E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.

1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

Suitability of Agro-Wastes Based Flux as Enhancement for

Welded Joints in Steels – A Review

Temitayo S. Ogedengbe1, Oluwasanmi I. Alonge2 , Omolayo M. Ikumapayi3, Sunday A. Afolalu3, Samuel Bob-
Manuel2, Samuel Uwaifo2, Esther T.Akinlabi4

1Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria.
2Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Elizade University, Ondo State, Nigeria.
3Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Afe Babalola University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria.
4Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering, Northumbria University Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM

Abstract. Failure of engineering materials is most often catastrophic but yet avoidable. This possibility
has resulted in various studies into possible ways to strengthen engineering materials with quite a lot of
opinions surfacing. The rapid development in world population has brought about high demand for
agricultural products, which in turn results in daily increase in environmental degradation and pollution,
hence their consideration as agro-based flux. This study was a review of approaches to strengthen carbon
steels using a few agro waste types (Date seed, Palm kernel shell & Banana peel). The characteristic
properties and engineering value of these various wastes have been closely studied. The review shows
that Date Seed and Palm kernel shell shows better strength abilities and could enhance steel types better
than Banana Peel and is recommended for use.

1 Introduction

The choice of material for the operation and lifespan of machinery is significantly influenced by engineering materials [1].
Engineering materials are very relevant because they provide solutions to every day human needs, example of which include,
cars for travel, clothes we wear, computers or phones we cannot live without [1]. Almost every substance known
to man has found its way into the engineering workshop at some time or other. Hence a need to use
various engineering materials properly in order to manufacture products that can compete in global markets and with relevant
cost reduction [2].
Engineering materials could be classified basically into: metals and non-metals. Non-metals are weak conductors of heat and
electricity, whereas metals have great thermal and electrical conductivity. Apart from these two main classes of engineering
material, there exist other types such as polymers, ceramics and alloys [3, 4]. One popular metal type is steel [5]. Steel with
a carbon concentration of 0.2% to 1.5% is referred to as carbon steel, and it is further divided into three types: low carbon,
medium carbon, and high carbon steel. A particularly significant material with good toughness and ductility properties is
carbon steel. It can be welded and worked into various shapes and has low cost and good mechanical properties [1, 5].
Various steel types undergo specific processing before they are used. The process of welding is one of them. The process of
fusing two or more identical or dissimilar metals together under pressure and heat is known as welding. This technology has
gained good relevance in construction of automobile, railways, bridges, building constructions and in different industries [6].
Table 1 shows some of carbon steel types available with their contents and uses.

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

Table 1. Carbon steel types, content and uses

Steel Type Carbon Content Used in making

Low Carbon 0.2% Sheets, wires, pipes
Medium Carbon (0.3% - 0.7%) Wheels, Axles, Boiler blades
High Carbon (0.7% - 1.5%) Surgical instruments, Blades, Cutleries

A type of welding called arc welding causes the metals to combine due to the heat produced by an electric arc between
an electrode and the workpiece. In this procedure, a pool of molten metal forms close to the electrode tip and solidifies
in its trail as the electrode moves along the joint. Flux use during welding is necessary to improve the materials' capacity
to weld [7]. To protect the weld from atmospheric gases, welding methods use welding flux, a mixture of carbonate and
silicate minerals. Weld flux is essential because base and filler materials can interact with their environment, such as air,
and result in the creation of oxide [8].

Fig. 1. Parts of an Arc welding process7

2. Literature Review

2.1 Steels and their Types

Steels are categorized according to their chemical makeup, intended uses, and manufacturing processes. Based on
carbon content, steel may be classified as low, medium or high carbon steels [9]. The majority of low carbon steels are
composed of ferrite, a solid solution phase of carbon dissolved in alpha-iron, a body-centered cubic crystal. Due in
large part to ferrite, the softest phase of steel, low carbon steel is more machinable than other carbon and alloyed steels.
As the carbon concentration of steel increases, more pearlite occurs in the steel's microstructure [10]. Although medium
carbon steels are often employed for straightforward applications, new uses have emerged that call for high sheet
formability. There is a limited formability inherent in this class of steels. For this study, a medium carbon hot-rolled
SAE 1050 steel has been chosen. It has undergone cold rolling with reductions between 7 and 80%. The curve for cold
work hardening has been evaluated using samples. An annealing heat treatment has been used to achieve
recrystallization for samples that have had their thickness reduced by 50% and 80%, respectively [11].
Due to their extreme strength and hardness, high-carbon steels are frequently utilized for rails and bridges. These steels
often have low toughness and crack development resistance due to their pearlitic microstructure, leaving them
vulnerable to wear and rolling contact fatigue. As a result of the poor rail profiles, cracking, spalling, and failures that
result, the rails become unfit for service. Due to their extreme strength and hardness, high-carbon steels are frequently
utilized for rails and bridges. These steels often have low toughness and crack development resistance due to their
pearlitic microstructure, leaving them vulnerable to wear and rolling contact fatigue. As a result of the poor rail profiles,
cracking, spalling, and failures that result, the rails become unfit for service. High-carbon steels, which have a carbon
content ranging from 0.60% to 2.00%, quickly enter the hard and brittle martensite phase after cooling following welding,
making them extremely difficult to weld. When wear characteristics and greater strengths are required, high-carbon steels
are chosen since they are more accessible than lower carbon grades [12].

