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Powder metallurgy of stainless steel: State-of-the art, challenges, and

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Chapter 2
POWDER METALLURGY OF STAINLESS

STEEL: STATE-OF-THE ART, CHALLENGES,
AND DEVELOPMENT
Bandar AL-Mangour*
Saudi Basic Industries Corporation, Technology and Innovation Center,
Metals Technology, Jubail, Saudi Arabia
ABSTRACT
Stainless steel, a class of ferrous alloys, is well-known for their resistance to
corrosion, creep and high temperature applications. Due to increasing demand of powder
metallurgy compenents made from stainless steel in variety of applications, including
aerospace, automotive, chemical processing and biomedical field, it became of a great
interest in the research domain. Understanding of the proper processing techniques is
critical in producing such components with significant properties and to extend the use of
powder metallurgy technology for its considerable economic value of increasing number
of applications. This chapter discusses various powder metallurgy techniques for stainless
steel processing, properties and microstructure of the comopements made by these
techniques as well as their applicatons.
Keywords: Power Metallurgy, sintering, powder compaction, microstructure, mechanical

properties, corrosion
INTRODUCTION
The use of Powder Metallurgy (commonly abbreviated as PM) technology in the
manufacturing of various components has been growing in the recent time. Traditionally,
components produced by PM were pressed and then sintered in an atmosphere of dry
hydrogen. Sintering temperatures were relatively high, and sintering time was extremely long
*
Corresponding author: Bandar AL-Mangour. E-mail: mangourb@sabic.com, balmangour@gmail.com.
38 Bandar AL-Mangour
and uneconomical. However, studies by North America laboratory between 1930s and 1940s
pave the path for commercial production of PM stainless steel components by the end of 1940
[1-7]. Since then, the use and production of PM stainless steel components has been on rise.
Regardless of the fact that stainless steel components produced by PM are subjected to harsh
conditions, PM industries are working to optimize the process conditions for better properties
of the PM stainless steel components. The application of PM in the manufacture of stainless
steel components, for example, has been one of the factors driving this growth. This is due to
the fact that stainless steel PM components find applications in number of industries such as
recreational, automobile, aerospace and chemical processing among others. Research has
proved that PM stainless steels that are relatively underperforming in terms of resistance to
corrosion can be as a result of metallurgical defects which resulted from improper processing
techniques [8-12]. It is, therefore, important to build a deep understanding in the various
aspects associated with the processing of PM stainless steel components. This chapter,
therefore, aims to provide a comprehensive review on the various PM stainless steel
processing techniques, properties and applications.
The fundamentals theories of powder metallurgy in metals and alloys, including stainless
steel, remain largely unchanged. However, there have been many recent developments in
compacting powders such as thermal spray and powder rolling. A great part of this chapter
covers the underlying principles governing powder metallurgy applicable to any metallic
systems which are important to appreciate the science and engineering behind it.
METALLURGY AND ALLOY COMPOSITIONS

Stainless steel is an alloy of iron that has superior resistance to corrosion and this is what
it is normally identified by. In fact, it is known that the resistance to oxidation as well as
resistance to creep at high temperatures by stainless steel are normally excellent as compared
to other alloys [1]. In essence, the alloy does not readily corroded or even stains.
Nevertheless, it is not completely stain-proof, especially under conditions of low oxygen,
high-salinity, or even in poorly circulated environments. This aspect requires that various
grades and surface finishes be used in such a way that they suit specific environments.
Typically, the excellent resistance to corrosion by stainless steel is a result of chromium rich
microstructure. Generally, steel alloys with minimum of 11% chromium are considered as
stainless steel, which is the minimum amount required to prevent chemical activities like
rusting especially in unpolluted atmospheres and they exhibit the mentioned properties [1-3].
Only a few stainless steels contain over 30% of Cr of at most 50% of Fe. Most of these alloys
achieve their characteristics of being stainless by forming an ultra-thin surface film of
chromium-rich oxides. Stainless steel is not only composed of chromium but may also
contain other alloying elements such as molybdenum, nickel, silicon, manganese, sulfur,
carbon, niobium and/or titanium [4]. Other than Cr meant to prevent rusting, other elements
include Mo for pitting resistance; Cu, Ti, and Al for precipitation hardening; Mn and N for
strength, and Nb and/ or Ta for sensitization reduction. Figure 1 provides a useful summary of
some of the compositions and property linkages in stainless steel family.
It can be asserted from Figure 1 that various elements are added to Fe to produce a given
stainless steel product meant for a particular purpose such as strengthening, corrosion
Powder Metallurgy of Stainless Steel … 39
resistance, precipitation hardening, machienability, and sensitization reduction among others.

Each case leads to a certain family of stainless steel alloys.
Generally, the composition of PM stainless steel has derived from wide range of the
existing popular wrought stainless steel [6]. The maximum permissible content of carbon for
wrought stainless steel is 0.08% [7]. However, it is important to note that some wrought
stainless steel have lower carbon content (about 0.03%) which categorized as L-grades [8]. In
this regard, other than martensitic PM stainless steel grades, all other grades of PM stainless
steel are classified as L-grades (also known as low-carbon version of stainless steel) [9].
There are two important reasons behind that: Firstly, low composition of carbon in the alloy
enhances ductility of the stainless steel, therefore it is easier to work with it (compact or form
it into different shapes) [10, 11] and secondly, the potential of formation of chromium carbide
is minimized (this minimizes sensitization when cooling from sintering temperature) [10].
It is important to note that components of stainless steel that are sintered at environment
containing nitrogen will be composed of large quantities of nitrogen (thousands of ppm of
nitrogen in it [12]. Therefore, they are not considered as L-grade stainless steel.
Also, stainless steel that are sintered in environments that are not de-lubricated
adequately may be composed of more than 0.03% carbon, therefore, are not L-grade stainless
steel any more [13].
Figure 1. Composition and property linkages in the stainless steel family of alloys [5].
Metallurgical Principles
In order to understand the fundamentals of powder metallurgy, it is important that the

