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Procedia Structural Integrity 27 (2020) 14–21

6th International Conference on Industrial, Mechanical, Electrical and Chemical Engineering

(ICIMECE 2020)

Recent Developments on Underwater Welding of Metallic Material

Eko Surojo, Ericha Dwi Wahyu Syah Putri, Eko Prasetya Budiana, Triyono*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta 57126, Indonesia

Abstract

Underwater welding is the process of connecting two similar or different metals which are carried out underwater. This process is
applied in various construction of engineering materials both on land and underwater environments such as in ship construction,
oil and gas mining in the middle of the sea and nuclear power plants. Material construction greatly influences the method suitable
for the welding process. It will affect the evolution of the microstructure and mechanical properties of the material. So, it will affect
the results of the welded joint.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
This is an open-access
Peer-review article under
under responsibility the CC BY-NC-ND
of the organizers license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
of ICIMECE2020
Peer-review under the responsibility of the organizers of ICIMECE2020
Keywords: Underwater welding; application of underwater welding; the affect of welded joint

1. Introduction

Welding is a method of joining the process of materials, especially metal materials that have been carried out for
years with implementation, e.g., on land-marine structures (Bae et al., 2016a, b) and transportation modes (Cao et al.,
2016; Muttaqie et al., 2019). This process is carried out by joints two similar or dissimilar metals by heating to melt
the parts together, then allowing them to cool and may be joined together. The welding process can be carried out in
a variety of engineering materials construction, either on the land or water environment (Yohanes et al., 2018).
Underwater welding is generally used to repair and maintain pipeline construction on the underwater, ship components,
port construction, and the structure of nuclear power plants (Guo et al., 2015). The method used underwater welding

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +62-122-628-486; fax: +62-122-628-486.
E-mail address: triyono74@staff.uns.ac.id

2452-3216 © 2020 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.

This is an open-access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under the responsibility of the organizers of ICIMECE2020

2452-3216 © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizers of ICIMECE2020
10.1016/j.prostr.2020.07.003
 Eko Surojo et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 27 (2020) 14–21 15
2 Surojo et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

consists of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW), and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW) (Labanowski, 2011; Barnabas et al., 2020). This method is determined mainly in cases of urgent repair the
structure (Doyen et al., 1992).
Dry welding and wet welding are the working principles of underwater welding (Majumdar, 2006; Orr, 2006;
Taylor and Jerzy, 2011). However, this technique has advantages and disadvantages that vary, so there is a need for
consideration before the welding process is carried out. Dry welding is an underwater welding process by using a dry
chamber which serves to protect the arc welding and weld metal from the water around the welding area (Labanowski,
2011). This technique can produce welding quality that is almost equivalent to the results of welding on land
(Rodriguez-Sanchez et al., 2014). Dry welding uses a special chamber (dry chamber) which is conditioned in a dry
environment so that the arc welding is more stable (Yang et al., 2019). The dry chamber in the welding process has a
weakness are a space for a welder to be limited, and the cost for a dry chamber is expensive. Besides dry welding, wet
welding is a method that uses special stick electrodes because the material and welding electrodes must be directly
contacted with water in the weld area (Majumdar, 2006). Wet welding has the advantage that the operation process is
relatively simple because it does not require many prepare and the motion space of the welder is unlimited. Therefore,
the cost required is relatively cheaper than dry welding (Orr, 2006). Wet welding has many adverse effects, such as,
decreasing the mechanical properties of the material, increasing the cooling rate of the underwater welding joints,
increasing the welding porosity slag trapped in welds, and changing in the chemical composition of weld results
(Purnama et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2020).
The metallic material is a material that is often used in engineering construction. If the material is the process of
joining by welding, the material will change in the microstructure and mechanical properties of the material (Guo et
al., 2015). Gao et al. (2016) examined the microstructure and mechanical performance of underwater wet welded S355
steel. It can apply to marine structures. Pedati et al. (2017) conducted a study on 5052-AA workpieces that were welded
using the FSW technique in underwater and in water. The differences in the mechanical properties and microstructural
features of both joints.
Based on the explanation above, it is necessary to discuss the materials that will be used in underwater welding
specifically for metallic materials. To become a comprehensive and easily understood material, a review of this article
was carried out. This review is expected to be a reference in mapping underwater weld joint research, making it easier
for researchers to find out the characteristics of the material used in underwater weld joints.