*
Corresponding author: ikumapayi.omolayo@abuad.edu.ng

2
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

2.2 Joining Technology

Joining is an important technology adapted in various industries including the automotive and aerospace industries.
Numerous things cannot be produced in one piece, so it's crucial to first construct the individual components before
assembling (joining) those together 13. Mechanical methods and liquid-solid-state processes can also be categorized as
joining technologies. Processes used to link liquid to solid materials include welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive
bonding. We will just be concentrating on welding technique for this study [13, 14].

2.2.1 Welding technology

Welding is a technique of fabrication where materials are joined by melting the parts together at a high temperature
and allowing them to cool. The materials are commonly metals or thermoplastics. Welding is a process for joining
metal in which the joining edges are heated and fused together, either with or without filler metal, to create a solid
(homogeneous) bond. Temporary junctions are produced using joining techniques like riveting, assembling with bolts,
seaming, soldering, and brazing. Certain specialized terms are employed in welding, some of which include: Electrode,
filler material, and welding rod e.t.c [ 6, 14].
Intense heat produces a pool of molten material that cools to form a link that may be stronger than the parent metal.
This is how welding works. In addition to using heat to form a weld, pressure can also be used on its own or in
conjunction with it. The melted and filled metals can also be shielded with a shielding gas to prevent contamination or
oxidation [15].
Arc welding is the cheapest and productive welding. Knowing the quality of the weld is the most important thing to
carry out analysis on microstructure and various mechanical properties such as low hardness, impact the strength and
strength of the weld for a variety applied in different areas such as the fusion zone, HAZ and a small area affected by
heat. In the microstructure most acicular ferrite and pearlite grains have been observed [16]. The main purpose is to
increase the weld strength, impact strength with better microstructure and strong joints. Arc metal arc welding methods
have been used to determine that the influence of the temperature value, given the measurement of low mechanical
properties of carbon steel. The stiffness, impact force and strength of the welding part have been calculated [14,16].
Fusion welding without pressure is a type of welding in which two metals of different compositions are bonded together
by melting and fusing their connecting edges, either with or without the addition of filler metal and without the use of
pressure of any kind [17].

2.2.2 Categories of welding processes

Depending on where the heat comes from, welding techniques can be categorized. The different sources include electric
welding methods (where electricity serves as the heat source), gas welding processes (where a gas flame serves as the
heat source), and other welding techniques (heat source is neither electricity nor gas flame) [18].

A. Gas welding process

The workpieces (and filler) are fused together during gas welding process utilizing concentrated, high-temperature
flames produced by gas combustion. By burning acetylene in oxygen, oxy-fuel welding is the most widely used type
of gas welding [19].
In the gas welding process, every piece of equipment is meticulously connected. Through pressure regulators, which
control the pressure of gas and oxygen supplied to the welding torch where they are appropriately combined, the gas
and oxygen cylinders and welding torch are connected. The fire is started using a striker. Close attention is paid to
making sure the torch's tip is shining downwards. The flame is now controlled by valves that are incorporated into the
welding torch. The flame can be set to natural flame, carburizing flame, or oxidizing flame depending on the welding
situation (Fig. 2a). Along the line where the joint is to be formed, the welding torch is moved. This permanently joins
them by melting the interface part [20].
A focused and extreme high-temperature burst is used in the gas-welding process, and it is produced by inhaling gas or
a gas combination [21]. The workpieces to be joined are subsequently compressed using this engaged blast in

3
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

conjunction with an outside filler material for legal welding. The most well-known method of gas welding is, as was
already mentioned, oxyacetylene gas welding. When welding using oxyacetylene gas, an oxygen and acetylene mixture
burns and ignites at a temperature of about 3500°C. When the active fire makes contact with the workpieces, the surface
becomes softer, creating a liquid pool and allowing welding to take place [22].

B. Arc welding process

Metals are fused together during the fusion welding process known as "arc welding," which uses electricity to melt the
metal and then cool it, fusing the two together [23]. When using an AC or DC power source, an electric arc generates
a strong heat of about 6500°F that melts the metal at the joint between two work components. In order to lay the welds,
an electric arc is created between the metal and electrode (Fig. 2b). Heat is generated between the metals throughout
the process, melting them and creating weld connections. Arc welding is mostly used by welders to join metals
including steel, aluminum, and non-ferrous materials. The filler material is transported from the electrode and the joint
edges are melted and solidified to form the weld. Flux use during welding is necessary to improve the weldability of
the materials being welded [24].
Arc welding is quite and easy process to carry out as compared to other welding process, arc welding has an advantage
compared to other welding process such as: can be carried out in any atmosphere, smooth welding is achieved, good
impact strength, high welding speed, less smoke and spark are involved [25].

