can
prevent flowering by cutting the grass before flowering or by keeping the optimal
number of animals on the grassland.
 Forage Species

Different kinds of forage species:

A.) Grasses:
1. Napier or Elephant Grass (Pennisetum
purpureum)
Highly rated because of its relative ease of
establishment, vigor, productivity and drought tolerance.
 Napier Purple Napier Red Napier
CP: 14% N: 2-4%
2. Guinea Grass (Panicum maximum)
Can survive long droughts, but shows its
performance in a humid environment, can
withstand burning.

CP: 8-12%
P : 8-10%
3. Para Grass (Bracharia mutica)
• Tolerant to water lagging.Most suitable grass for the
lower flat lands and in areas where drainage is
problem.

CP: 10.2%
P : 7-10%
4. Stargrass (Cynodon plectostachyus)
Spreads easily, and has found effective in holding
sandy soils along water ways and embankments;
tolerant to grazing and trampling.
5. Humidicola (Brachiaria humidicola)
Vigorous and productive. Limited flowering and low
seed production at low latitudes. It is best sown as
the only grass in a mixture as it is less palatable
than most of the tropical grasses.
6. Forage Corn
7. Sweet Sorghum
2. Legumes.

Legumes are broadleaf species noted for

their high protein content. Their root
nodules have a microorganism known as
rhizobium, which enable them to
manufacture their own nitrogen
requirements. Legumes dominate pasture
in partly shaded areas such as coconut
and other fruit tree plantations.
Creeping
Legumes
1. Centrosema (Centrosema pubescens)
Grows on a variety of soil, moderately palatable,
and with stand heavy grazing.

CP: 15.50%
N: 57.65%
Ca: 40.16%
P: 17.62%
2. Colopogonium
Calopo (Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.) is a
vigorous, hairy annual or short–lived perennial trailing
legume. It can reach several meters in length and form
a dense, tangled mass of foliage, 30-50 cm deep.

CP: 12.8%
Ca: 11.1%
P: 2.0%
3. Stylosanthes
The genus is characterised by trifoliate leaves and small
yellow flowers.Species may be annual or perennial and
morphology varies between species as well as within
species in response to grazing pressure.

CP: 15.9%
4. ‘Mani-manian” (Arachis Pintoi)
Is a forage legume that has become more than just
a feed source for animals.Its stunning yellow
flowers or florets and dense clover-shaped foliage
provide a spectacular aesthetic value among
gardeners and plant enthusiasts earning it the
moniker “golden glory”.

CP: 13-25%
N: 46.8%
Ca: 1.88% P:0.37%
5. Renzoni (Desmodium Cinereum)
Nitrogen-fixing leguminous shrubs which produce
large quantities of leafy biomass. They are
commonly used to
produce fodder.
CP: 20-22%
 3. Tree
Legumes
1. Malunggay (Moringa oleifera)
It is not only best for lactating mothers, it is also
one of the scientifically-proven forage species
that improves lactation in dairy cattle.

CP: 25%-32%
N: 82-91%
Ca: 3.65%
P: 1.5%
2. Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium )
As the tree pods hang-dry in the sun, they curl and
explode, making a popping cracking sound. A cluster of
trees with their pods snapping and popping and falling to
the ground, in unison, make a fascinating afternoon of
nature's concoction of sound.

CN: Madre de Cacao

CP: 28% N: 5%
Ca: 1.4% P: 0.4%
3.Madre de Agua (Trichanthera gigantea)
In agriculture, trichanthera is used as a forage, living fence
and shade tree . It is also used to protect water springs
from degradation through stream bank erosion.

CP: 18.21%
Ca: 5%
P: .41%
4. Mullberry (Morus spp)
Mulberry leaves are highly palatable and digestible (70-90
%) to herbivorous animals and can also be fed to
monogastrics.

CP: 9.96%
Ca: 3%
K: 5%
5. Indigofera (Indigofera spicata Forssk)
It is a forage tree/shrub with many shoots bearing
pinnate bright green leaves. It has 27─31% crude protein,
which is relatively higher than any of the locally available
leguminous forages. Leaves and twigs are harvested every
30 days to maintain their succulence.