classification of stainless steel (both that of PM stainless steel and that of wrought steel) is
well-understood. Generally, stainless steels are classified into four major families based on
their microstructure [14], namely duplex, ferritic, martensitic and austenitic stainless steel.
While ferritic, martensitic and austenitic are made of independent structures, the structure of
duplex family is a hybrid of two structures that is ferritic and austenitic [15]. Indeed, the
above discussed classification of stainless steel is based on the influence of microstructure on
both physical and metallurgical properties of stainless steel alloys.
Typically at room temperature, pure iron exists as ferritic (α) structure (body-centered
cubic, BCC). As the iron is heated to a temperature above 1670 °F (910 °C), it transforms to
austenitic (γ) structure (face-center cubic, FCC) and commonly known as gamma phase [13].
When the iron is further heated to a temperature of 2552 °F (1400 °C), it transforms back to
ferritic (body-centered cubic, BCC) structure.
This transformation results into two types of ferritic phases: alpha ferrite and delta ferrite.
The alpha ferrite phase formed at lower temperature while delta ferrite phase formed at the
higher temperature.
Alloying pure iron with increasing quantities of chromium, up to7% chromium, leads to
the gradual decrease in transformation temperature from ferrite to austenite phase, and as well
as from austenite to ferrite [13]. If chromium addition is beyond 7%, the transformation
temperature from ferrite (α) to austenite (γ) increases, while the transformation temperature
from austenite to ferrite is lowered. This behavior decreases the range of temperature over
which austenite is stable [16]. Increasing the composition of chromium beyond 13% makes
the ferritic phase stable at all temperatures (Figure 2).
As addition of chromium tends to increase the stabilization of ferrite phase of the alloy, it
is known as a ferritizer or ferrite forming element [18]. There are also other alloying elements
which tends to stabilize the ferrite phase of the alloy namely aluminum, silicon, tantalum,
titanium, molybdenum and niobium [14].
When iron-chromium alloy or iron is further alloyed with nickel (FCC crystal structure),
a different effects is produced. Addition of nickel enhances the transformation of ferrite phase
to austenite phase and the γ-phase region and α + γ region that is located below the γ-phase
region are expanded [19] as shown in Figure 2.
This means when iron-chromium alloy is alloyed with nickel, it is possible to have Fe-Cr-
Ni alloy with high amounts of chromium in the austenitic form (phase) over a wide range of
temperature which includes room temperature [20]. It is, however, important to note that the
phase that is present at room temperature is not predictable in the equilibrium diagrams of Fe-
Cr-Ni system or Fe-Ni system [21] as nickel atoms gradually diffuse at a slow rate into
ferrous matrix. Generally, the amount of austenite that is actually present in most Fe-Cr-Ni or
Fe-Ni alloys is more than the amount indicated in the equilibrium diagram.
Selection Criterion for PM Stainless Steel and Wrought Stainless Steel
Out of the four families of stainless steel, three of them, that is, martensitic, austenitic and
ferritic families can be manufactured through conventional powder metallurgy process [14].
Figure 2. The binary Fe-Cr phase diagram [17].
Austenitic and ferritic families normally form the bulk of PM stainless steel with
martensitic families mainly considered in areas where high resistance to wear is required [22].
Normally, selection of an alloy for a particular application depends on many factors with
major focus in corrosion resistance [23]. Other important factors include magnetic and
thermal properties, resistance to creep and oxidation at high temperatures, mechanical
prosperities, fabricability and cost.
PRODUCTION OF STAINLESS STEEL POWDERS

The key in manufacturing high quality stainless steel component by PM is to control the
fundamental properties of the powder. These fundamental properties include particle size
distribution, particle morphology and composition. Therefore, the aim of powder
manufacturing is to ensure that the properties of the powder are controlled properly [24] and
not to mention to, manufacture powder via most economic and efficient way.
The powder metallurgy production process follow a given sequence from blending,
compacting, in which the powders are pressed into the desired shape, to sintering which
involves heating to a temperature below the melting point to cause solid-state bonding of the
particles and strengthening of the part. They are referred to as the primary operations in PM
(Figure 3). This will be further discussed later in this chapter. Sometimes it may require the
use of secondary operations in order to improve on dimensional accuracy, and to increase
density among other functions. Generally, the intended use of powder is normally in terms of
specific engineering requirements and properties such as formability, apparent density,
compressibility and green strength [26].
Figure 3. The conventional production sequence of powder metallurgy [25].
The dependence of engineering requirements and properties in the powder manufacture is