C. Resistance welding process

Resistance welding involves cutting through the resistance produced by the contact of two or more metal surfaces with
a high current (1000-100,000A), which causes pools of molten metal to accumulate at the weld spot [19]. The most
common method utilized in the construction of structures, including cars, trucks, planes, trains, and other vehicles, is
resistance spot welding (RSW). For instance, a vehicle body assembly requires 4000 weld spots on average [26]. Ingots
made of sheet materials utilized in RSW, such as steels or aluminum alloys, have their cast structures purposefully
altered using hot or cold working processes including rolling and heat treatment. The procedure involves homogenizing
structures through solution annealing or quenching and tempering while refining grains through cold working and
recovery/recrystallization (Fig. 2c). However, as melting and solidification take place between two sheets, such
procedures are challenging to carry out in welding, particularly in RSW. To some extent, welding parameters, such as
hold time and post heating, can be changed to treat the welded structures. A weldment's sharp temperature gradient,
rapid cooling rate, and quick cooling time make this treatment incomparable to the parent sheets' regulated heat
treatment procedures. Consequently, a weldment's microstructures and characteristics are typically not as tuned as they
are in base metal [27].
Abadi and Pouranvari [28] investigated the link between the macro/micro structure and the mechanical properties of
dissimilar resistance spot welds constructed of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel and AISI 1008 low carbon steel. They
found that the fusion zone microstructure and the formation of weld nuggets can both be strongly influenced by the
welding settings. A study on resistance spot welding of dissimilar metal between mild steel and medium-range-
thickness AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel was conducted by Biradar et al. [29]. By adjusting welding parameters
including welding duration, welding current, and welding force, it was possible to spot weld metals of varying thickness
range.

(b)

(a)

4
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

(c)
Fig. 2. Schematic for Welding Processes (a) Gas (b) Arc (c) Resistance [30-32]

2.3 Flux Technology

A mixture of carbonate and silicate minerals used in welding procedures to protect the weld from ambient gases is
known as flux. Typically, the density of the melted flux is chosen to be less dense than the metal being welded. As a
result, the pure metal underneath solidifies while the flux floats to the top of the weld puddle [23].
Depending on the anticipated heat for soldering, binding, or welding, flux can be chosen. The correct flux has the right
temperature at welding temperatures and so covers the molten metal from oxidation. To verify that the surface is still
noncorrosive following the treatment, testing and cleaning methods have been established [33].

2.3.1 Flux development

Due to the various and significant roles welding flux plays in the productivity, operational effectiveness, and efficiency
of the welding process, there has been a growth in research interest in the composition of welding flux. Welding flux
designers (WFD) have been interested in the impact of welding flux on spatter, deposition rate and efficiency, arc
stability, slag detachment, penetration control, and weld-bead shape since these factors affect how productive the
welding process is. Furthermore, the flux is crucial to getting a high-quality weld deposit [34]. Examples of these roles
include protection of molten metal, mechanical properties of weldment, weld-metal chemical composition,
microstructural and other metallurgical features and fume generation and its toxicity.
Reviewing some recent flux developments; Sharma et al. [34] used the TiO2-SiO2-CaO and SiO2-CaO-Al2O3 flux
systems to generate and design submerged arc welding fluxes. The flux was created utilizing agglomerated fluxes that
had been made in a lab during submerged arc welding. Twenty-one submerged arc welding slags were created utilizing
mixture design and the extreme vertices approach.
Iron Oxide (FeO) nanoparticle flux powder was made from coconut shell by Afolalu et al. [35] using chemical
reduction. The generated flux powder and the control were examined using X-ray Powder Diffraction, Transmission
Electron Microscopy (TEM), Elemental Dispersive X-ray (EDX), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The
flux powder's content of 45.82% iron, 44.38% carbon, 8.86% oxygen, and trace amounts of manganese, aluminum,
and silicon, as opposed to the control flux powder's contents of 57.1% iron, 23.3% oxygen, and 7.3% carbon,
demonstrated that it was an Iron Oxide-based kind, as shown by the results . The outcomes demonstrated that flux
powder with superior qualities and uses may be created from agricultural waste. An exothermic flux was created by
Kumar and Singh [36] for submerged arc welding. They used Thermit mixes in various ratios, added to the parent
flux through the process of agglomeration, for this purpose. They looked into how exothermic flux and welding
conditions affected weld penetrations. With 40% Thermit mixture added to the parent flux, it was noted that the
penetration rose from 2.95mm to 3.51mm. In essence, penetration grew as the Thermit mixture concentration was
raised.
Flux powder (CaO) was produced from agricultural waste (eggshell) in a study by Afolalu et al. [37] and together with
commercial flux powder, was utilized during Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding. This study examined the effects of flux
powder on the hardness and tensile strength of steel welded joints. Galvanized, stainless, and mild steel plates and
rods measuring 50 x 50 x 10 mm were the materials that were prepared and welded. When compared to commercial
joints and when no flux was applied, the mechanical qualities of the joints performed better in flux. According to the
*

