materials
Article
Study on Electrical Pitting Prevention Device of a Rotating
Shaft Using Automatic Control Potential Balancing
Dong Won Son 1 , Tuo Zhang 1 and Geesoo Lee 2, *
Citation: Son, D.W.; Zhang, T.; Lee, G.
Study on Electrical Pitting Prevention
Device of a Rotating Shaft Using
Automatic Control Potential
Balancing. Materials 2022, 15, 4510.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma15134510
Academic Editor: X. Ramón Nóvoa
Received: 31 May 2022
Accepted: 21 June 2022
Published: 27 June 2022
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4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 4510. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134510
1 Department of Mechanical System Engineering, Tongmyong University, Busan 48520, Korea;
sdwg@hanmail.net (D.W.S.); zhangtuo2020@naver.com (T.Z.)
2 Department of Automotive Engineering, Tongmyong University, Busan 48520, Korea
* Correspondence: gslee@tu.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-51-629-1265
Abstract: A rotating body consisting of a rotating shaft and bearings inevitably generates voltage
and current. The potential difference between the bearing and the shaft is the main cause of electrical
corrosion, which causes motor failure, shortened bearing life, and many safety issues. To prevent
corrosion, passive shaft-grounding devices use conductive materials and brushes; however, these
devices cannot be completely grounded, so there is a difference in local potential, and brush friction
generates a shaft current. The cumulative effect causes electrical corrosion; therefore, in this study, an
electrical corrosion protection device for the rotating power supply shaft was developed. It detected
current and potential difference and established a feedback system on the rotating shaft. It also
energized the rotating shaft using an external power supply to eliminate the potential difference on
the shaft and reduce electrical corrosion. The result was prolonged motor life and improved stability,
operating efficiency, and operability of related equipment. In this study, a rotating-shaft test rig
was set up, and a constant current was applied to simulate the potential difference and verify the
performance of the anti-corrosion device. Gradually, the design scheme was optimized; the potential
difference on the rotating shaft was accurately quantified; and the goal of controlling the potential
difference within 2 mV was achieved. Finally, the electrical corrosion protection device was applied
to the rotating shaft of a merchant ship, and the current and potential difference on the rotating
shaft were monitored for 30 days. The results showed that the device had excellent performance in
reducing the potential difference on the rotating shaft and preventing electrical corrosion.
Keywords: bearing voltage; bearing current; electrical power; electrical pitting; electric machine;
electrical corrosion protection device
1. Introduction
A rotating body consisting of a shaft and a bearing will inevitably generate electrical
discharge in electrical machines [1,2]. The bearing current is mainly generated by the influ-
ence of electrostatic and electromagnetic fields [3]: the current related to the electrostatic
field causes shaft voltage, and the current related to the electromagnetic field is expressed
as circulating current. Because both acyclic and cyclic currents are closely related to the
potential difference across the bearing, voltage is often used as an indicator of bearing
failure [4,5]. Machine bearing currents can lead to grid current distortion [6,7], power
loss [8], shortened bearing life [9], motor failure [10], and many other safety issues that
increase machine maintenance and repair costs. Numerous methods are used for galvanic
ally corroded surface inspection, such as visual inspection [11], shaft current damage signal
detection [12–14], scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation [15], and microwave
non-destructive testing (NDT) [16]. Research has shown that the most common form of
damage from bearing currents is pitting or burns on the bearing raceways and rolling
element surfaces [17]. Surface damage to bearings and journals takes on a linear, jagged char-
acteristic shape and can also aggregate into point craters [11]. The intensity of this damage
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2022, 15, 4510 2 of 13