2. Underwater welding

Underwater welding is a material welding technique using special equipment that is carried out underwater.
Underwater welding was discovered by Konstantin Khrenov in 1894. At that time, Khrenov was studying electrical
welding, engineering, and mathematics. He was teaching and researching at Saint Petersburg State Electro-Technical
University (ETU) (Barnabas et al., 2020). He believes that this welding technique is considered the most effective
way to repair damage to the ship. In recent years, the development of marine resource exploitation and utilization is
driven so rapidly. Most ocean engineering structures have main components submerged in sea-water, so the research
on underwater welding is essential for the offshore industry (Chen et al., 2018; 2020).
Underwater welding is classified into two based on welding techniques, namely dry and wet welding (Majumdar,
2006; Orr, 2006; Taylor and Jerzy, 2011). The difference between dry and wet welding, which one of them is the
condition of the welding area (Chen et al., 2018). Dry welding is an underwater welding technique by using a dry
chamber welding component, so arc weld is not in contact with water around the welding area (Labanowski, 2011).
Wet welding is a welding technique that direct contact with water in the environment around welding (Majumdar,
2006). Dry welding is an underwater welding process by using a dry chamber or dry hyperbaric chamber (Barnabas
et al., 2020). Dry welding conditions, as shown in Fig. 1a. The dry chamber is considered to protect the welding arc
weld. If the welding arc is stable, the welding metal will increase strength and tenacity, high corrosion resistance, and
a small amount of hydrogen gas produced during the welding process (Hu et al., 2018). But, the presence of the dry
chamber in the welding process has a weakness because the space for a welder to be limited, the equipment may be
costly and complicated (Burner, 1978). Wet welding is a welding process using special stick electrodes (Majumdar,
2006). The base metal, electrode, and welder must be contacted directly with water around welding (Fydrych et al.,
2013). Wet welding conditions, as shown in Fig. 1b. Wet welding has the advantage that the operation process is
16 Eko Surojo et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 27 (2020) 14–21
Surojo et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000 3

simple because it does not require a lot of special preparation and unlimited space for the welding operator. Therefore,
the cost required is relatively cheaper than dry welding (Orr, 2006). However, direct contact of wet welding with water
can cause some negative impacts such as the arc flame being unstable, decreasing the mechanical properties of the
material, and can increase the cooling rate of the welding material (Swierczynska et al., 2017).
a. b.

Fig. 1. The condition of underwater welding: (a) dry welding (Majumdar, 2006), and (b) wet welding (Nixon, 2000).

Underwater welding technique is an appropriate technique for emergency repairs in the event of structural damage
in the middle of the sea that does not allow dismantling to be carried inland. So that welding is considered to save
time, energy from workers, and costs (Orr, 2006). Wang et al. (2017) argue that underwater welding can serve to repair
and maintain underwater structures that are generally used in ship construction, oil, and gas piping offshore and nuclear
power plants. However, underwater welding can have a negative impact in the form of defects in welding material. It
caused by trapped hydrogen gas in the weld metal, which can have a detrimental effect in the form of cracks, which
can reduce the reliability of welding structures and cause steel to become brittle and broken (Chen et al., 2020). Chen
et al. (2018) argue that the effect of water depth on arc behavior, air bubble characteristics, and welding performance
on the UWW FCAW process. The results show that the depth of the water decreases the size of the droplet, stability
of arc weld, and produces a lot of pores on the weld metal. So, it is necessary to consider in the selection of appropriate
techniques for repairing underwater structures.

120

100

80
Articles

60

40

20

Years

Fig. 2. Underwater welding research.

Fig. 2 shows many articles about underwater welding from 2001 to 2020 that experienced fluctuations. The topic
of discussion of underwater welding in this period was very diverse, including the development of welding technology,
weld metal microstructure, mechanical properties, any elseSo that the focus of the discussion is comprehensive, the
 Eko Surojo et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 27 (2020) 14–21 17
4 Surojo et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

selection of appropriate topics is referred. Table 1 summarizes some research articles about metallic materials use in
underwater welding.

Table 1. Research articles about underwater welding of metallic material.