5
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

findings of this study, flux use during welding is crucial since it reduces the risk of oxide development and improves
the weld's profile (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Stages in Nano flux Development [37-38]

2.4 Agro-waste

Agro-waste, also known as agricultural wastes, is described as the leftovers from the cultivation and processing of
unprocessed agricultural goods such fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. They are the by-
products of agricultural product production and processing that may contain elements that are useful to people but
whose economic worth is less than the expense of gathering, transporting, and processing them for such purposes.
They can take the shape of liquids, slurries, or solids, and their composition will depend on the system and type of
agricultural activity [38,39].
A greater number of organic wastes like household garbage, agricultural waste and sludge are producing daily due to
the development of society and improvement of the living standard [40]. Due to the mass production of organic waste
from industry becomes a difficult task has been raised for the decomposition of these waste safely. These organic
wastes not only occupy a huge amount of land but also cause an environmental problem and constitute a serious waste
resource [41].
According to the FAO, 20-30% of fruits and vegetables are disposed as waste during management and after post-
harvest. Debris from food processing units contains organic residues such as fruit seeds, citrus peels, pear peels,
coconut shells, egg shells, etc. These wastes are usually disposed of in landfills. Due to the various cellulose
composition, hemicelluloses, proteins, this waste acts as a non-combustible material to produce packaging materials
that can be easily decomposed and sustainable [42]. Hence researchers are finding an alternate way to decompose or
utilize these wastes in a safe way.

2.4.1 Date seed (powder)

A byproduct of date stoning is date seeds, which is done either to make pitted dates or date paste. In essence, they are
made from date palm fruits' leftovers (Phoenix Dactylifera) [42]. The date seed has a tiny embryo inside of a hard-
coated, typically oblong, ventrally grooved seed. Depending on ripeness, variety, and grade, date pits range in weight
range of 0.5 - 4 g making up between 6 - 20% of the weight of the fruit 43. Date palms are known to thrive in warm
climates and as of today are popularly grown in the Canary Islands, Mexico and US states of California, Florida and
Arizona with Egypt currently serving as the largest producers of Dates [43].
Date seeds are typically thrown away or used as animal feed. They can also be used as a source of oil, a substitute for
coffee, a starting point for the production of activated carbon, or an adsorbent for liquids that include dye. Oil contains
antioxidant characteristics that are useful in cosmetics [44]. The mineral contents of date seed is as shown in Table 2.
The physicochemical makeup of date seeds is as follows: 7.19/87.0% carbs, 3.1/10.3% moisture, 2.3/6.4% protein,
5.0/13.2% fat, 0.9/1.8% ash [45].

6
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

Table 2. Mineral contents of Date seed [46]

Mineral Content mg/100 g

Potassium 459.8/542.2
Manganese 1.3/1.7
Sodium 21.7/26.1
Copper 0.4/0.6
Calcium 6.5/11.3
Iron 2.8/6.0
Zinc 1.0/1.4
Magnesium 61.3/69.5

2.4.2 Palm kernel shell (powder)

The oil palm tree produces palm kernels (Elaeis guineensis). The waste product left behind from processing palm
kernel is palm kernel shell. Warm climates are recognized to be ideal for oil palm growth, and it is widely planted.
However, they are reported to be five times more common in tropical woods due to their propensity for warm
conditions. The shell encloses the palm kernel. Additionally, a fleshy fiber that carries palm oil surrounds the shell.
Thus, after processing the fibrous, meaty fruit to produce palm oil, palm kernel shell is produced. However, the fleshy
fiber can be removed with the sole intent of getting to the shell and without consideration for the palm oil in order to
acquire the shell. The shell is therefore produced by cracking the shell to obtain the palm kernel nut [47].
Palm kernel shell can be utilized in the creation of cutting tools, plastic polymer composites, cement production,
concrete reinforcing, and fuel generating medium [48].
To determine whether the biomaterial is suitable for use in a variety of applications, various researchers have looked
at the characteristics of palm kernel shells. Porosity, moisture content, lignin content, cellulose, solid density, and
carbon content are only a few of these intriguing characteristics. The creation of plastic composites is one area where
the use of palm kernel shells has attracted a lot of attention recently [49]. Due to their low cost and use as waste, palm
kernel shells can be used as a filler to change and improve certain desired features. Being a natural fiber, palm kernel
shells are abundant and easily accessible, have a low density, and quickly and completely degrade into the
environment47. The bulk chemical characteristics of palm kernel shell (PKS) are as follows; C (46.75%), H (5.92%),
O (37.97%), N (0.68%), S (<0.08%) [50]. Table 3 below lists the distinctive physical characteristics of palm kernel
shell (PKS).