depends on the density of the flowing current and the duration of its operation [18–23]. The
potential difference caused by the bearing current is the main cause of electrical corrosion in
rotating machinery such as motors and generators [24,25], so the current should be reduced
to ensure that the system functions efficiently [26].
As early as 1924, Alger et al. recognized that the drive generates shaft voltage and
current [27]. Erdman et al. pointed out that variable-speed drives using pulse width
modulation (PWM) voltage-source inverters exacerbate bearing currents, so more research
is needed on them and on mitigation techniques [28]. Von Jouanne et al. elaborated on
issues associated with long-cable-fed PWM drive systems [29]. Distributed long cables can
cause overvoltage at the motor terminals causing bearing insulation failure and inducing
bearing currents [30,31]. Han et al. proposed that the bearing voltage waveform depends
to a large extent on inverter output, cable and ground impedance, and high-frequency and
bearing parameters [32]. Chen et al. pointed out that the high-frequency common-mode
voltage of the inverter and the stray capacitance of the motor are the key causes of bearing
current generation [33]. Adabi et al. analyzed the influence of machine design on the stray
capacitance factor, studied the relationship between the stray capacitance parameters of the
bearing current model, and gave the relevant analytical formulas [34,35]. The schemes cur-
rently used to eliminate inverter-induced bearing currents mainly include shaft grounding
systems [36,37], electrostatic shielding [38], and dual-bridge inverters [39]. However, the
above solutions must be combined with machine design, which is very difficult to imple-
ment in the drive system. First, to ensure safety, many mechanical industries require lower
potential differences [40]. For example, commercial engine companies such as MAN Diesel
and BMW limit the potential difference between rotating shafts and bearings to 50 mV. At
present, it is difficult for existing devices to keep within this limit. Second, in machines such
as ships, even when the passive rotating-shaft-grounding device is in a normal state, there
is a slight resistance between the shaft and the hull that cannot be completely grounded [41].
Moreover, the passive rotating-shaft-grounding device requires periodic maintenance of
the slip-ring assembly and brushes because if performance degrades, localized electrical
corrosion may occur. To solve these problems, a separate slip ring is being developed to
monitor the potential between the shaft and ground in real time. If resistance between the
shaft and the hull increases sharply, the separate slip ring and power supply rotate the
shaft. However, at present, electric corrosion-prevention devices that use power supplies
are rarely used in shipbuilding. Therefore, before using such a device, it is necessary to
study the specifications and manufacturing methods [42]. The hull of the ship mainly uses
the cathodic protection method, and the external sacrificial power-supply anode keeps
the surface potential of the hull in a noncorrosive condition, also known as the external
power-supply-type anti-corrosion device [43]. Han et al. proposed the use of insulating
shafts to reduce the potential difference on the shaft. The research results show that the
use of insulating shafts has a poor blocking effect on the induced current generated by the
electromagnetic field, and the potential difference can only be reduced by 70% at most. [32].
Muetze et al. proposed the release of the voltage build-up on the bearing by electrostatic
charge dissipation. The shaft current is released through the high-conductive fiber ring,
which can only reduce the shaft voltage to 4–7 V and therefore does not meet the safety
requirements of current equipment [37]. Bharatiraja et al. suppressed the bearing current
by eliminating the common-mode voltage by introducing a switching algorithm for the
fourth arm circuit (FAC). The experimental results show that this scheme has a good effect
in eliminating common mode voltage and suppressing bearing current, but in the actual
operation of the machine, the shaft current does not only include common mode current,
so the effect of this scheme in suppressing bearing current still needs to be validated in
actual device work [26]. Most previous studies had focused on a passive-shaft grounding
device; there has been limited research on reducing the potential difference. The aim of this
study was to design the active shaft grounding with the algorithm of the automatic control
potential balance system within 2 mV, which was a new idea for designing the rotating
shaft anti-corrosion device.
 was a new idea for designing the rotating shaft anti-corrosion device.
To solve the electrical corrosion problem, it was very important to supply and c
trol the current to the rotating shaft precisely to balance the potential difference. An
Materials 2022, 15, 4510 gorithm was used to detect the potential difference, calculate the corresponding 3 of 13 balan
current, and deliver it to the rotating shaft. In this study, a power supply was added
the shaft-grounding device, and PWM technology was used to drive the voltage sou
inverter To solveA
(VSI). thecomplete
electrical corrosion
feedback problem, it was very
regulation important
system was toestablished
supply and control
by designin
the current to the rotating shaft precisely to balance the potential
potential difference detector, power-control device, monitoring device, and grou difference. An algorithm
was used to detect the potential difference, calculate the corresponding balance current,
ing-related accessories. The electrical corrosion protection device of the power sup
and deliver it to the rotating shaft. In this study, a power supply was added to the shaft-
shaftgrounding
measured the potential
device, and PWM difference
technology was between
used tothe rotating
drive body
the voltage andinverter
source the bearing a
calculated
(VSI). Athe current
complete corresponding
feedback to the
regulation system waspotential
establisheddifference
by designingflows to the rotat
a potential
shaft.difference detector,
In this way, thepower-control device, monitoring
potential difference device, and
on the rotating grounding-related
shaft was eliminated, ac- and
cessories. The electrical corrosion protection device of the power supply shaft measured
various parts of the rotating body were prevented from being burned or damaged fr
the potential difference between the rotating body and the bearing and calculated the
electrolysis, thereby prolonging
current corresponding its service
to the potential life.flows
difference The to
experimental results
the rotating shaft. showed
In this way, that
anti-corrosion
the potentialdevice
difference controlled the shaft
on the rotating potential difference
was eliminated, andon thethe rotating
various parts ofshaft
the withi
rotating body were prevented from being burned or damaged
mV, which was superior to the performance of the conventional shaft-grounding devfrom electrolysis, thereby
thus prolonging
verifying itsitsservice life. Theto
application experimental
industry. results showed that the anti-corrosion device
controlled the potential difference on the rotating shaft within 2 mV, which was superior to
the performance of the conventional shaft-grounding device, thus verifying its application
2. Experimental
to industry. Setup
2.1. Principle of Prevention of Electrical Pitting
2. Experimental Setup
ThePrinciple
2.1. circuitofdiagram
Prevention of the existing
of Electrical Pittingmarine passive shaft-grounding device and
electricalThe
corrosion protection
circuit diagram of the device
existing of the passive
marine power shaft-grounding
supply shaft is shown
device and in
theFigure
electrical corrosion
The traditional protection
passive device of thedevice
shaft-grounding power issupply shaft by
affected is shown in Figure
the current 1a.
conduction
the hull and the propeller and cannot be completely grounded. As shown inofFigure
The traditional passive shaft-grounding device is affected by the current conduction
the hull and the propeller and cannot be completely grounded. As shown in Figure 1b,
the design idea of this study is to add an automatic control potential balancing (AP
the design idea of this study is to add an automatic control potential balancing (APB)
feedback adjustment
feedback adjustmentsystem onthe
system on thepassive
passive shaft-grounding
shaft-grounding device device to the
to balance balance
currentthe curr
and eliminate the potential difference on the rotating shaft.
and eliminate the potential difference on the rotating shaft.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. 1.
Figure Circuit
Circuit diagram
diagram ofof a marine
a marine electrical
electrical corrosioncorrosion protection
protection device: device:
(a) passive shaft-(a) pass
shaft-grounding
grounding device and (b) electrical pitting prevention device with APB feedback adjustment system. adjustm
device and (b) electrical pitting prevention device with APB feedback
system.
According to Figure 1a, we can derive the conclusion:
According to Figure 1a, we can derive n the conclusion:
 o
Vsha f t = Rsha f t × Ib + Iem f − Ic (1)
𝑉𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑅𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 × {(𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑒𝑚𝑓 ) − 𝐼𝑐 }
where Vsha f t is the shaft voltage; Rsha f t is the shaft resistance; Ib is the balance current;
Iem f is the electromotive force (EMF)-induced current; and Ic is the shaft earthing devices
where 𝑉𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 is the shaft voltage; 𝑅𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 is the shaft resistance; 𝐼𝑏 is the balance curr
(SED)-to-ground current. However, voltage differences still exist when using a passive
𝐼𝑒𝑚𝑓 shaft-grounding
is the electromotivedevice toforce (EMF)-induced
prevent galvanic corrosion. current; and 𝐼𝑐 is the shaft earthing
vices (SED)-to-ground current. However, voltage differences still exist when usin
passive shaft-grounding device to prevent galvanic corrosion.
 According to Figure 1b, if the current on the APB can cancel the current on the ro-
Materials 2022, 15, 4510
tating shaft, the voltage difference on the shaft can theoretically be close to 0 mV as in the
4 of 13
following equations:
𝐼𝐴𝑃𝐵 ≅ (𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑒𝑚𝑓 ) − 𝐼𝑐 (2)
According to Figure 1b, if the current on the APB can cancel the current on the rotating
shaft, the voltage difference on the shaft can theoretically be close to 0 mV as in the
𝑉𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 ≅ 0 (3)
following equations:  
I APB ∼
= Ib + Iem f − Ic (2)
2.2. Design of Electrical Pitting Prevention
V Device
∼
=0 (3)
sha f t
The automatic control potential balance is the core system configuration of the elec-
2.2. Design of Electrical
trical corrosion Pitting
prevention Prevention
device. It isDevice
mainly composed of a potential difference detec-
The automatic control potential
tor, power-supply control device, monitoring balance is thedevice,
core systemandconfiguration of the electrical
grounding-related accessories.
The potential difference detector measures the potential difference between power-
corrosion prevention device. It is mainly composed of a potential difference detector, the rotating
supply control device, monitoring device, and grounding-related accessories. The potential
shaft and the bearing and applies a stable and effective signal detection and noise atten-
difference detector measures the potential difference between the rotating shaft and the
uation protection circuit. It does so by using digital filters to prevent the input signal
bearing and applies a stable and effective signal detection and noise attenuation protection
from causing
circuit. It doesdamage to the
so by using system.
digital filtersThe power the
to prevent supply
inputcontrol device
signal from mainly
causing damagecalculates
thetocurrent
the system. The power supply control device mainly calculates the current control shaft
control value and outputs the current to the device between the rotating
and the and
value bearing.
outputsLike
thethe potential
current to thedifference
device betweensensor, theitrotating
uses a noise filter
shaft and theand protection
bearing.
Like the
circuit potential difference
to produce sensor,output;
precise current it uses a the
noise filter and protection
monitoring device iscircuit
mainly to produce
a screen con-
precise
trol current
for the output;
storage the monitoring
of potential deviceincluding
information is mainly aoutput
screen voltage,
control for the storage
current, measured
of potential information including output voltage, current, measured
potential difference, system operating status, and alarm. The grounding-related potential difference,
accesso-
system operating status, and alarm. The grounding-related accessories mainly consist of a
ries mainly consist of a highly conductive elastic band holder and a grounding brush and
highly conductive elastic band holder and a grounding brush and holder, which transmits
holder, which transmits output current. Figure 2 is a photo of the electrical-pitting pre-
output current. Figure 2 is a photo of the electrical-pitting prevention device, which consists
vention device,difference
of a potential which consists
detector, of a potential
current difference
control value detector,
correlation current
device, powercontrol
supply, value
correlation
APB informer,device, power device,
monitoring supply,and APB informer,
power input and monitoring device, and
converter composed of apower
power input
and converter
control device.composed of a power control device.