CP: 27-31%
Ca: 15.8%
P: 2.8%
6. Ipil-ipil
Multi-purpose tree: deep rooting leguminous tree but
due to the presence of a toxic substance (mimosine) in
young leaves and seeds, thus harmful to grazing animals
particularly (sheep and horse).

CP : 24%
N : 4%
Ca : 1.87%
P : .27%
7. Katuray (Sesbania grandiflora)
It is a fast-growing tree, leaves are regular and rounded
and the flowers white and red in color according to its
species. The fruits look like flat, long and thin green
beans. The tree thrives under full exposure to sunshine
and is extremely frost sensitive.
CP : 24%
N : 5.5%
Ca : 1.3%
8. Flemingia- (flemingia macrophylla)is a
genus of flowering plants in the legume
family Fabaceae. It is native to Asia. The
genus was erected
in 1812.

CP: 22.7%
Ca: 0.65%
Mg: 0.20%
9. Pigeon Pea (kadyos)
(cajanus cajan) is a perrenial legume from
the family Fabaceae. The pigeon pea is widely
cultivated in tropical
and semitropical
regions around the
world.
CP: 24.3%
P: 39%
10. Cassava leaves (manihot
esculenta)a nutty-flavored, starchy root
vegetable or tuber. It’s a major source of
calories and carbs.

CP: 3.5%
N: 40%
12. Soy Beans (Glycine max) is a
species of legume native to east Asia widely
grown for its edible bean which has
numerous uses.

CP: 40%
N: 1.30%
Ca: 1.50%
P: 0.13%
 Common Name Seeding Rate Tolerance to Tolerance to Establish
(kg/ha) Drought Waterlogging Method

Guinea grass 2-6 Good Poor Seed

Elephant Napier Splits Good Poor Splits

grass
Para grass 2-6 Fair Very good Seed/ sp
es
Centro 3-5 Fair Fair Seed

Desmanthus 1-2 Good Fair Seed

Desmodium 1-2 Fair Good Seed

Graham stylo 3-6 Fair Fair Seed

kakawate Cutting/ seed Fair Fair Cutting/

ipil-ipil 20-50 seeds/m Very good Poor Seed/ se

MAINTAIN
FORAGE
PLANTS
 Pasture/Forage
Area
Establishment
and Management
 Managing Pasture and Forage
Crops
It is easier and cheaper to establish
pasture and forage crops by using
seeds than by using vegetative
planting materials. Production of
pasture and forage seed crops is
comparable with other crops in
terms of return and economic
investment
• Preparing the seed beds
 Choose areas with well-drained soil of moderate
fertility to prevent problems with weeds.
Thoroughly prepare seedbeds to kill existing
vegetation.
 Sow seeds in rows, 0.74 – 1.0 m apart. For
broadcast sowing, use 3-5 kg pure live seeds
(PSL)/ha for small seeds; for large seeds, use 6-
10kg PSL/ha. Spray with pre-emergence
herbicide.
• Fertilization
 Fertilize grasses with 50kg N/ha. Apply phosphorous
and potassium as required. For legumes, fertilize with
30-60kg P2O5/ha. Add lime if needed.
• Control of weeds and pests
 Hand weed during the first 60 days after sowing
legumes.
 Control insects and diseases by the judicious use of
insecticides, and by crop hygiene.
 Encourage dense tillering by early mowing or grazing,
and by careful use of nitrogen fertilizer to promote
the development of reproductive shoots.
Pasture/Forage
Utilization
TYPES ON RAISING RUMINANTS ANIMALS