Table 3. Characteristics of Oil PKS [51]

Property Values
Micropore surface area(m2g-1) 0.20
Carbon (%) 18.70
Hemicellulose (%) 47.70
BET Surface area (m2g-1) 1.60
Apparent density (gcm-3) 1.47
Volatile (%) 0.10
Porosity (%) 3.90
Solid density (gcm-3) 1.53
Cellulose (%) 29.70
Ash (%) 1.10
Lignin (%) 53.40
Moisture (%) 7.96

7
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

2.4.3 Banana peel (ash)

The fruit crop known as the banana (Musa Paradisiaca) is one of the most extensively grown and consumed in tropical
and subtropical areas. Bananas often have a short shelf life and begin to degrade right after being picked. Over the
past 20 years, the production of bananas has continuously expanded, to about over 117 million tonnes in 2019
compared to 70 million tonnes in 1999 [52]. Many tons of banana peel trash are produced every day at fruit markets
and in home garbage due to the anaerobic digestion of biomass, which produces gases that upset the natural
equilibrium of the air. These wastes have an unpleasant stench. Despite the fact that ripe, raw bananas are eaten, a
sizable portion of bananas are industrially processed into goods like banana flour, chips, and other processed foods,
producing a sizable quantity of trash from the banana peel. Previously, the food producing sectors dumped banana
peels in landfills. The transformation of banana peel into a valued commodity would generate financial gain for the
agriculture sector [53].
Potassium makes up a significant portion of banana peel (9.39% of the dry weight), and is followed by magnesium,
calcium, sodium, and phosphorus in that order (0.71, 0.44, 0.18, and 0.09% of DW). Additionally, the amounts of
microelements like iron, manganese, zinc, and copper were, respectively, 96.50, 35.01, 27.95, and 3.37 ppm. The
methanolic extract (80%) had the highest concentrations of total phenolic, flavonoid, and tannin, with respective
concentrations of 17.89, 21.04, and 24.21 mg/g DW. At 600 ppm, the majority (80%) of acetone banana peel extracts
were found to have the strongest antioxidant and antibacterial activity against gram positive and gram negative
bacteria, fungus, and yeast [54].

2.5 Agro-waste usage as flux during welding

A number of researchers have processed agro-wastes for strength improvement due to their high carbon content. Table
4 shows some of these agro-wastes along with the locations where they have been used. For the flux of FeO, MnO,
and CaO nanoparticles, banana peel, coconut sell, and egg shell have been produced. In both the Tungsten Inert Gas
and Metal Inert Gas welding procedures, welding powder is employed as a flux. When compared to the imported flux
and when no flux was used, the three agro-wastes demonstrated superior mechanical qualities of the welded junction
[36, 54, 55]. Also, agro-wastes like palm kernel, eggshell, wood charcoal, and the mixture of palm kernel and eggshell
have been used as carburization agent for steel. It was clearly established that agro-wastes improve the hardness value
and grain structure of steel [38, 57, 58]. Agro-wastes (Palm Kernel Shell, wood fly, coconut shell, cow bone, coal fly,
walnut, rick husk, bagasse, and snail shell) have also been used as reinforcement in different cases like friction stir
processing, alloy composites etc. Using agro-wastes as reinforcement showed improved surface integrity, better
ultimate tensile strength, increased hardness, decreased impact energy, and improved wear characteristics [59, 60, 61,
62, 63]. Kulkarni et al. [62] did a study on the effects of agricultural waste ash as reinforcement on aluminum base
metal matrix composites. The study found that agricultural waste ash reinforced a variety of structural and automotive
applications by using materials including rice husk, groundnut shell, bamboo leaf, and coconut shell. By including
agro waste ash as reinforcement with aluminum, the attributes of metal matrix composite are improved, and aluminum
metal with such reinforcement materials has shown high specific strength, yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength.
Additionally, it will make things harder and offer appropriate levels of corrosion resistance. There aren't many
agricultural wastes that have been used in literature that have demonstrated that they can be a sustainable source for
enhancing strength during mechanical procedures.
Table 4. Agro wastes usage as flux in welding steels

Agro waste Usage/Study References

Coconut Shell Nano-Flux Welding Powder FeO Afolalu et al. [35];
Ogedengbe et al. [14]
Banana Peel Nano-Flux Welding Powder MnO Afolalu et al. [52]
Eggshell Nano-Flux Powder CaO for MIG Afolalu et al. [35];
Welding Ogedengbe et al. [14]
Palm Kernel Shell, As reinforcement for AA7075-T651 Ikumapayi et al. [57]
wood fly, coconut during Friction Stir Processing
shell, cow bone,
coal fly.

8
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

Rice Husk Ash As reinforcement for Al6061 during Fatchurrohman et al. [58]
Friction Stir Processing
Palm Kernel and As carburizing agent Afolalu et al. [37]
Egg Shell
Walnut As reinforcement for Aluminum 6063 Omole et al. [59]
alloy composites
Snail Shell As reinforcement for fabricated Asafa [60]
aluminum metal matrix composites

Bagasse to improve the way Al-Cu-Mg/Bagasse Aigbodion, [61]

ash particle composites wear
Wood charcoal Carburization of ASTM A516/516M-05 Oreko et al. [54]
Steel Plate Weldment
Palm Kernel Shell Carburization of AISI/SAE 1020 steel Oluwafemi et al [55]
Sugar cane and Egg As an Enhancer in the Carburization of Ihom et al. [56]
shell Mild Steel