Figure 2. Photo of the electrical pitting prevention device.

Figure 2. Photo of the electrical pitting prevention device.

Figure
Figure33depicts the system’s
depicts the system’sproportional–integral
proportional–integral (PI)(PI) algorithm
algorithm in theinelectrical
the electrical
pittingprevention
pitting prevention device.
device.A A proportional–integral
proportional–integral(PI) controller is a feedback
(PI) controller control loop
is a feedback control
thatthat
loop calculates an error
calculates signalsignal
an error by taking the difference
by taking betweenbetween
the difference the outputtheofoutput
a system.
of a sys-
Proportional
tem. Proportionalgain K p and
gain 𝐾𝑝integral gain Ki in
and integral the controller
gain 𝐾𝑖 in theare 0.01 and 0.01,
controller respectively.
are 0.01 and 0.01, re-
The PWM generated by the PI controller acts as the metal–oxide semiconductor field-effect
spectively. The PWM generated by the PI controller acts as the metal–oxide semicon-
transistor (MOSFET) gate voltage of the power controller, which generates a current that
ductor field-effect
bypasses transistor
the one flowing (MOSFET)
through gate voltage
the rotating shaft. PWMof the power
signal wascontroller,
generated by which
the gen-
erates a current
function that
generator bypasses
(FG-281, the one
Kenwood, flowing through
Yokohama-shi thevoltage
of Japan), rotatingwasshaft. PWM
measured bysignal
wasthe oscilloscope (MDO3024, Tektronix, Beaverton of USA) at 10 µs sampling speed, andJapan),
generated by the function generator (FG-281, Kenwood, Yokohama-shi of
voltage was measured
the feedback by the
control speed wasoscilloscope
set to produce(MDO3024,
2 kHz frames Tektronix,
overall. InBeaverton
the marineof USA) at 10
engine,
µ sreference
sampling voltage,
speed,Vrefand
between rotating shafts
the feedback controlandspeed
bearingswaswasset
about 20 mV. The
to produce 2 design
kHz frames
overall. In the marine engine, reference voltage, 𝑉ref between rotating shafts and bear-
 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of