normally known qualitatively, and it contributes to most PM manufacturing processes [27].
For example, water atomization is used in the manufacture of stainless steel powders that
have the capability of being cold-pressed in a die and known as compacting grade powders
[28], as water atomization makes irregular shaped powders as shown in Figure 4.
Gas atomization processing is used in the processing of stainless steel powders that are
used for consolidation through hot pressing or extrusion [26].
Normally, the stainless steel powders that are manufactured through gas atomization have
particles that are spherical in shape as shown in Figure 5.
Even thought the rate of cooling in water atomization may be higher than the rate of
cooling in gas atomization both are sufficient to make high quality powders without
segregation and with homogenous microstructures [29]. When these advantages are combined
with consolidation (which normally occurs to full density), the alloys offer properties, such as
improved formability, improved fatigue and impact strengths etc. that are superior to
properties that can be attained with wrought alloys [30].
Other than gas atomization and water atomization, stainless steel powders can also be
produced using centrifugal atomization (or hybrid gas-water atomization). This method is
suitable for stainless steel powders that are to be formed using injection molding stainless
steel powders which undergo injection molding can also be made using gas or water
atomization [1]. The most important factors for production of powder for injection molding
are to produce stainless steel powders that have particles nearly in spherical shape and with
ultra-fine size (less than 20μm) [13]. The retentions of fill-density and particle shape are very
important during compacting and sintering
Figure 4. Water atomization makes the particles of stainless steel powder in irregular shape [13].
Figure 5. Gas atomized stainless steel powder [13].
Water Atomization
Water atomization consists of the following units: atomization tank, collection vessel,
power plant and a melting furnace. Figure 6 shows the schematic of basic units of water
atomization process.
High-frequency induction furnaces are used in the processing of stainless steel as it works
thorough induction-stirring thus enabling the different alloying elements to be mixed
effectively [32]. Other than induction stirring, it also allows open-air melting.
When the melt charge reaches 50-75 °C above the melting point of the alloy being
processed (i.e., pouring temperature of the melt charge), the furnace is titled to allow the
melted metal flow into tundish via a runner [33].
The metal that emerges here has a well defined stream and is then taken into atomization
tank where it is disintegrated to form powder.
As pouring temperature decreases (i.e., decreasing atomizing temperature), the oxidation
of the stainless steel powder decreases significantly [34].
Figure 6. Schematic of water atomization scheme [31].
Even though a decrease in pouring-temperature is advantageous, care must be taken to

ensure optimum pouring temperature. otherwise, the likelihood of freezing the metal on
nozzle tundish increases significantly [30]. Atomization tanks are made of stainless steel, and
all times filled with purged nitrogen and partly with water to prevent air leaking into the tank
(particularly when powders of low oxygen content are required) [4].
Gas Atomization
In contrast to water atomization where melting is done in open air, in gas atomization, the
melting operations carried out in vacuum or under an inert atmosphere. Figure 7 shows a
typical gas atomization system. This is done in order to protect the alloying elements being
oxidized [35]. Gas atomization systems are designed such a way that they allow dry
collection of the powder.
Usually atomization tanks in gas atomization are tall (approximately 6-10 meters) in
order to ensure complete solidification of powder particles before reaching the bottom of the
tank [13]. It is important to note that, for horizontal gas atomization, the horizontal gas tanks
are used for the same purposes as for the vertical tanks. According to literature, the horizontal
system design is not as expensive as the vertical design and melting is carried out in open air
like water atomization [13]. Even though melting is carried in open air for horizontal design,
the chemical composition of the powder is practically the same as the chemical composition
of the melt and oxygen contained is very low (approximately 200 ppm) [36].
It is worth noting that regardless of the fact that powders that are gas atomized in low-
oxygen and inert environment also have surfaces that are enriched with high-oxygen-affinity
constituents, these layers are usually thin (a few atoms thick) [11].
Therefore, any negative effect on the bonding between the particles can be eliminated or
minimized by the inclusion of shearing substances during consolidation.
Drying, Screening, Annealing, and Lubricating the Atomized Powders
Drying: After water atomization, fine powder particles suspended in powder-water slurry
in the tank and allowed to settle at the bottom of the atomizing tank followed by efficient
decantation of excess water [13]. The remaining water is removed by filtration, heat treating,
centrifuging or a combination of these processes.
Screening: After drying, the powder is screened in order to remove oversized particles (>
100 mesh (+149 μm)) if the powder will be compacted. If powder is to be used for purposes
related to filter, then screening is carried out to generate the various screen sizes [37].
Annealing: Atomized powders usually contain hundreds of ppm of nitrogen and carbon
which in turn may affect compressibility and green strength. These properties
(compressibility and green strength) can be improved or enhanced by annealing the powder. It
is, however, important to remember annealing is not effective when carbon content is too low
(between 150-200 ppm) [13] as the powder is already soft in that case and annealing would
transform it to into a sintered cake. In that case, this cake is being milled and the original flow
rate, particle size distribution and apparent density of the powder can be restored [38].
Lubricating: Lubrication is done in order to reduce the friction between die and wall, and
reduce wear during compaction [13]. The most widely used lubricants in this application are
ethylene-bis-stearamide (Acrawax C) and lithium stearate.
Figure 7. Schematic of gas atomization system [39].

CHARACTERISTICS OF STAINLESS STEEL POWDERS

The distinctive features of various powder metallurgy stainless steels are determined by
the type of atomization they underwent. Some of the general characteristics of PM stainless
steel are as follows:
Physical Characteristics of PM Stainless Steel Powders
Particle size: Particle size of PM stainless steel powders is determined by water pressure
applied during water atomization. In this regard, the higher the water pressure the finer the
powder particles water pressures that reach 2000 psi (13.8 MPa) produces powder with
particle size in the range of 100 mesh (150 μm) [40]. This pressure is usually directed into the
metal stream (metal liquid) using V-jet nozzles and the high pressure disintegrate the metal
into fines. In order to produce a powder with a range of particle sizes, different water-jet
configurations are employed.
Particle morphology: The shape of PM stainless steel powders has a great impact on
powder’s green strength (i.e., strength after shaping but not yet sintered), flow characteristics,
compressibility, and its apparent density [41]. In addition, the shape of these powders also
affects subsequent processing parameters such as sintering, mechanical properties and
dimensional change. Particle shape usually described in terms of aspect ratio (i.e., the ration
of maximum dimension to minimum dimension for a given particle) and ranges from unity,
for a spherical particle, to about 10. Microscopic techniques are utilized to determine shape
characteristics. Spherical particles contribute to high flow as compared to angular, spongy,
rounded, flakey, and cubic shapes, but their aspect ratio is the smallest. A perfect sphere has
an aspect ratio of 1, but the rest have a higher aspect ratio. Stainless steel powder shapes can
be cataloged into various types, several of which are illustrated in Figure 8. There will be a
variation in the particles shapes in a collection of powders, just as the particle size will vary.
In a typical case, the particles used in a conventional powder metallurgy, range from 25
µm to 300 µm.
Figure 8. Particles Morphology [25].