2.6 Elemental composition of selected agro waste (date seed, PKS & banana peel)

Table 5 shows the elemental composition of Date seed, PKS and Banana peel. These include Carbon (C), Oxygen (O),
Chlorine (Cl), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), and Potassium (K). The amount of carbon content determines the level of
suitability of the agricultural wastes for strength enhancer when used as flux during welding, as a metal reinforcement
product during carburization, and during friction stir processes. Since PKS has a higher average carbon content than
banana peel and date seed, it is likely that PKS will be more appropriate for any of the aforementioned applications.
The amount of Silicon present in agro-wastes contributes to their brittleness while aluminum (Al) is responsible for
materials strength. The values in literature shows that banana peel will be more brittle (Average Silicon: PKS > banana
peel > Date Seed) while banana peel will have more strength (Average potassium: banana peel > Date Seed > PKS).
In a review of agrowaste as a sustainable source of carbon for steel reinforcing, Afolalu et al., [52], concluded that
because agrowaste has a high carbon content, it should be taken into consideration by steel manufacturing businesses.

Table 5. Elemental Composition of Date Seed, PKS & Banana Peel

Agrowastes C (%) O (%) Cl Al (%) Si (%) K (%) Ref.

Date Seed 46 45 0.31 0.42 ND 0.6 Elkhouly et al. [64]
Date Seed 42.67 48.19 2.56 ND 0.28 6.63 Agoudjil et al. [65]
Bunch
Date Seed 42.59 46.2 4.47 ND 0.43 5.21 Riahi et al. [66]

PKS 60.70 38.00 ND 0.10 1.00 0.10 Ikumapayi and Akinlabi

[67]
PKS 63.02 36.04 ND 0.43 0.17 0.17 Dagwa et al. [68]

PKS 64.4 34.10 ND 0.20 0.90 0.10 Ikumapayi et al. [57]

Banana P. 59.08 35.33 0.90 ND 0.08 4.27 Zheng et al. [69]

Banana P. 31.79 42.87 3.22 1.05 1.48 14.86 Achak , et al. [70]
*ND: Not Determined

9
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

2.7 Strength enhancement of steel using agrowaste

Strength is a major factor of consideration during material selection of steel for particular purposes [70,71]. Table 6
displays the hardness value between control sample and developed enhancer used either as flux, carburizing agent or
for reinforcement. The developed fluxes had higher hardness values when used as flux compared to the control and
imported flux, which suggests that employing the created flux will result in a welded joint with low ductility, low
elasticity, low malleability, high brittleness, high robustness, and high stiffness [54, 55]. The agrowastes were shown
to be successful as a carburizing agent since there was a discernible improvement in the hardness values and grain
structure of the carburized steels when compared to the control samples without a carburizing agent [38, 58].
Fatchurrohman et al. [58] reported a higher hardness value of Al6061 with rice husk ash reinforced, compared to the
hardness of Al6061 with no reinforcement. These results reported in the literature show that whichever way agro waste
is being applied, it will suitable for strength enhancement with proves that in most cases it is better than imported
materials. According to Kulkani et al. [62], adding agro waste ash as reinforcement to aluminum base metal matrix
composite improves mechanical properties by exhibiting high specific strength, high yield strength, high ultimate
tensile strength, and increasing hardness with acceptable levels of corrosion resistance.
Table 6 Comparison of Hardness Value between Control Sample, Imported and Developed Enhancer using Agro-
wastes

Agrowaste Metal Control Imported Developed Ref.

Eggshell Mild Steel 181.36 139.99 222.74 Afolalu et al. [52]

Galvanized Steel 86.89 112.75 100.93

Banana Peel Mild Steel 85.28 111.16 120.3 Afolalu et al. [53]

Galvanized Steel 108.85 146.83 151.67

Palm Kernel ASTM A53 Steel 79.70 - 139.15 Afolalu et al. [37]
and Egg
Shell
Sugar cane Mild Steel 30 - 45.5 Ihom et al. [56]
and Egg
shell
Rice Husk Al6061 54 - 80 Fatchurrohman et
Ash al. [58]

3. Conclusion
The Suitability of agro-wastes based flux as enhancement for welded joints in steels, also when used as carburizer
agent and for the purpose of reinforcement has been shown to be feasible from literature review. The strength and
corrosion resistance of welded joint or reinforced metal were increased as agrowastes were used. The low ductility,
low elasticity, low malleability, high brittleness, high resilience, high stiffness, increased specific and yield strengths,
show that whichever way agro waste will be applied, it will suitable for strength enhancement. The study also reviews
approaches to strengthen carbon steels using a few agro waste types (Date seed, Palm kernel shell & Banana peel).
The elemental composition reviewed showed that these agrowastes types are sustainable source of obtaining carbon
and have an immense potential of being used as enhancer.

References
1. A. Mukhtar. Introduction to Engineering Materials and their applications (Academia Press, Pakistan, 2016)
2. A. C. Lima, V. A. Ferraresi, R. B. Reis. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 3 (2018) 1
3. V. Senthilkumar, Journal of Construction. 8 (2015) 7.