Materials 2022, 15, 4510 ings was about 20 mV. The design goal of the electrical pitting prevention 5 ofdevice
13 is
control the shaft voltage 𝑉shaft to a minimum value. The PI controller continuously ca
culated an error value as the difference between a desired 𝑉shaft and 𝑉ref and eventual
goal of the electrical
controlled the shaftpitting prevention
voltage mV. is to control the shaft voltage Vshaft to a
within 2device
minimum value. The PI controller continuously calculated an error value as the difference
between a desired
Figure 3. Vshaft algorithm.
PI control and Vref and eventually controlled the shaft voltage within 2 mV.

2.3. Experimental Setup and Test Method

To verify the operation of the rotating shaft anti-corrosion device u
supply, an experimental bench equipped with the same motor-driven rota
vice as a ship or factory equipment was established. By supplying current
and the rotating shaft, a potential difference between the rotating shaft an
was artificially created. The motor frame was fabricated and structurally in
passive- shaft grounding could be done using brushes and brush holder
mental bench is shown in Figures 4 and 5.
Figure 3. PI control
3. PI algorithm.
Figure
Thecontrol algorithm.
schematic diagram of the experimental setup for the electrical p
2.3.
2.3.Experimental
tion device isSetup
Experimental shownand Test
Setup andinMethod
Figure
Test Method4. The external power supply provides vol
tating To verify the
sooperationit offorms
the rotating shaft anti-corrosion device using a power supply, bearin
Toshaft
verify that
the operation ofathe
potential
rotating difference with
shaft anti-corrosionthe grounded
device
an experimental bench equipped with the same motor-driven rotating shaft device as a ship
using a pow
calculates
orsupply, an the
factory equipment current
experimental corresponding
bench
was established. equipped
By supplying tocurrent
with the
the potential
same difference
to themotor-driven
ground and shaft
and therotating
rotating the fld
vice
tating
shaft, as a ship or
shaft, thereby
a potential factory equipment
differenceoffsetting
between thethewas established.
potential
rotating By supplying
difference
shaft and the bearingon current
was the rotatinggroun
to the
artificially shaf
and
created.theTherotating
motor shaft,
frame a
was potential
fabricateddifference
and between
structurally the rotating
insulated
shaft ground (PSG) test circuit monitors the current ripple through a h so that shaft
passive-and the
shaft bearin
was artificially
grounding created.
could be The motor
done using brushes frame was fabricated
and brush andexperimental
holders. The structurallybench
insulated
is so th
pulseinsignal.
shown Figures 4 and 5.
passive- shaft grounding could be done using brushes and brush holders. The exper
mental bench is shown in Figures 4 and 5.
The schematic diagram of the experimental setup for the electrical pitting preve
tion device is shown in Figure 4. The external power supply provides voltage to the r
tating shaft so that it forms a potential difference with the grounded bearing. The devi
calculates the current corresponding to the potential difference and the flows to the ro
tating shaft, thereby offsetting the potential difference on the rotating shaft. The passiv
shaft ground (PSG) test circuit monitors the current ripple through a high-definitio
pulse signal.

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 4. The schematic diagram of the experimental setup for electrical pitting prevention device.
Figure 4. The schematic diagram of the experimental setup for electrical pitting pre

Figure 4. The schematic diagram of the experimental setup for electrical pitting prevention devic

Figure
Figure 5. Photo of theof
5. Photo experimental setup for electrical
the experimental setup pitting prevention
for electrical device. prevention
pitting device.

The details of the specific coupling device are shown in Figure 6. T

electrical carbon graphite brushes were abandoned, and conductive mi
were used for shaft grounding and current conduction. This brush not o
Materials 2022, 15, 4510 6 of 13

The schematic diagram of the experimental setup for the electrical pitting prevention
device is shown in Figure 4. The external power supply provides voltage to the rotating
shaft so that it forms a potential difference with the grounded bearing. The device calculates
Figure 5. Photocorresponding
the current of the experimental
to thesetup for electrical
potential pitting
difference and prevention
the flows todevice.
the rotating shaft,
thereby offsetting the potential difference on the rotating shaft. The passive shaft ground
(PSG)
Thetest circuitofmonitors
details the current
the specific ripple
coupling through
device area high-definition
shown in Figure pulse6.signal.
The traditional
Thecarbon
electrical details graphite
of the specific coupling
brushes weredevice are shown
abandoned, andin conductive
Figure 6. Themicrofiber
traditional rings
electrical carbon graphite brushes were abandoned, and conductive
were used for shaft grounding and current conduction. This brush not only microfiber ringsprevented
were
used for shaft grounding and current conduction. This brush not only prevented voltage
voltage build-up, but also prevented current conduction at frequencies in the MHz range
build-up, but also prevented current conduction at frequencies in the MHz range of tens
of tens of amps. To verify the voltage strength on the rotating shaft, a saw-tooth-shaped
of amps. To verify the voltage strength on the rotating shaft, a saw-tooth-shaped plate
plate was installed
was installed as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 6b. 6b. It was
It was designed
designed so that
so that whenwhen the shaft
the shaft rotated,
rotated,
thethe
connection
connectionbetween
between thethe grounding brushand
grounding brush andthethe shaft
shaft hadhad repeated
repeated contact
contact and and
separation
separation rather than continuous contact, thereby forming a potential difference that that
rather than continuous contact, thereby forming a potential difference
generated
generated sparks.
sparks.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. The specific coupling device: (a) passive shaft-grounding device and (b)
Figure 6. The specific coupling device: (a) passive shaft-grounding device and (b) saw-tooth-shaped
saw-tooth-shaped connection device.
connection device.