Regarding this range, the low end corresponds to essentially a mesh count of almost 500.
This happens to be too small to be measured using the mesh count technique. On the other
end, the high end within the same range corresponds to a mesh count, specifically of closely
50. In the collection of powders, there is often a variation of particle shapes as well in the
sizes of the particles. The shape of each of the particles is simply done using the aspect ratio
technique as explained earlier. A perfectly spherical particle would always have an aspect
ratio of 1. Aspect ratio is typically the ratio of maximum dimension to the minimum
dimension for a specified particle. Articular grains on the other hand could have an aspect
ratio that is above one. The volume of loose powders would contain pores in between the
particles. Such open pores allow free flow of fluids between the particles. The movement of
fluid between the pores depends on both the size and the shape of particles. Large particle all
faster and easier movement of fluid between particles as compared to smaller particles.
Chemical Characteristics of PM Stainless Steel Powders
Major chemical components of stainless steel powders include iron, chromium, carbon,
silicon, molybdenum, nickel and manganese. The effects of chromium and nickel have
already been discussed in the previous sections.
Like physical properties, the effect of chemical properties on the overall characteristics of
the powder is explicit. Some constituents of the powder have intrinsic effects on the preferred
oxidation of manganese and silicon during atomization and subsequent compaction. The
effect of carbon has also been discussed earlier, and effect of chromium and nickel will be
discussed in corrosion and properties section.
Beside the importance of chromium and nickel, silicon is also considered critical as most
of the oxidation that take place during water atomization is the oxidation of silicon to silicon
dioxide and causes reduction [41]. This reduction depends on the conditions of sintering
employed, results into residual oxides (in variable amounts) being present in the sintered
component. Manganese on other hand, increases oxidation during water atomization [41].
POWDER COMPACTION, CONSOLIDATION, AND SHAPING

Powder Compaction
Powder compaction comprises of three main stages as discussed below:

Initial stage: In the initial stage, densification is accomplished by re-arrangement of
powder particles which makes the large voids within the powder microstructure to be filled
up. Indeed, it breaks up bridges among powder particles [42]. The applied pressure should be
sufficient enough to overcome internal friction between the powder particles in the powder
mass. The densification of powder mass is enhanced by the smoothness of the particles, and
the presence of lubricants.
Middle stage: As opposed to the initial stage in which the densification of the powder
mass is achieved by re-arrangement of powder particles, in this stage, the major contributor to
densification process is elastic deformation of the powder particles.
As pressure is increased, the inter-particle contact points get plastically deformed. This
leads to the formation of protruding asperities on the surfaces of powder particles. Plastic
deformation does not only leads to the formation of protruding asperities on the surfaces of
powder particles, but also makes these protruding asperities interlocked [43].
Final stage: In this stage, plastic deformation of the particles becomes widespread and it
is accompanied by other processes such as cold welding (welding without the use of heat),
shearing, and formation of new surfaces which are oxide-free [44].
Shearing is due to forces that are asymmetrically opposed and more irregular the powder
particles are the greater the degree of shearing. Basically, the main change that occurs in this
stage of rigid die compaction is the deformation of the powder particles which is
accompanied by the reduction of porosity.
As the process of compaction continues, the amount of pressure required for further
densification increases, as plastic deformation leads to strain hardening of the powder
particles. The green strength of the compacted mass is a result of two main factors:
interlocking particles which are rough and have irregular surfaces and cold welding at the
particle surfaces as a result of shearing. Figure 9 shows the major stages of powder’s
densification during rigid compaction.
Based on the Figure 9, regarding the compaction of metal powders; at a low compaction
pressure, pores rearranges without deformation. This aspect leads to a high density increase
rate. At the time when the pores are packed more closely, the occurrence of plastic
deformation takes place at their interfaces. This leads to an increased density, although at a
much lower rate. At relatively high densities, the powder behaves more like a solid. Figure 10
shows the effect of applied pressure during compaction. Step one show the initial loose
powder while steps two and three shows the deformation of particles and the density of the
particles with respect to pressure respectively.
Figure 9. Stages of densification of the powders during rigid compaction [3, 39].
The effect of compaction pressure is in such a way that, an increase in compaction

pressure leads to an increase in the powder density after the particles are compressed.
The same concept is seen in Figure 9 where density and pressure are related functions.
Typically, pressure that is applied to the system has a significant effect during compaction.
This pressure is not only affected by the quantity of the material but also the density of the
material as a function of packing.
The stages of powder compaction are shown in Figure 10. Initially, the powder is loosely
packed, and thus there is significant porosity. With low applied pressure, the powder
rearranges, filling the voids and producing a denser powder; however, the stresses at points
among the powders are still low. Continued compaction causes increased contact stress and
plastic deformation of the powders, resulting in increased powder adhesion.
The applied pressure in compaction results initially in repacking of the powders into a
more efficient arrangement, eliminating ‘bridges’ formed during filling, reduction pore space,
and increasing the number of contacting points between particles.
As pressure increases, the particles are plastically deformed, causing inter-particle contact
area to increase and additional particles to make contact. This is accomplished by a further
reduction in pore volume.
A graphical presentation of pressure and density relationship could be a better way of
showing the effect of pressure/density. Like it has been explained, an increase in compaction
pressure leads to an increase in the powder density after the particles are compressed. This
effect is graphically interpreted in Figure 11. It is clear from Figure 11(a) that the density of
the green compact depends on the compacting pressure. As the pressure is increased, the
compact density approaches that of the metal in its bulk form. The higher the density of the
compacted part, the higher are its strength and elastic modules (Figure 11(b)). This is obvious
because higher density means higher amount of solids metal in the same volume, which leads
to higher strength.
Figure 10. Effect of Compaction Pressure on Density [45].