10
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

4. T. S. Ogedengbe, A. P. Okediji, A. A. Yussouf, O. A. Aderoba, O. A. Abiola, I. O. Alabi & I. O.

Alonge. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 1378 (2019) 022012.
5. T.S. Ogedengbe, S. Abdulkareem, J.O. Aweda. Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (Special
Edition), 1 (2018) 12.
6. I. Omiogbemi, I. Dagwa, F. Okibe & D. Yawas. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering
Research. 6 (2017) 1327. 10.4314/njt.v36i3.25.
7. J. Wiley. Principles of Modern Manufacturing, 2013)
8. P. K. Kashyap, C. Reddy, A. Singh, P. Kumar. SAE International Journal of Alternative Powertrains. 8
(2019). 10.4271/08-08-02-0007.
9. A. Miyara, K. Tsubaki, S. Inoue, & K. Yoshida. Renewable Energy, 36 (2011) 764.
10. C. Qiu, M. A. Kindi, A. S. Aladawi & I. A. Hatmi. Scientific reports, 8 (2018) 1.
11. A. C. Hall, D. J. Cook, R. A. Neiser, T. J. Roemer & D. A. Hirschfeld. Journal of Thermal Spray
Technology, 15 (2006) 233.
12. M. X. Wei, S. Q. Wang, and X. H. Cui. Wear 274 (2012) 84.
13. M. Ishak. Joining Technologies (2016).
14. T. S. Ogedengbe, O. M. Ikumapayi, S. A. Afolalu, A. I. Musa-Olokuta, T. A. Adeyi., M. O. Omovigho &
J. B. Nkanga. Revue des Composites et des Matériaux Avancés-Journal of Composite and Advanced
Materials. 32 (2022) 199.
15. M. Sezhian, R. Vetrivel, K. Ramadoss, G. Giridharan, G. Chakravarthi, and B. Stalin. Materials Today:
Proceedings 33 (2020) 4842.
16. M. A. Bodude & I. Momohjimoh. Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, 3
(03) 142.
17. S. Karna, M. Cheepu, D. Venkateswarulu, & V. Srikanth. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering. 330 (2018) 012068.
18. S. Altarazi, L. Hijazi, & E. Kaiser. IEEE International Conference on industrial engineering and engineering
management (IEEM) 1041.
19. Y. S. Tarng, H. L. Tsai, and S. S. Yeh. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 39 (1999)
1427.
20. E. O. Ogundimu. Characterization of TIG and MIG Hybrid Welding of Type-304 Austenitic Stainless Steel.
University of Johannesburg (South Africa, 2017)
21. S. G. Shiri, M. Nazarzadeh, M. Sharifitabar & M. S. Afarani. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of
China, 22 (2012) 2937. https://Doi.Org/10.1016/S1003-6326(11)61553-7
22. M. Erinosho, E. Akinlabi & Ogundimu, Emmanuel. Surface Review and Letters. 25 (2017).
10.1142/S0218625X18500427.
23. I. A. Syarul, I. Amira, and A. Ghaliba. Procedia Engineering 41 (2012) 1497.
24. A. N. Karpagaraj, N. Rajesh-Kumar, N. Thiyaneshwaran, S. Shanmugam, M. Cheepu, and R. Sarala. Journal
of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering 42 (2020)1.
25. J. Casanova, S. Gonçalo, V. Pedro and S. D. Brandi. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology 111 (2020) 3225.
26. C. Yao, B. Xu, X. Zhang, J. Huang, J. Fu, Y. Wu. Journal of Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 47 (2009)
807.
27. M. M. H. Abadi and M. Pouranvari. Mediterranean Journal of Materials. 16 (2010) 133.
28. A. K. Biradar, M. M. Akarate and S. Ram Reddy. International J. of Math. Sci. & Engg. Appls. (IJMSEA). 3
(2009) 33.
29. Z. Hu, L. Hua, X. Qin, M. Ni, F. Ji & M. Wu. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 64 (2001)
1359. doi:10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.02.061
30. J. D. Majumdar. Journal of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, 3 (2008) 38.
https://doi.org/10.3329/jname.v3i1.927
31. P. Podržaj, S. Simončič. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 52 (2011), 959. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-010-2794-
0