Findings
No. Scholars Material Method
Microstructure Mechanical Properties
1. Liu et al. (2010) 2219 Aluminum friction stir The refined grain structures, The tensile strength of the
Alloy welding high-density dislocations and normalized material is 315MPa,
enhance solid solution and after underwater welding
strength effect synthetically led process is 341MPa.
to the increase of hardness of
MHL, and thus improved the
tensile strength of the
underwater joint.
2. Zhang et al. (2012) 2219-T6 Aluminum friction stir NHAZ area forms deposits with The minimum hardness value of
Alloy welding a diameter of 106 ± 28nm with a UHAZ (Underwater HAZ) is
thickness of 10 ± 2.6nm while 92HV, while NHAZ (Normal
deposits in the UHAZ area have HAZ) is 78HV.
92 ± 30 and 7±1.8nm diameters.
3. Cui et al. (2014) S355 steel friction taper In the HAZ area, there are a lot Maximum tensile strength and
plug welding of lath bainite and a few impact energy at V-notch found
Acicular Ferrite, polygonal 500MPa and 39.5J in welded
ferrite, and martensite. joints with 45kN axial force
4. Baillie et al. (2015) S275 steel friction stir The underwater structure is Longitudinal tensile strength at
welding more dominant in the form of the average yield strength is
regular Ferrite Granules. It due 475MPa, and the ultimate
to the rapid cooling of UWW strength is 577MPa.
5. Pedapati et al. 5052 aluminum friction stir The fraction of the void area in The average hardness of
(2017) alloy welding the SZ of underwater FSW is underwater FSW increases 21%
decreases in a higher number greater than the normal FSW,
than normal FSW. It is and 53% greater than its Base
diminished 3.6% in the SZ of Material (BM).
normal FSW and 1.3% in the
underwater FSW stir zone.
6. Tan et al. (2017) AA 3003 aluminum friction stir The size of recrystallized grains The fracture morphology was
alloy welding was approximately 2.26μm and constituted of a large number of
2.33μm whereas, in 0°C water, deep dimples. When the
the size of recrystallized grains annealed hot band was welded
decreased to 1.20μm and in 0°C water, the fracture
1.23μm for the hot band and morphology was a large number
annealed hot band. of shallow dimples whereas, in
air condition, the depth of the
dimples gradually increased.
7. Li et al. (2018) E40 Steel flux-cored arc There are many microstructures Ultimate tensile strength and
welding of Lath Martensite with impact strength increase during
different types that dominate the the process of a solid solution,
CGHAZ area. due to many alloying elements
(e.g., Fe, Mn, and Cr).
8. Muhayat et al. Low carbon steel shielded metal  Air welding is dominated by Weld metal on UWW joints at a
(2020) SS400 arc welding Polygonal Ferrite (PF) and depth of 10m has a higher
grain boundary ferrite (GBF) hardness value of around
phases. UWW with a depth of 365HV. There are many
2.5m is dominated by GBF structures of AF (Accicular
and PF, while depths of 5and Ferrite) caused by rapid cooling.
10m are dominated by AF and
FSP (Ferrite with Second
Phase-aligned).
18 Eko Surojo et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 27 (2020) 14–21
Surojo et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000 5

9. Chen et al. (2020) Low carbon Q235 self-shielded In the CGHAZ area, there are High strength low alloy E40
steel and high flux-cored some LM (Lath Martensite) and steel plate has a higher crack
strength low alloy wire AM (acicular martensite) in the sensitivity value than low
E40 steel plate Low carbon Q235 steel while in carbon Q235 steel material.
the high strength low alloy E40
steel plate, there are some SPF
(side plate ferrite) and AF
(Acicular Ferrite).

3. Metallic material

The metallic material is a material that has special properties that engineers usually use for engineering. Metallic
materials are classified into two, namely ferrous and nonferrous metal (Callister, 2003). Ferrous metal is a metal that
has the central element in the form of iron (Fe). This material is mainly used in the construction of engineering, e.g.,
powerplant equipment, shipbuilding, bridge construction, and other components. The nonferrous metal is a metal that
contains little or no essential elements in the form of iron (Fe). Alloy elements from nonferrous metal materials are
Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), Magnesium (Mg), Titanium (Ti), and others (Xue, et al., 2019). The alloying elements
can affect the resulting weldability. If the elements are added to nonferrous materials, special methods are required
for the welding process.
Fydrych et al. (2013) research on weldability for ferrous metal. The material S355J2G3 in water condition while
S500M steel in air and water condition. The welding process with MMA Process. Composition of chemical contained
on material S355J2G3 and S500M steel, as shown in Fig. 3. The S355J2G3 steel consists of different Ferrite and
Pearlite structures, while the S500M steel structure consists of several Ferrite grains of very different sizes and Pearlite
structures, too, as shown in Fig. 4.
a. b.