a b
Figure 11. Graphical Case of Compaction Pressure effect as a function of various factors such as tensile
strength, elongation, and electrical conductivity [45].
Compaction of Stainless Steel Powders
The factors to be considered during compacting stainless steel powders are as follows:
Characteristics of the stainless steel powders: The stainless steel powders that are
intended to be formed via powder metallurgy must have sufficient irregularly shaped particles
so that they exhibit a high green strength [44].
In addition, it will be able to densify and deform readily such that the pressures applied
during these compaction processes are compatible with the available compacting tooling and
presses. In addition, powders must be able to exhibit superior flow properties: a powder with
a superior flow property is one that can fill die cavity within a reasonable period of time (i.e.,
period of time considered reasonably short).
As compared to iron powders or low-alloy steel, stainless steel powders are normally
compacted at slower rates [13] as stainless steel exhibit low green strengths compared to low-
alloy steel or iron powder [13]. However, it has reported in literature that steel powders of
approximately 15.2 MPa green strength can be formulated at compacting pressures of 552
MPa while maintain good flow rate and compressibility [46].
Moreover, when compared to low-alloy and iron powders, stainless steel powders have
lower compressibility which requires higher compaction pressures in order to reach the same
green densities as compared to low-alloy and iron powders. As stainless steel powders are
abrasive to tooling processes; therefore carbide tooling is essential.
Lubrication: Other than the characteristics of the stainless steel powders, another
important factor that is normally considered when compacting stainless steel powders is
lubrication effect. Lubrication serves an important role in the die compaction of stainless steel
as its main purposes are to assist in the process of ejecting the green compact form the die and
reduce die wear. In addition, it also assists in the reduction of friction between the particles,
thereby reducing pressure that will be required to achieve the designed green density. A good
lubricant is one that has the capability of extending the first step of rigid die compaction
(particle re-arrangement stage) and leads to uniformity in the distribution of density [47].
Addition of lubricants also has negative effects on the powders green strength as it reduce
surface to surface contacts of the powder particles. Generally, different lubricants have
different effects on green density and depend on the amount of lubricant used, particle size,
lubricant composition and lubricant-particle interaction. There are two most widely used
lubricants for stainless steel powders: lithium stearate and ethylene bisstearamide (EBS).
There exist a wide variety of methods to compacted and consolidated PM stainless steel
components. The major process include: rigid die compaction powder injection molding, and
hot isostatic pressing.
Rigid Die Compaction
This is the most widely used process for consolidation of parts in powder metallurgy
route as it is compatible with low-cost water-atomized powders [13]. It is also versatile to
fabricated PM components in different shape and size and the cost of rigid die compaction
reasonably low as compared to the cost of other consolidation methods. The particles in die
compaction are irregular, which provide mechanical cohesion of adjacent particles. Powders
with low cohesive nature, in large scale production, need some quantity of lubricant which
can be added in a blending operation the form of micro flakeamides, waxes, soaps or mixture
of these. In the blending process, powders of the same chemical composition, but having
different sizes of particles are mixed.
Figure 12 shows the active parts of a typical rigid die compaction tool. The lower punch
of this design is fixed to the press frame and constitutes the reference level of the tool. Cavity
that holds the loose powder is formed by the lower punch, core rod and the die.
Taken from www.substech.com.
Figure 12. Simple die compaction process.

The die is usually designed as a single cylinder shrink fitted hard and wear resistant core
in a medium strength steel shrink ring. In the process of compaction, the upper presses ram
moves the upper punch down resulting in the reduction in powder column by roughly a factor
of 2 to 2.5. As shown in Figure 13, the production cycle consist of die filling, compaction and
part ejection stage. Up to this point, the powder press is equipped with feed shoe to which the
cavity is fully covered and gravity filled the free flowing powder. For the compact to be
uniform, the feed shoe can be shaken several times. While approaching the cavity, the feed
shoe pushes the ejected compact of the previous cycle over the die platen out of the press.
Powder Injection Moulding
Powder injection molding is suitable for manufacturing large number of components in

different shape and size it is commonly applied in situations where dimension tolerance, cost
and shape capability make it superior method of consolidation as compared to other
consolidation methods [48]. With regard to size, the largest dimension that can be processed
using powder injection moulding is 100 mm [3, 39].
This technology evolved from the commonly known injection moulding for plastic parts.
Generally, with compared to alternative fabrication methods, these parts would require
precise and extensive drilling, machining and/or grinding [49].
Feedstock: In the past, most commonly used metal powders for powder injection
moulding included carbonyl-nickel and iron powders, and fractions of fine atomized stainless
steel powders which are normally scalped from coarse powders that are intended for other
purposes [40]. Due to the recent technological advancements (such as special gas-atomization
techniques, high-pressure atomization, and hybrid gas-water atomization), powders of wide
range of quality can be supported by powder injection moulding at much reduced cost [50].
The most common type of feedstock used in powder injection moulding is usually fine
powders (i.e., less than 20 μm), near-spherical pre-alloyed metal powder, or elemental
powders that are mixed with organic binders [51] as palletized in order to form feedstock.
Taken from www.substech.com.
Figure 13. Cycle of rigid die compaction.