11
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

32. S A A Akbari-Mousavi, L. M. Barrett, T. S. Al-HASSANI. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 202

(2008) 224.
33. S. A. Mohamata, I. A. Ibrahima, A. Amira, A. Ghaliba. Procedia Engineering 41 (2012) 1497
34. L. Sharma, R. Chhibber. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process
Mechanical Engineering. 233 (2019) 739. doi:10.1177/0954408918794036
35. S. A. Afolalu, O. D. Samuel and O. M. Ikumapayi. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 9 (2020)
9232.
36. A. Kumar and K. Singh. Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Systems. 19 (2019) 1.
37. S. A. Afolalu, O. M. Ikumapayi, T. S. Ogedengbe, M. E. Emetere. Revue des Composites et des Matériaux
Avancés-Journal of Composite and Advanced Materials. 31 (2021) 153.
38. F. O. Obi, B. O. Ugwuishiwu and J. N. Nwakaire. Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH). 35 (16)
957.
39. S. R. Govindapillai, K. K. Patheri, E. Devan, P. S. Mundarath, N. M. Vellaore. International Journal of
Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture. 7 (2018) 83.
40. H. Karimi , M. Mokhtari, F. Salehi, S. Sojoudi, A. Ebrahimi. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agric. 6 (2017) 57.
https://doi. org/10.1007/s40093-016-0152-4
41. W. O. Owais. Academy of Strategic Management Journal. 20 (2021) 1.
42. Ecocrop. Ecocrop database (2011, FAO)
43. K. Narasimharao, S. Al-Thabaiti, H. Kumar-Rajor, M. Mokhtar, A. Alsheshri, S. Yahya-Alfaifi, S. I.
Siddiqui, N. K. Abdulla. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 18 (2022) 3581.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.03.176. (Al-Farsi et al., 2017)
44. S. El-Rahman and S. Al-Mulhem. Clin Med Case Rep. 1 (2017) 101
45. E. Baffour-Awuah, S. A. Akinlabi, T. C. Jen, S. Hassan, I. P. Okokpujie, F. Ishola. IOP Conf. Series:
Materials Science and Engineering. 1107 (2021) 012090
46. I. Uchegbulam, E. O. Momoh, S. A. Agan. Cleaner Materials 6 (2022) 100154,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2022.100154.
47. A. Shahat, M. A. Hassan, M. F. Hassan, O. El-Shahat, O. El Shahawy and Md Rabiul Awual. New Journal
of Chemistry 43 (2019) 10324.
48. E. C. Okoroigwe, C. M. Saffron and P. D. Kamdem. Journal of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science.
5 (2014) 1.
49. E. Y. Salawu, O. A. Oluseyi, I. Anthony, S. Akinlabi, and Esther Akinlabi. Results in Engineering 3 (2019)
100025.
50. A. F. Rugayah, A. A. Astimar & N. Norzita. Journal of Oil Palm Research, 26 (2014) 251.
51. L. M. Orejuela-Escobar, A. C. Landázuri & B. Goodell. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts, 6 (2021)
83.
52. S. A. Afolalu, S. Akinlabi, S. O. Ongbali & A. A. Abioye. International Journal of Mechanical and
Production Engineering Research and Development 9 (2019) 887.
53. S. A. Afolalu, O. M. Ikumapayi, T. S. Ogedengbe & A. T. Ogundipe. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management (Nsukka, Nigeria, 2022) 1200.
54. B. U. Oreko, O. B. Otanocha, S. Idi. International Journal of Integrated Engineering. 12 (2020) 115.
55. O. M. Oluwafemi, S. R. Oke, I. O. Otunniyi, and F. O. Aramide, Leonardo Electronic Journal Of Practices
And Technologies. 1 (2015) 41.
56. A. P. Ihom, G. B. Nyior, I. J. Nor, N. J. Ogbodo. American Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 1
(2013) 29.
57. O. M. Ikumapayi, E. T. Akinlabi, J. D. Majumdar. Metrology and Properties 2019.
58. N. Fatchurrohman, N. Farhana and C. D. Marini. IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 319
(2018) 012032.
59. S. O. Omole, J. F. Akinfolarin and R. T. Oluyori. International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences,
4 (2014) 19.
60. T. B. Asafa. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 8 (2015) 1.

12
E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01214 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202343001214
ICMPC 2023

61. V. S. Aigbodion. Usak University Journal of Material Sciences 2 (2012) 187.

62. P. P. Kulkarni, B. Siddeswarappa and K. S. Hemanth Kumar. Journal of Composite Materials, 9 (2019), 312.
63. T. S. Ogedengbe, T. A. Adeyi, O. Q. Ajao, & O. A. Ileoye, (2022). Nigerian Journal of Technological
Development, 19 (3), 333.
64. H. Elkhouly, M. Rushdi and K. Abdel-Magie, Materials Research Express, 7 (2020) 025.
65. B. Agoudjil, A. Benchabane, A. Boudennec, L. Ibos, M. Fois. Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 491.
66. K. Riahi, B. B. Thayer, A. B. Mammou, A .B. Ammar, M. H. Jaafoura. Journal of Hazardous Materials 170
(2009) 511.
67. O. M. Ikumapayi and E. T. Akinlabi. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 1 (2018) 220.
68. I. M. Dagwa, P. F. Builders and J. Achebo. Int. J. Mech. Mechatron. Eng.. 12 (2012) 18.
69. H. Zheng, L. Wang, Soft Nanoscience Letters, 3 (2013) 29.
70. M. Achaka, A. Hafidi, N. Ouazzani, S. Sayadi, L. Mandi. Journal of Hazardous Materials 166 (2009) 117.
71. T. S. Ogedengbe, S. Abdulkareem and O. P. Ogunware. International Journal of Engineering Materials and
Manufacture, 6 (2021) 332.

13