1. Grazing system (Extensive grazing)

2. Semi-Intensive/Semi-
Confinement System
3. Zero Grazing
(Intensive/Confinement System)
 Grazing system
• As the term implies, the
goats are allowed to
graze in the pasture area
for at least eight hours a
day. They are kept inside
the house only during the
unfavorable hours of the
day and during bad
weather. This system can
be used for both milk and
meat production.
Advantages:
a. Feeding in the pasture is more natural for
the goats and will also provide them
desirable exercise.
b. Feeding is not laborious as in zero grazing
because the goat themselves are the ones going
to the pasture area to look for their feeds.
c. The forage area is less expensive to prepare
because there is no need to provide partitions
as in the case of zero grazing system.
Disadvantages:
a. The goats will be more exposed to internal parasite
infestation, especially when they are allowed to graze
continuously on contaminated pasture areas.
b. Since goats do not like rain, they go hungry when
there is rain for a day or two unless supplementary
grasses are provided.
c. The space requirement will be larger, approximately ½
hectare for every 6 does and one buck.
d. If goats are being used for milk, the amount of milk
produced is less than by zero grazing goats.
e. Goats are exposed to dogs and are easily stolen.
f. Fencing is very expensive.
GRAZING SYSTEMS AND THE BASIC
MANAGEMENT
1. Continuous Grazing
2. Rotational Grazing
3. Strip Grazing
4. Mob Grazing
5. Creep Grazing
6. Forward or First-Last or Leader-Follower
Grazing
7. Multi-species Grazing
• Tethering or staking
When only one or two goats are being raised, this
system can be utilized. Goats are tied to a rope
about 6 to 10-meter long. Always make it a point
to reduce the discomfort of the animal. Make the
collar fit the goat’s neck comfortably so that it
does not irritate the neck. Tether the goat in such
a way that it can roam around the tethering pin
without winding itself short up to the pin by the
rope itself. Likewise, do not tether it within the
reach of obstructing trees or bushes.
• Zero Grazing (Cut and
Carry)
The forage is cut and chopped
in the field each day by a
farmer and hauled to the
goats. The house for this
system could be designed in
such a way that the goats
could be classified according to
their production of milk,
condition, age, etc. This is
especially true when you
already have a quite large herd
of animals.
 CONFINEMENT SYSTEM(Zero Grazing)
A livestock confinement system is the
complete livestock production facility. It
includes the following:
• Buildings
• Feed and water systems
• Manure handling systems
• Livestock handling equipment
• Pens and gating
• Slotted flooring
• Ventilation systems
Advantages of zero grazing:
a. It facilitates manure handling.
b. It maintains uniform growth and quality.
c. The goats/sheep do not require high management skills.
d. The goats are less exposed to communicable diseases and worm
infestation for they can conserve their energy due to their limited
movements.
e. The animals are generally heavier and produce more milk for they
can conserve their energy due to their limited movements.
f. The land space requirement is minimal, estimated to be one-fourth
hectare (1/4) of improved pasture for six does and one buck. But
with good varieties of forages, which are well-managed, the number
could reach fifteen does and one buck.
g. Close attention can be given to animals because they can be easily
observed in pens.
In some places, confinement is necessary
to prevent animal theft.
The variables of production can be
controlled more easily in confinement.
The risk in predation, even the human
kind, is essentially eliminated. It is easier
to protect animals that are housed.
Any diet can be fed to animals in
confinement.
Animal welfare is reduced when kept in
confinement.
DISADVANTAGE:
Animals need to be given enough space so
that they can express their natural behaviors.
Forced exercise may be necessary for males
to keep them from getting too fat.
Feed costs are usually higher.
Disease can spread more rapidly when
animals are in close proximity to each other.
Respiratory health is one of the biggest
concerns with confinement.
 Pest Control Measures
• Alternatives to chemical control are available for dealing
with insect pests of tree legumes.
• Biological and varietal control are probably best suited to
the requirements of forage production and to the means and
available resources of the grower.
• Chemicals can be quite effective even if little is known about
the pest species, and the same chemical can be used to kill
insects of several species.
• In contrast, alternative methods of control require a
substantial understanding of each insect pest species as the
design of the treatment centers around the unique
adaptations and ecology of each species. To date, such
understanding of forage tree legume pests is lacking.
 Pest control measures
1.Organic pesticides
2. Chemical pesticides
3. Biological control
4. Selection of pest resistant
forage
Organic pesticides
Chemical Pesticides
BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL
Selection of pest resistant forages
 Fertilizers Application
Fertilizing and Liming Forage Crops
 TYPES OF FERTILIZERS
1.Organic fertilizers
2.In-organic fertilizers
LIMING
Plants require many essential nutrients for growth. To be
specific, they require 17 of them. Those nutrients required by
plants in large quantities are called macronutrients, and they
can be either primary or secondary.
Primary macronutrients are required in high quantities and
they are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Those
required in moderate quantities are called secondary nutrients,
and they are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S).
There are also nutrients that are needed in very little amounts
but are as essential for plant growth as the macro and
secondary nutrients, and they are called micronutrients (iron,
copper, zinc, manganese, boron, molybdenum, chlorine, and
nickel). The soil can supply the plant with most, if not all, of the
macro - secondary, and micronutrients, but often the supply of
one or more of the nutrients is insufficient for optimum growth.
Nitrogen is the nutrient that grass pastures use the most,
and when used in a balanced fertilization, it often results in
increased forage quality and production.
Phosphorus may be deficient in some soils, but other
Florida soils are high in native P. Some forage crops may extract
sufficient P from the subsoil, even when the P level in the
surface soil is low.
Potassium (K) may be needed by some forage crops.
Under intensive hay or silage production where nutrients are
removed from the land, annual applications of N, P, and K are
typically required. Potassium is fairly mobile in sandy soils and
can quickly become deficient. Calcium, magnesium, sulfur, and
some micronutrients may also become deficient in the soil if soil
fertility is overlooked.
While routine soil tests do not include a micronutrient
analysis, it is suspected that in some areas of Florida S
deficiency may be seen in some years and on some crops.
Sulfur deficiency may be seen under intensive hay or
silage production. Sulfur deficiency symptoms are pale
green leaves mainly in young leaves, similar to nitrogen
deficiency, but nitrogen deficiency symptoms show pale
leaves in older and new leaves. If a producer is concerned
or suspects a sulfur deficiency, some sulfur may be added
by using ammonium sulfate as the nitrogen source in the
first spring application (just be aware that ammonium