As sintering is accomplished to near-fill density condition, the particles must be small in

size [51]. Further, high packing density is achieved (i.e., low porosity) by minimizing the
amount of binders to fill the voids, thereby increasing the cohesive force among the particles
[52].
Tooling: In the tooling process, tools are used in the powder injection moulding. The
tools used are similar to those tools used in plastic injection moldings. In order to ensure that
feedstock is utilized maximally, runners and sprues are usually recycled [53]. Traditional
tools could be avoided due to their immense limitations in which problems could occur
during manufacturing. The tools used should be clean in order to increase the average tool life
as well as reducing variation in punch life.
De-binding: In de-binding process, the binding material is removed from the part after
injection-molding, and it is usually accomplished in the de-binding stage of the process [54].
The de-binding process is initiated to remove any binding additives mainly from the green
compacts that happen to be the sintering prerequisites. A continuous catalytic debinding
process is formed. The binding process steadily transforms the binder into a gas resulting in
components that have an open porosity structure, which is referred to as brown compact.
Hot Isostatic Pressing
Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) is a process in which porosity of a component is reduced

while its density is increased. This process helps in improving the mechanical properties and
workability of materials. Figure 14 shows a typical HIP tooling. In the HIP process, materials
are subjected to both high temperature and pressure, usually Argon, in vessels equipped with
sophisticated control systems and telemetry (measuring and data collection equipment).
Adapted from www.nhml.com.
Figure 14. Schematic of HIP process.

Temperature is regulated to maintain the plastic deformation of the material in it solid

state, while pressure is isostatically exerted on the heated part for a period of time. The
chamber is then slowly cooled, depressurized and the parts removed.
Hot isostatic pressing is applied to powders that are gas-atomized, whose particles are
spherical in shape, and have low oxygen contents [55]. The method is generally used in the
production of simple shapes. The application of components processed by hot isostatic
pressing include: defense (in ordnance), marine (components of marine diesel engines),
architectural (in sputtering targets), oil/gas drilling applications (in valve components), and
chemical (in pump bodies) [36].
Sintering process involving hot isostatic processing, powder rolling happens to be one of
the many ways of producing a stainless strip. In this case, powder is compressed in a rolling
mill operation to develop a metal strip stock. The starting point of the entire process is the
pouring of feedstock powders into the hot furnace. The powders pass through the compaction
rolls into the sintering furnace.
From the sintering furnace, it goes through the cold rolling stage and then into the re-
sintering furnace. This process runs continuously or it could run semi-continuously as well as
depicted in Figure 15. In either case, metallic powders are often compacted between rolls.
Typically, this is usually done in green strips in which a green strip is fed directly fed to the
sintering furnace, rolled, and re-sintered. The entire process goes on in accordance with the
illustration in Figure 15.
In powder rolling, the metal powder is fed into the roll gap in two-high rolling mill
(Figure 15), and is compacted into a continued strip, at speeds of up to 0.5 m/s. The rolling
operation can be carried out at room or elevated temperatures. Sheet metal for electrical and
electronic components can be made by this process.
Powders can be compressed in a rolling mill operation to form metal strip stock. The
process is usually set up to run continuously or semi-continuously. The powders are
compacted between rolls into a green trip that is fed directly into a sintering furnace. It is then
cold rolled and re-sintered.
Figure 15. Powder Rolling [25].

SINTERING THEORY AND TECHNOLOGY

During sintering loose metal powders or green compact are consolidated into required
composition under controlled time and at temperature lower than it melting point. It is usually
carried out for number of reasons primarily to achieve good mechanical properties, good
corrosion resistance and dimensional tolerance that is considered adequate [56]. In the
modern sintering practices, the atmosphere within the furnace could be controlled [56]. In
such cases, atmosphere is controlled to offer protection from oxidation. It is again done to
provide a reducing atmosphere that enhances the removal of existing oxides. It is also
initiated to provide a carburizing atmosphere as well as in assisting to remove lubricants and
binders that are used in pressing.
As discussed earlier, particle morphology has a significant importance in sintering and
corrosion resistance in particular. The essence of particle shape and size to the process is
based on the fact that sintering is happens through heat treatment done by compaction to bond
the particles. This aspect increases strength as well as hardness. On a microscopic scale,
particle bonding is occurs at contact point. Figure 16 shows the sintering process on a
microscopic scale.
In the Figure 16, binders are first burnt off in step one, then sintered in step two, and then
cooled down. The Figure presents a typical case in which sintering temperatures as well as
time are given for a selected metal.
In step:
1 Particle bonding is done at the contact points

2 Contact points grow into necks
3 Pores between particles are reduced in size and,
4 Grain bounderies develop specifically between the particles at the neck regions
The series of sketches in Figure 16 shows on a microscopic scale the changes that occur
during sintering of metallic powders. Sintering involves mass transport to create the necks
and transform them into grain boundaries. The principal mechanism by which this occurs is
diffusion; other possible mechanism is plastic flow.
Figure 16. Sintering on a Microscopic Scale [25].