In In
thetheexperiment,
experiment, thethe same rotatingshaft
same rotating shaftfrom
from a ship
a ship or factory
or factory equipment
equipment was was
used to simulate the working state. As shown in Figure 7, the external power input
used to simulate the working state. As shown in Figure 7, the external power input source
connected
source to the switching
connected mode power
to the switching mode supply
power(SMPS)
supplyprovided a constant
(SMPS) providedcurrent of 220 V cur-
a constant
of of
rent alternating
220 V of current (AC), a single-phase
alternating current (AC), power input, and artificially
a single-phase created and
power input, a potential
artificially
difference. The automatic potential balancing system of the electrical pitting prevention
created a potential difference. The automatic potential balancing system of the electrical
device used a 440 V AC 3-phase power input. By calculating the voltage difference on
pitting prevention device used a 440 V AC 3-phase power input. By calculating the
the rotating shaft, the corresponding current automatically provided a resistance on the
voltage
rotatingdifference
shaft. The onexperiment
the rotating wasshaft,
carriedthe
outcorresponding
in three steps. The current
first automatically
eliminated the pro-
vided
sparka generated
resistancebetween
on the the
rotating shaft.
grounding Theand
brush experiment
the rotating was carried
shaft. out in three
The feasibility of thesteps.
Theelectrical
first eliminated the sparkdevice
corrosion protection generated
schemebetween the grounding
was demonstrated brush andwith
by a comparison the the
rotating
shaft.
powerThesupply
feasibility of the
shaft and electricalofcorrosion
the removal the spark byprotection device scheme
the passive-grounding was Itdemon-
device. is
worthby
strated noting that the absence
a comparison with ofthesparks
power didsupply
not mean thatand
shaft there was
the no potential
removal difference
of the spark by the
on the rotating shaft
passive-grounding because
device. It isitworth
may have beenthat
noting toothe
small to generate
absence a spark.
of sparks didTherefore,
not mean that
further research and testing are needed to verify its performance.
there was no potential difference on the rotating shaft because it may have been too small
to generate a spark. Therefore, further research and testing are needed to verify its per-
formance.
In the second step, the galvanic corrosion protection of the power supply shaft was
quantified, and in the third, the electrical corrosion protection device was installed on the
commercial hull shaft to further verify its performance. The goal of this study was to
control the potential difference on the rotating shaft to within 2 mV. In this study,
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

Materials 2022, 15, 4510 through three performance tests, an optimal design scheme for the device was proposed,
7 of 13
and
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the 2 mV requirement was realized. 7 of 13

through three performance tests, an optimal design scheme for the device was proposed,
and the 2 mV requirement was realized.

Figure 7.
Figure Test method
7. Test method for
for electric
electric pitting
pitting prevention
prevention device.
device.
In the second step, the galvanic corrosion protection of the power supply shaft was
3. Experimental Results
quantified, and in the third, the electrical corrosion protection device was installed on
3.1. Preliminary Verification
the commercial hull shaft to of further
Device Performance in LaboratoryThe goal of this study was to
verify its performance.
control the
To7. Test potential
ensure difference
the for
spark on the
generation rotating
condition shaftinto the
within 2 mV.shaft
driving In thiswith
study,a through
passive
Figure method electric pitting prevention device.
three performance
shaft-grounding tests, and
device an optimal
electricaldesign
pitting scheme for the device,
prevention device was the proposed, and the
saw-tooth-shaped
2 mV
plate requirement
was specially
3. Experimental Results was realized.
designed and installed as shown in Figure 8. In this experiment, a
constant current was supplied through an external power input source to provide the
3.1. Preliminary Verification
3. Experimental Results of Device Performance in Laboratory
potential difference on the rotating shaft. The spark generation conditions of the
3.1. Preliminary
To ensure Verification
saw-tooth-shaped the spark
plate wereofgeneration
Device
comparedPerformance
condition in Laboratory
in two cases: in the
when driving shaft with
the electrical pittinga preven-
passive
shaft-grounding
To ensure
tion device wasthedevice
spark
driven and
and electrical
generation
when it was pitting
condition
not. Usingprevention
in the device, the
driving shaft with
a high-resolution saw-tooth-shaped
a passive
camera, shaft-
the sparks
plate was specially
grounding
generated device and
between designed
theelectrical
plate of and theinstalled
pitting asshaft
prevention
rotating shownandinthe
device, Figure 8. In this
thegrounding
saw-tooth-shaped experiment,
brush plate
are was
clearly a
constant
speciallyAs
visible. current
designed was
shown in and supplied
installed
Figure through
as shown
8a, when the inan external power
Figure 8. In this
anti-corrosion input
experiment,
device source to provide
a constant
was not driven andcurrentthe
relied
potential
was supplied difference
through onan the rotating
external power shaft.
input The spark
source to
only on the grounding device to prevent electrical corrosion, sparks between the generation
provide the conditions
potential of the
difference
saw-tooth-shaped
on the rotating plate
shaft. The were
spark compared
generation in two cases:
conditions when
of the
saw-tooth plate and the grounding brush could clearly be seen. There was still a large the electrical
saw-tooth-shaped pitting preven-
plate were
tion device
compared
potential inwas
twodriven
cases:
difference, and andthewhen
when it was
the electrical
passive shaftnot. Using
pitting
grounding a high-resolution
prevention
devicedevice
couldwas camera,
not driven the
andsparks
completely when
pre-
generated
it was not. between
Using a the plate
high-resolution of the rotating
camera, theshaft and
sparks the grounding
generated
vent electrical corrosion. As shown in Figure 8b, when the anti-corrosion device was between brush
the are
plate clearly
of the
visible.
driven, As
rotatingthere shown
shaft was in
and the Figure
grounding
no spark, 8a, when the
brush are
indicating anti-corrosion
thatclearly device
visible. As
the potential was not
shown inonFigure
difference driven and
8a, when
the rotating relied
the
shaft
only on the
anti-corrosion grounding
device was device
not to
driven prevent
and relied electrical
only on corrosion,
the grounding
had been reduced to a small value. This experiment preliminarily verified that the elec- sparks
devicebetween
to the
prevent
saw-tooth
electrical
trical pitting plate and sparks
corrosion,
preventionthe device
grounding
between brush could
the saw-tooth
had excellent clearly
plate and
performance beinseen.
the Therethe
grounding
reducing waspotential
still a could
brush large
dif-
potential
clearly be difference,
seen. There and
was the
stillpassive
a large shaft
potential grounding
ference of the rotating shaft and preventing electrical corrosion. device
difference, and could
the not
passive completely
shaft groundingpre-
device
vent could not
electrical completely
corrosion. Asprevent
shown electrical
in Figurecorrosion.
8b, whenAsthe shown in Figure 8b,
anti-corrosion whenwas
device the
anti-corrosion
driven, there wasdeviceno was
spark,driven, there was
indicating thatno thespark, indicating
potential that the
difference onpotential difference
the rotating shaft
on the
had beenrotating
reducedshaft
to ahad been
small reduced
value. Thisto a small value.
experiment This experiment
preliminarily verified preliminarily
that the elec-
verified
trical that the
pitting electricaldevice
prevention pittinghad prevention
excellent device had excellent
performance performance
in reducing in reducing
the potential dif-
the potential
ference of thedifference of the
rotating shaft androtating shaft and
preventing preventing
electrical electrical corrosion.
corrosion.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Photo of spark generation for saw-tooth-shaped plate: (a) passive shaft-grounding device
and (b) electrical pitting prevention device.