sulfate is an acidifying fertilizer). Use of other S fertilizers
such as sul-po-mag or gypsum is another option when no
additional N is needed or if your pH is moderately acidic.
• Under most circumstances, micronutrients are not
deficient in pastures and therefore should not be
applied until a deficiency of a specific nutrient is
confirmed. A suggestion for new plantings of forages
on unplanted and unfertilized flat wood soils is to
apply 3 lb./acre of copper with the initial fertilization.
• Only the nutrients that are needed by the crop should
be included in the fertilizer. For example, if a soil test
indicates that phosphorous is adequate, no
phosphorus should be included in the fertilizer.
Banking fertilizer in the soil is not a profitable method
for managing the nutrition of crops, plus there is a
high risk of environmental pollution.
How does a manager decide if fertilizer or lime should be
applied to a pasture or forage crop? Fertilizer and/or lime
should be applied if:
(1) an increase in forage growth can be expected
(2) if the extra forage is needed
(3) a return on the investment can be expected.
The experience of the forage manager, along with soil
testing for pH, P, and K, can be used in making a decision
about liming and fertilizing with P and K especially for hay
or silage production. There is no point in fertilizing to reach
maximum yields if the extra forage produced is not used.
To make a profit on the investment, the forage must be
utilized or harvested, and the product (animal weight
gain, milk, hay, or silage) must be marketed.
• Some grasses, such as the star grasses and some
of the hybrid bermuda grasses, need to be
fertilized annually or maintained in a high-fertility
environment in order to keep a good stand. On
the other hand, some ranch managers with large,
extensive operations may only fertilize their
bahia grass once every three years. This grass can
persist under minimum fertility if they are not
overgrazed or mismanaged.
 Other Maintenance Practices
Weeding
The importance of weed control in forage production should not
be overlooked, especially when you consider the high
investment cost associated with their production. Weeds reduce
forage yield by competing for water, sunlight, and nutrients.
In addition to yield losses:
• weeds can also lower forage quality
• increase the incidence of disease and insect problems,
• cause premature stand loss
• create harvesting problems.
Some weeds are unpalatable to livestock or, in some cases, may
be poisonous.
• Weed management strategies in forages should focus first on
cultural practices and then on chemical weed control
practices. Vigorous, dense-growing forage stands have fewer
weed problems. Thus, cultural and management practices
that promote a highly competitive forage stand may prevent
many weed problems. These practices include:
1. fertilizing fields based on soil test recommendations
2. seeding well-adapted, vigorous, long-lived varieties
3. buying weed-free seed
4. cutting forage at proper timing intervals or growth stages
5. timely control of insect and disease problems
6. rotating fields with other crops to interrupt the buildup of
certain forage related weed species.
Because of the aggressive nature of some weed
species, they can become established despite
preventive efforts. Therefore, herbicide treatment
might be necessary to combat some weed
problems. The specific herbicides and control
strategies available for use will depend on the type
of forage you grow (alfalfa, alfalfa/grass mixtures,
clovers, forage grasses, etc.), whether your stand
is a new seeding or an established stand, and the
crop growth stage (dormant, non-dormant,
between cutting). Before using a herbicide, always
read and follow product label directions.
 Weed Control In New Seedlings
Weed control is more critical during the first year
than any other period of forage production. Forage
seedlings grow slowly and are easily overcome by
rapidly growing weeds. Research has shown that
some broadleaf weed seedlings are capable of
growing five times more rapidly than certain
legume seedlings. Because alfalfa stands gradually
decline with age, it is important to start with a
good stand. A uniform, dense stand is more likely
to survive longer and have fewer weed problems
than a thin stand.
 Forage Crop - Site Selection
Consider field histories when you select a field for
forage production. It might be difficult to establish
and maintain a weed-free stand in fields known to
be infested with weeds such as thistle, dandelion,
and quackgrass. In addition, some herbicides that
are applied in previously grown crops have the
potential to carry over and cause injury to newly
seeded forages. More information on herbicides
that have a potential to injure alfalfa and other
forages can be obtained directly from the Product
label.
 Fertilization
Adjusting soil nutrient levels according to soil
test recommendations is important during the
establishment phase and throughout the life of
the forage stand.
The objective is,
• to achieve a competitive stand that is capable
of suppressing weed emergence and growth.
Proper fertility is not effective at eliminating
established weeds, especially in areas where the
forage stand is poor.
 Cutting - New Stands
Clipping or mowing can be an effective option for
controlling weeds, such as common cocklebur, in forage
stands. This method controls weeds by removing the
leaves and lateral buds that develop new growth.
Annual broadleaf weeds have buds that develop above
the soil surface; they are more easily controlled with
clipping or mowing than grasses, which have crown buds
near the soil surface. Mow as low as possible to be
effective. Because alfalfa and other legumes have crown
buds, they can tolerate low clipping. When you clip new
seedings, be careful not to smother the forage with
heavy residues. Remove clipped vegetation when weed
infestations are heavy.
 Herbicides For New Seedings
Herbicides used for new seedings are designed to
eliminate or reduce competition from rapidly
growing weeds during the establishment phase.
In some instances, herbicides that aid
establishment have also contributed to higher
yields in subsequent years and greater longevity of
stands. During seedling development, forage
grasses usually are susceptible to injury from
herbicides used in legume establishment.
Subsequently, no herbicides are registered for new
seedlings of legume grass mixtures.
 Clipping Established Stands
The routine mowing of forages for hay is
sometimes effective in controlling some
perennial weeds by reducing food reserves and
plant vigor. However, in grazed forages, livestock
often selectively graze and may leave particular
weed species. Mowing soon after livestock have
been removed from the field can help control
these weeds and prevent seed production and
further spread of infestations.
 Herbicides For Established Stands
Several herbicide options are available for established forage
stands. You can use many of the same herbicides available for
new seeding. Furthermore, the deep root system of established
plants such as alfalfa enables them to tolerate certain herbicides
that are not suitable for new seeding.
When selecting herbicides for forages, you should consider
such factors as:
• whether the herbicide can be applied as a dormant season,
non-dormant, or between cutting treatment
• effectiveness on weed species to be controlled
• feeding and grazing limitations
• rotational crop restrictions
• and cost of treatment
PRODUCE
SILAGE
 Excess Forages and Other Materials for Silage