Shrinkage occurs during sintering as a result of pore size reduction. This depends to a
large extent on the density of the green compact, which depends on the pressure during
compaction. Shrinkage is generally predictable when processing conditions are closely
controlled.
The sintering process on a microscopic scale can also be shown in two mechanisms. In
Figure 17, both solid state transport and vapor phase material transport of particles are shown
in parts (a) and (b) respectively.
Sintering mechanisms depend on the composition of the metal particles and the
processing parameters. The mechanisms are diffusion, vapor-phase transport, and liquid-
phase sintering. As the temperature increases, two adjacent powder particles begin to form a
bond by a diffusion mechanism (solid-state bonding, Figure 17(a)). As a result, strength,
density, ductility, and thermal and electrical conductivities of the compact increase. However,
the compact shrinks, thus allowances must be made for shrinkage, as are done for casting.
In the second sintering mechanism is vapor-phase transport (Figure 17(b)). Because the
material is heated to close to its melting temperature, metal atoms will be released to the
vapor phase from the particles. At convergent geometries (the interface of two particles), the
melting temperature is locally higher and the vapor phase re-solidifies. Thus, the interface
grows and strengthens while each particle shrinks as a whole.
In the first case, neck formation takes place by diffusion with the particle distance
becoming less. This case is different from part (b) where neck formation takes place through
vapor-phase material transport. The vapor-phase material transport leads to the widening of
the distance between particle centers.
Types of Sintering
The main types of sintering include solid state sintering, liquid phase sintering, reaction
sintering, and activated sintering.
Solid state sintering: It is the most commonly sintering process for consolidation.
a b
Figure 17. Schematic illustration of two-mechanism Sintering [45].

Densifications in this type of sintering mainly occurs as a result of atomic diffusion at the
solid state [13]. The main stages involved in the whole process as described here after as
shown in Figure 10.
Stage one: At this stage, necks are formed at points of contacts between the powder
particles and they continue to grow. As necks formed rapidly, the pores between the powder
particles are interconnected.
Stage two: After the growth of necks, the channels formed from interconnection of the
pores become more cylindrical. It is important to note that when necks size are not large
enough, the rate of sintering is very high due to high curvature gradient [13]. Given sufficient
time at sintering temperature, the pores between the particles eventually become rounded. As
the sizes of the necks grow the gradient of the curvature decreases and so the sintering rate.
Stage three: In this stage, the channels of pores are closed. In addition, they are
completely isolated. Besides that, they are not inter-connected anymore. In that case the
porosity of the sintered part remains constant. This is the final stage of solid-state sintering
Liquid phase sintering: In this process, the densification process is improved by
introducing liquid phase (approximately 1 to 10 % of the total volume). The existence of
liquid phase in metal powders at sintering conditions enhances the solubility of the solid.
Generally, the liquid phase is formed in the boundary between the compact sample’s
particles. During sintering, this liquid phase crystallizes at the boundaries of compact sample
grains and bind them together [13]. In addition, the solid particles rearrange rapidly leading to
increase in density. However, if the process continues it causes grain coarsening and slows
down of the densification rate.
Activated sintering: In this process, sintering rate is increased by changing conditions for
sintering or by addition of a certain substances. In this type of sintering, doping is carried out
in order to improve densification process. Doping is the addition of small amount of an
alloying element [13].
Reaction sintering: This is a type of sintering in which the starting powder reaction as
well as sintering of the entire mass is initiated within a single step of heat treatment. Two or
more chemically reactive compounds react during sintering, thereby increasing temperatures
which enhance bonding [13]. An example of this type of sintering is the reaction sintering of
alumina-aluminide alloys.
Sintering Mechanism
Sintering may involve single or multi-component system. In single component system,

self diffusion is the major driving force which results from chemical potential that occurs due
to capillary forces and surface tension between the powder particles [20]. In multi-diffusion
on the other hand, inter-diffusion occurs and concentration gradient is the major driving force.
In this sintering method, both solid solution formation and liquid phase formation occur with
densification.
According to Sauerwald [20] who proposed the first sintering theory in 1922, sintering
involves two stages: adhesion and recrystallization. According to this theory, adhesion results
from heating as a result of atomic attraction, while recrystallization occurs at the
recrystallization temperature (considered to be above 0.5Tm).
The theory further explains that during recrystallization, a number of changes occur such
as shrinkage, and microstructural changes. These changes are due to grain growth and phase
transformation.
Sintering Process of Stainless Steel
Sintering process is of a great importance in the processing of a successful PM stainless

steel components and involves a number of factors: type of sintering furnace, sintering
temperature, sintering atmosphere and the choice of processing parameters. All the mentioned
factors have great influence on the quality of the component that is sintered as elaborated in
the following discussion:
Sintering furnaces: Commercial sintering are commonly carried out in continuous-mesh-
belt-conveyor furnaces at high temperatures (approximately 1150 °C) [57]. Other than
continuous-mesh-belt-conveyor furnaces vacuum furnaces, walking beam, pusher and
walking beam furnaces are used. Vacuum furnaces, walking beam, pusher and walking beam
furnaces used for sintering at higher temperatures (up to 1345 °C) [13]. In addition, ceramic-
belt furnaces have been preferred for sintering at high temperature [13]. The use of high
temperature sintering results into more improved corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties. Figure 18 shows schematic representation of a microwave sintering furnace.
Sintering Atmospheres: Typical atmospheres for sintering stainless steel include
dissociated ammonia, vacuum, hydrogen and hydrogen-nitrogen mixtures. Due to low-dew
point capability, is of a great importance for sintering in hydrogen-nitrogen mixtures and/or
hydrogen environments and it is believed that when cryogenic nitrogen is used in hydrogen-
nitrogen mixtures it is easier to achieve low dew points [13]. However, as nitrogen-hydrogen
mixtures are reducing agents, they require lower dew points compared to pure hydrogen
atmospheres. Indeed, cheap sintering atmospheres are preferred, and some stainless steel
components are sintered in hydrogen-nitrogen atmospheres containing minute hydrogen (as
little as 3%) [13].
Adapted from www.azom.com.
Figure 18. Schematic of microwave sintering furnace.