Figure 9 shows current variation using the electrical pitting prevention device to
(a) (b)
offset any external current supplied to the rotating shaft. The monitoring equipment fed
Figure
back 8. Photo
the output ofvoltage
spark generation
and thenforfedsaw-tooth-shaped
the current andplate: (a) passive
measured shaft-grounding
potential difference device
of the
Figure 8. Photo of spark generation for saw-tooth-shaped plate: (a) passive shaft-grounding device
and (b)
external electrical
power pitting
supply prevention
to the device.
potential difference sensor and the current-control value
and (b) electrical pitting prevention device.
computing device. Then, the power control device output the calculated current to the
Figure
rotating
Figure 99 shows
shaft. shows current
The output
current variation
current of the
variation using
thethe
device
using electrical
almost pitting
canceled
electrical pitting the prevention
outputdevice
prevention device
currenttoof to
the
offset
offset any external current supplied to the rotating shaft. The monitoring equipment
any external current supplied to the rotating shaft. The monitoring equipment fed back the fed
back thevoltage
output outputand voltage
thenand
fed then fed theand
the current current and measured
measured potentialpotential difference
difference of the
of the external
external power supply to the potential difference sensor and the current-control
power supply to the potential difference sensor and the current-control value computing value
computing device. Then, the power control device output the calculated current to the
rotating shaft. The output current of the device almost canceled the output current of the
ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 1

Materials 2022, 15, 4510 external power supply. Therefore, it can be inferred that even if there was current 8 of 13 on th

rotating shaft, it must have been maintained at a very low state. To explore the specifi
value of the potential difference of the rotating shaft further, more refined experimenta
device. Then, the power control device output the calculated current to the rotating shaft.
measurements are required.
The output current of the device almost canceled the output current of the external power
supply. Therefore, it can be inferred that even if there was current on the rotating shaft,
it must have been maintained at a very low state. To explore the specific value of the
potential difference of the rotating shaft further, more refined experimental measurements
are required.

Figure 9. Current variation using electrical pitting prevention device to offset any external current
Figure 9. Current
supplied variation
to the using electrical pitting prevention device to offset any external curren
rotating shaft.
supplied to the rotating shaft.
3.2. Performance Verification for Potential Differences and Output Voltage Ripple
Table 1 shows the first test using the power shaft electrical corrosion protection device
3.2. Performance Verification
with a potential sensing for Potential
voltage Differences
of 0.005 and Output
mV. The results showedVoltage
that theRipple
total average
potential
Table difference
1 shows was 6.12
the first testmV,
usingand the
the average
power ripple
shaft was 7.42 mV.
electrical The performance
corrosion protection de
vice with a potential sensing voltage of 0.005 mV. The results showed thatsupply
required for the rotary shaft galvanic corrosion prevention device using the power the total av
was not achieved, resulting in poor results. The potential difference was too high due
erage potential
to the outputdifference
ripple. Towas keep6.12 mV,2 and
it below theripple
mV, the average ripple
had to was
be kept 7.421 mV.
below mV.ToThe per
formance required for the rotary shaft galvanic corrosion prevention
improve the ripple of the output power, the ripple of the input power was improved device using th
power bysupply
using awas not achieved,
smoothing resulting
circuit composed of ain poorand
reactor results. The potential
a capacitor at the power difference
input. wa
According to the potential value measured by the output/input control
too high due to the output ripple. To keep it below 2 mV, the ripple had to be kept below circuit, the change
speed of the output and input currents were precisely controlled, and the sharp potential
1 mV. To improve the ripple of the output power, the ripple of the input power was im
change improved.
proved by using a smoothing circuit composed of a reactor and a capacitor at the powe
input. Table
According to result
1. First test the potential value
with a potential measured
sensing voltage ofby the
0.005 mV.output/input control circuit, th
change speed of the output and input currents were Vshaft
precisely controlled, and the sharp
potential changeNo. improved.
Min [mV] Max [mV] Average [mV] Ripple [mV]
1 1.32 7.04 5.12 5.72
Table 1. First test
2
result with a−potential
2.23
sensing8.05
voltage of 0.0056.54
mV. 9.82
3 0.97 7.66 5.55 5.69
4 −1.86 𝐕𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕
8.46 6.73 8.60
No. 5 Min 1.55 8.81 6.65 [mV] 7.26
[mV] Max [mV] Average [mV]Ripple
1 1.32 7.04 5.12 5.72
Table 2 shows the second test using the electrical pitting protection device with a
2 −2.23 8.05 6.54 9.82
potential sensing voltage of 0.001 mV and an input-stage smoothing circuit added to
3 0.97 7.66 5.55 5.69
4 −1.86 8.46 6.73 8.60
5 1.55 8.81 6.65 7.26
Materials 2022, 15, 4510 9 of 13