Uses of silage
• In large scale farming the use of silage is a business input. As with any
business input it is essential to understand clearly the purpose of this
input, and the likely consequences of its use. With silage the question
is somewhat complicated by the fact that it is often a rearrangement
of inputs already in the feeding system, rather than an additional
input.
• The purpose for using silage has often been poorly defined. Very few
feeding systems experiments have been done, and the bulk of the
literature is on the making and feeding of silage. The introductions to
these reports are dominated by reference to surpluses or gross
deficiencies of forage at particular times of the year, and it is assumed
that overcoming these will be advantageous to the farm business.
The advantages of using silage have generally
been grouped under the following headings.
• As a drought reserve; where silage is made from
pasture or crop in times of plenty and stored for a
period of 1 to 20 years. The silage is fed to
animals only in times of extreme feed deficiency.
• To increase productivity; where silage is routinely
made as a means of increasing the amount of
feed available to cows. The storage period is
consistently less than 1 year, and the practice is
often associated with a change from pastures to
crops as a form of land use.
• To aid in the management of pasture or crop; where the
pasture or crop is removed as silage to enable benefits to be
accrued from other management practices. Examples are the
increased tiller density and production of temperate pastures
when excess growth is removed early in the growing season,
and the removal of a crop to enable the earlier planting of a
subsequent crop.
• The use of excess growth; where the rationale is that it is a
waste to allow excess growth to mature and decay in situ, and
it should be harvested for use in the future.
• To balance the nutrient content of the diet; where the silage is
made with the intention of feeding it to provide nutrients
lacking in feeds available at that time. Examples are the use of
legume silage to feed with maize silage, maize silage to feed
with grazed legume pastures, or silage of relatively high fiber
content to feed with pastures of low fiber content.
• To enable storage of potentially unstable
material; where the ensiling process ensures the
feed can be used over an extended period. An
example is the ensiling of wet by-products. This
use is similar to that in the preservation of feeds
through the addition of chemicals or exclusion of
air from feeds such as high moisture grains.
 Ensiling