C, 0.17 Si, 0.018

Ce, 0.44 Al, 0.039 Ce, 0.3
Si, 0.35
Al, 0.02 Ti, 0.001
V, 0.054
Cu, 0.3
Nb, 0.056
Ni, 0.077 S, 0.002
Cr, 0.04 P, 0.009
Mn, 1.44 Mn, 1.38
S, 0.014
P, 0.014

Fig. 3. Composition of chemical contained on S355J2G3 and S500M steel (weight %) (Fydrych et al., (2013).

Fig. 4. Microstructure from S355J2G3 and S500M steel (Fydrych et al., 2013).
 Eko Surojo et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 27 (2020) 14–21 19
6 Surojo et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

The result of this research is the hardness value of underwater welding S355J2G3 steel joints up to 400 HV10.
Higher carbon content in this steel in association with an increased cooling rate of the joints resulted in the HAZ area
(Zhang et al., 2016). Furthermore, at the carbon equivalent Ce = 0.44% for S355J2G3 steel, led to forming quench
structures. Specimen of S355J2G3 steel has a characteristic for initiating cracks in the fusion line, which is confirmed
by the presence of brittle structures in this area. Whereas, the hardness value in base metal S500M is 200 HV10. After
the welding process in the air environment, the hardness value on the HAZ at the S500M welded joint increased to
240HV10 while the hardness value of the underwater welding joint of this material increased by 40%. The low carbon
content in the steel as well as carbon equivalent (Ce = 0.30%). This situation can indicate that low-carbon steels after
thermo-mechanical processing is applicable for marine and offshore engineering structures when underwater welding
is required.
Shnavas et al. (2018) investigated the weldability of marine grade AA 5052 aluminum alloy by underwater friction
stir welding. Marine-grade aluminum alloys are used in aerospace, marine, and automobile industries. This material
can use an alternative to steel because the characteristics are lightweight, good formability, functional strength, and
high corrosion resistance. This research used high-strength aluminum-magnesium alloy AA 5052-H32. The welding
equipment and the process parameters used both for underwater FSW and normal FSW were the same. Photographs
of the fabricated with different tool rotational speed for underwater FSW joints are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Process parameters of fabricated (Shnavas et al., 2018).

Process 1 2 3 4 5
Tool rotational speed (rpm) 500 600 700 800 900

The sufficient heat input at FSW is necessary for dynamic recrystallization. Therefore, the strain rate controls the
grain size at lower rotational speed or higher welding speed, whereas heat input controls the grain size at higher
rotational speed or lower welding speed. So, the results in grain size increased. Grain size will affect the value of
maximum tensile. Based on the welding results shown in Fig. 5. The optimum process parameters for achieving
maximum tensile strength by normal FSW compared with underwater. The maximum tensile strength both underwater
and normal FSW at tool rotational speed of 700rpm produced 208.9 MPa and at 600 rpm produced 200.3MPa. It
means the maximum tensile strength obtained by underwater FSW is about 2% greater than normal FSW. The absence
of the HAZ region found in the underwater FSW process, which might be due to water cooling.
If the water cooling increases, the ultimate tensile strength will increase. Furthermore, it found finer equiaxed grains
at Stir Zone (SZ) of the welded plates by underwater FSW process than the normal FSW process. HAZ is an area
where crack propagates in high-strength welded joints. The absence of this area found in the underwater FS welded
plates due to faster heat dissipation during water cooling. Therefore, the plates welded by the underwater FSW process
showed high resistance to fracture compared to the normal FSW process.
250
Tensile Strength (MPa)

200

150
Underwater FSW
Normal FSW
100
400 500 600 700 800 900

Tool rotational speed (rpm)

Fig. 5. The comparison of tensile strength of underwater FS and normal FSW (Shnavas et al., 2018).
20 Eko Surojo et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 27 (2020) 14–21
Surojo et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000 7

4. Conclusions

The application of material uses in marine, and offshore engineering structures is of particular concern. The
underwater welding process can affect the base metal composition and mechanical properties that occur at the joint of
the weld metal. The chemical composition that changes can affect the welding capability in underwater welding, e.g.,
as an additional carbon content. If the carbon in the material increases, so the weldability will decrease. The high
carbon content in the material will cause the mechanical properties of the material to become hard and brittle.
Furthermore, water temperature produces high cooling rates and finer microstructures with high hardness. If the
hardness and tensile strength of the material increase, so the material crack increase too. Crack in the material can
reduce the reliability of the underwater welding structure because the welding material becomes brittle and fracture.

Acknowledgments

Authors would like to thank a lot to University of Sebelas Maret Surakarta, Indonesia, for providing many facilities
and financially supporting through the Mandatory Research 2020 grant with Contract No. 452/UN27.21/PN/2020.

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