reduce the ripple voltage. The results showed that the total average potential difference
was 3.27 mV, and the average ripple was 3.68 mV. Although the performance test results
improved from the first test, they still fell short of the performance required for a rotary
shaft galvanic corrosion prevention device using a power supply. By analyzing the data,
we concluded that it was impossible to remove the ripple of the potential value by only
removing the ripple of the power-supply input. The measurements at the output end
of the electrical corrosion prevention device also showed that the ripple of the potential
value could not be removed, only improved. Therefore, the optimized solution proposed
at this time is to add a smoothing circuit to the output end of the rotating shaft electrical
corrosion prevention device of the power supply, which is separate from the power-supply
end provided to the output unit to improve the output current ripple.

Table 2. Second test result using a potential sensing voltage of 0.001 mV and an input stage smooth-
ing circuit.

Vshaft
No.
Min [mV] Max [mV] Average [mV] Ripple [mV]
1 0.78 4.74 3.51 3.96
2 1.53 4.49 2.56 2.96
3 1.95 4.21 3.56 2.26
4 −0.12 4.89 2.95 5.01
5 0.32 4.51 3.77 4.19

Table 3 shows the second test using the electrical pitting protection device with a
potential sensing voltage of 0.001 mV and an input/output stage smoothing circuit to
reduce the ripple voltage. The results showed that the total average potential difference
was 0.1 mV, and the average ripple was 0.2 mV. The desired goal of reducing the potential
difference to less than 2 mV was achieved, and the performance measurements were stable.
Therefore, it is very important to minimize the output ripple to maximize the performance.
In the working environment of the rotating shaft anti-corrosion device of the power supply,
the ripple of the potential value may have increased due to the noise components generated
when the power source motor and the shaft of the electric motor rotated. Therefore, when
using the anti-corrosion device of the rotating shaft of the power supply, the ripple of
the potential value must be kept within 1 mV to keep the potential of the rotating shaft
within 2 mV.

Table 3. Third test result using a potential sensing voltage of 0.001 mV and an input/output stage
smoothing circuit.

Vshaft
No.
Min [mV] Max [mV] Average [mV] Ripple [mV]
1 0.08 0.20 0.11 0.12
2 0.01 0.18 0.09 0.17
3 0.05 0.20 0.10 0.15
4 −0.02 0.20 0.09 0.22
5 0.02 0.21 0.07 0.19

3.3. Validation of Anti-Corrosion Performance of Commercial Vessel Rotating Shafts

To further verify the performance of the electrical pitting protection device for the
rotating shaft of a power supply in a real application, we installed the electrical pitting
prevention device on the rotating shaft of a commercial vessel and detected the voltage
difference under actual working conditions. The installation is shown in Figure 10.
Materials 2022,15,
Materials2022, 15,4510
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of
10 of 13
13