Ensiling is preserving feed in airtight spaces, the most

common method of preparing succulent feeds.
Beginning in the early 19th century the process was
used in Germany to preserve sugar beet residue. In the
second half of the century ensiling was adopted in
France (in connection with raising fodder corn) and
then in the United States, Great Britain, and
Switzerland. The process was first used in Russia in the
late 19th century, for the preservation of sugar beet
tops and pulp residue and later for the preservation of
clover, alfalfa, meadow grasses, corn, and feed root
crops.
Ensiling involves the following operations:

• mowing the bulk greens or harvesting root crops or cucurbits

• hauling, chopping, and loading the green crops into the silo
• and compacting and covering the silage crop.
Storage in an airtight structure prevents the development of aerobic bacteria
and mold fungi. The lactic acid that forms as a result of the activity of lactic
acid bacteria sours the feed (optimal pH is 4.2) and suppresses anaerobic
decay and the development of butyric acid.

Sugar is the source of nutrition for lactic acid bacteria, and therefore the
sugar content in feed determines its suitability for ensilage. Particularly
suitable for ensilage are:
• corn, sunflower seeds, annual and perennial cereal grasses, mixtures of
cereals and leguminous herbs, feed cabbage, root crops and their tops,
and cucurbits. Legumes and potato tops can be ensiled, but with difficulty.
• Nettles, the succulent tops of tomatoes and gourds cannot be ensiled
• Ensiling is regulated by selecting raw material according to suitability as
ensilage. Various chemical substances are added to difficult-to-ensile bulk
material to prevent the development of undesirable microbiological
processes. Surplus sugar in the silage crop is fermented by yeasts, and
alcohol and carbon dioxide form. The moisture content of the raw
material must not be greater than 75 percent, and temperatures should
be 35°-37°C. Dry feed is added if the moisture content is above 75
percent. Overheating causes a decrease in nutritive value and the
breakdown of vitamins. Chopping up the plant material causes the
release of much cell sap; as a result, carbohydrates are used better by
lactic acid bacteria, and lactic acid accumulates more rapidly. Chopped
material is easier to mix with other feeds, to compact, to remove from
storehouses, and to distribute to animals. Green plants are ensiled when
their nutrient content is the greatest and before hardening.
Excess forages and other materials for silage

Grasses
1. Native grasses
2. Improved grasses
Legumes
1. Vines
2. Shrubs
3. Fodder trees
Conserved forages
1. Silages (corn & grasses)
2. Hay (grasses or legumes)
3. Urea-treated rice straw (UTRS)
 Farm by-products
1. Rice straw
2. Sugar cane tops
3. Sweet potato vines
4. Corn stover
Industrial by-products
1. Spent grain
2. Molasses
3. Pine apple pulps
4. 3Banana peelings
5. Rice/corn bran
6. Cassava (leaves or meal)
7. copra meal
Alternative feed resources
1. Tree leaves and shrubs
2. Banana stalks
3. Peanut/soya hay
4. Gumamela
5. Chicken manure
Additives
1. molasses
2. grains