Figure10.
Figure 10.Installation
Installationofof electrical
electrical pitting
pitting prevention
prevention device
device onrotating
on the the rotating shaft
shaft of of the commercial
the commercial vessel.
vessel.
Table 4 shows the performance verification results of applying the electrical-pitting
Table device
prevention 4 showsonthe
theperformance
rotating shaftverification
of the actualresults of applying
commercial vessel.the electrical-pitting
In the research, the
current and potential
prevention device ondifference
the rotatingon the rotating
shaft of theshaft were
actual mainly recorded
commercial vessel. for
In athe
substantial
research,
amount of time. The potential difference caused by the bearing current
the current and potential difference on the rotating shaft were mainly recorded for a and electrostatic
field and theamount
substantial speed ofofthe rotating
time. shaft haddifference
The potential little effect on theby
caused test
theresults.
bearingTherefore, no
current and
value was recorded.
electrostatic The
field and thetest log sheet
speed of thehad 22 valid
rotating data
shaft had records, among
little effect on which
the testwere the
results.
power of electrical-pitting
Therefore, prevention
no value was recorded. Thedevice maximum
test log sheet had‘resistance’current is 16.4 among
22 valid data records, A and
the rotating
which wereshaft maximum
the power potential difference
of electrical-pitting is 1.5 mV.
prevention The potential
device maximumdifference on cur-
'resistance' the
rotating shaft was controlled within 2 mV. Therefore, the electrical corrosion
rent is 16.4 A and the rotating shaft maximum potential difference is 1.5 mV. The poten- protection
device of the power
tial difference supply
on the rotatingshaft reduced
shaft the potential
was controlled difference
within 2 mV.on the rotating
Therefore, theshaft and
electrical
alleviated electrical corrosion.
corrosion protection device of the power supply shaft reduced the potential difference on
the rotating shaft and alleviated electrical corrosion.
Table 4. The performance test log sheet of the device in a real vessel.
Table 4. The performance test log sheet of the device in a real vessel.
Prevention Pitting Device SED Prevention Pitting Device SED
Date Date
mV A Prevention
mV Pitting mV Prevention
A Pitting mV
SED SED
1 0 Date
13.2 Device
0.6 16 Date
0 Device
14.8 1.2
2 0 0 mV 0 A 17mV 0 mV 14.6 A 1.5mV
3 0 10 0 0 13.2 18 0.6 160 0 15.1 14.8 1 1.2
4 0
212.8 0 0.8 0 19
0 170 0 15.3 14.6 0.9
1.5
5 0 11.6 0.8 20 0 16.2 1.1
6 0 312.7 0 0.7 0 21 0 180 0 16.4 15.1 0.9 1
7 0 413.6 0 0.9 12.8 22 0.8 190 0 15.9 15.3 1.10.9
8 0 512.9 0 1.1 11.6 23 0.8 200 0 15.3 16.2 0.81.1
9 0 614.2 0 1.4 12.7 24 0.7 210 0 0 16.4 0 0.9
10 0 0 0 25 0 14.8 0.6
11 0 70 0 0 13.6 26 0.9 220 0 13.9 15.9 0.71.1
12 0 813.6 0 1.3 12.9 27 1.1 230 0 13.7 15.3 0.40.8
13 0 90 0 0 14.2 28 1.4 240 0 13.8 0 0.2 0
14 0 1011.7 0 1 0 29 0 250 0 0 14.8 0 0.6
15 0 0 0 30 0 14.1 0.6
11 0 0 0 26 0 13.9 0.7
12 0 13.6 1.3 27 0 13.7 0.4
As
13 shown in 0 Table 5, the 0 shaft potential
0 difference
28 results
0 show 13.8 that the electrical
0.2
pitting
14prevention 0 device is superior
11.7 in1suppressing29 shaft current
0 and shaft
0 voltage 0com-
pared15to other solutions.
0 The0 shaft potential
0 difference
30 was 0reduced to
14.1less than 0.6mV,
2
which can meet most industrial safety production requirements, and the long-term stable
performance
As shown hasin
been verified
Table 5, theon actual
shaft commercial
potential ships. results
difference However,showthethat
electrical pitting
the electrical
prevention device still has room for improvement, as the balance current
pitting prevention device is superior in suppressing shaft current and shaft voltage is too high. As
shown
compared to other solutions. The shaft potential difference was reduced to less thanis2
in Table 4, in practical applications, the balance current is kept at 11~17 A. This
not
mV,only a waste
which of energy,
can meet but also increases
most industrial the risk of requirements,
safety production device failure.and In the
thealgorithm
long-term
of the fourth arm circuit [26], the design idea of reducing the common
stable performance has been verified on actual commercial ships. However, the mode voltage and
electrical
pitting prevention device still has room for improvement, as the balance current is too
Materials 2022, 15, 4510 11 of 13

thereby reducing the induced current seems to be a feasible solution to reduce the balance
current.

Table 5. Performance comparison of anti-corrosion device.

Pitting-
Passive Shaft Insulating Shaft Static Charge
Title 1 Prevention
Ground [44] [32] Dissipation [37]
Device
Shaft potential
100 mV 70% 4–7 V > 2 mV
difference

4. Conclusions
In this paper, we design the electrical pitting prevention device through two design
ideas of ‘dredged’ and ‘resistance’. First, the shaft current is ‘dredged’ through the passive
shaft grounding device, and then the automatically controlled balance system input balance
current ‘resistance’ the shaft current to balance the shaft potential difference. Finally, the
shaft voltage is stably controlled within 2 mV, which can meet most industrial production
safety requirements. Compared with the existing shaft electro-corrosion solution, the
automatic control balance system algorithm equipped with the electrical pitting prevention
device has stable performance and can be applied to equipment with a large shaft potential
difference. In order to prevent the equipment from electric corrosion of the rotating shaft, a
new equipment design idea is proposed.
1. By measuring the potential difference between the rotating shaft and the bearing, the
current corresponding difference was calculated and sent to the rotating shaft, which
eliminated the potential difference and prevented electrical corrosion.
2. To generate and remove potential differences within a few mV in rotating machines,
a potential difference detector capable of measuring at least 0.005 mV was required.
In addition, smooth signals had to be provided by applying noise filters and protec-
tion circuits.
3. It was necessary to apply a current-control calculation algorithm to which the PID
algorithm was applied as an output current to remove the potential difference as
measured by the potential difference detector as basic information.
4. A power-control device, which output the current between the rotary shaft and the
bearing as calculated through the control calculation algorithm, was manufactured.
Noise filters and protection circuits were applied, and the focus was on maintaining
precise current output.
5. A rotating shaft test bench was established to check the performance and operational
status of the manufactured parts or devices over time. It took into account various
field conditions and is expected to be applied to other research areas of rotating shafts.
6. The electrical corrosion protection device can control the potential difference of the
rotating shaft within 2 mV, which means that the current-control algorithm can op-
erate normally. In addition, it was confirmed that it exhibited superior performance
compared with that of the existing shaft-grounding device.

Author Contributions: D.W.S. played a leading role in writing the paper as a first author. T.Z. is
coauthor and helped to analyze the data in the article. G.L. is the corresponding author and designed
the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the BB21+ Project in 2022.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Materials 2022, 15, 4510 12 of 13

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