The consequence is that stainless steel parts sintered in this type of environment are likely
to have very low corrosion resistance properties. However, loss of chromium may occur when
sintering in vacuum atmospheres due to high vapor pressure, therefore, the vacuum sintering
is normally carried out at low pressures (approximately 1000-3000 μm Hg) [13].
Optimal Sintering
In order to ensure desired properties are achieved, it is important that the sintering
process is carried out under optimal condition. The main optimal conditions are as follows:
1 To avoid excessive oxidation during sintering in hydrogen atmosphere, sintering

must be carried out at reducing dew point [13] otherwise major deterioration of
mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties. Dew point is defined as the
temperature at which water vapor present in the sintering system will saturate the
sintering atmosphere [58]. It is used to estimate amount of water vapor that is present
in the sintering system.
2 For low-carbon stainless steel, the proportion of carbon content must be kept low in
order to prevent carbide precipitations from chromium carbides. For example, for
austenitic stainless steels that are slowly cooled the carbon content must be in the
range of 0.02-0.03%.
3 For high carbon content stainless steel, the rate of cooling must be kept high enough
in order to prevent/minimize precipitation from chromium carbide.
4 For stainless steel with carbon contents higher than 0.03% and slow rate of cooling,
niobium should be added in order stabilize stainless steel and prevent sensitization.
5 In order to avoid re-oxidation and pitting after sintering, cooling must be done fast
enough.
6 Contamination with corrosion-causing elements (such as nitrogen and oxides) must
be prevented, unless these contaminants were dissolved and homogenized during the
sintering process.
7 In order to avoid Cr2N formation (may result in intergranular corrosion) while
sintering in nitrogen-containing atmospheres, the rate of cooling must be high
enough. For example, for sintering carried out in dissociated ammonia should be
from 200 C/min to over 450 C/min, depending on the dew point.
8 When sintering in a vacuum, it must be carried out in conditions that do not permit
the depletion of chromium surface through vaporization.
THERMAL AND COLD SPRAYING

During operation, structural components are normally subjected to harsh conditions such
as corrosion and as a result reduce its service life [59]. In order to protect components against
corrosion and wear, surface coating methods using powder metallurgy routes have been
developed. One of the major types of coating, developed in the early 1900’s, is thermal
spraying in which melted (or heated) material (such as powder stainless steel) are sprayed on
the metal surface [60]. With the development of the plasma spray gun in the 60’s, coating of
stainless steel using high temperature became commercially viable. Plasma spraying is also
used to deposit stainless steel coating. Plasma spray process uses DC electric arc to generate
high temperature steam of ionized plasma gas, which serves as the spaying heat source [17].
Normally, coating of stainless steel is carried out in gas stream that is inert in nature as the
temperature of plasma jet is very high (approximately 15000 C), stainless steel can be
sprayed successfully [61].
Further development on the principle of plasma spaying led to other spaying methods
such as flame spaying, warm spaying, cold spaying, wire arc spraying, high velocity and
detonation spraying [62]. These other spaying methods introduced the used of multitude of
spray materials for the most diverse and demanding applications [63].
In cold spraying, powder particles (ranging from 10 to 50 µm) are sprayed by compressed
gas jet at very high velocities (200 to 1000 m/s) and temperatures typically lower than their
melting point [64]. Upon striking the substrate, the powder particles undergo plastic
deformation. This results into displacement of thin metal oxide on the metal surface by the
deformed powder [23, 65] and enable the intimate contact with the exposed surfaces under
high local pressure, resulting in metallurgical bonding and create thick film of layer that built
up rapidly [10, 66]. Figure 19 shows the microstructure of etched 316L stainless steel coating
deposited by cold spray.
Just as other technologies, cold spray has new potential. For example, cold spraying that
incorporate shockwaves by a high pressure gas that generates pulses of frequencies 10-30 Hz
is produced by a fast opening and closing valve. The generated pulse accelerates and heats
stainless steel powders. This new development of cold spraying is effective in processing of
stainless steel powders, titanium, cermets, and so on.
Figure 19. Microstructure of 316L stainless steel coating deposited by cold spraying [67].
MECHANICAL TESTING AND PROPERTIES

Factors That Affect Mechanical Properties of Powder Metallurgy Stainless
Steel
There exist a number of factors that affect the mechanical properties of PM stainless steel
and some of which have been discussed below.
Interstitial content and sintering atmosphere: PM stainless steel, just as other types of
materials that undergo through PM processing, are exposed to a wide variety of interstitial
contents such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen during sintering process [68]. This is a result of
sintering parameters that are employed during the process and include cooling rate, sintering
time, sintering temperature, lubricant, sintering environment, dew point, composition and the
efficiency of removal of lubricants [69].
The availability of wide difference in oxygen content in the starting stainless steel
powders may also affect the qualities of the sintered part. After sintering, if the amount of
residual oxygen is high, the mechanical strength as well as the ductility of the sintered part
will be affected adversely. According to literature, tensile strength of sintered PM parts
increases significantly if the amount of oxides are reduced [70] and it does not affect the yield
strength of the sintered parts [71].
Sintering temperature and time: Sintering temperature affect the mechanical properties of
PM stainless steel parts significantly than that of sintering time [71]. At low temperature
during sintering, the inter-particle bonding, pore rounding rate and the surface oxides
reduction rate of are slow [72]. The consequence of these is that lowering in tensile strength,
ductility and impact strength [73].
Porosity: In conventional processing of low alloy PM stainless steel, porosity plays an
important role in terms of mechanical strength between PM stainless steel components and
wrought stainless steel components. However, effect of porosity in PM stainless steel can be
overshadowed by the effect of interstitials such as oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. Typically,
stainless steels normally have the density in the range of 6.6 g/cm3 - 7.3 g/cm3 [31]. When the
effect of porosity has taken into consideration static mechanical properties, it has a
pronounced impact on its strength and fatigue [6, 16]. The effect is normally worse for the
brittle components as compared to ductile materials.
Thermal history and cold working: Thermal history and cold working are other factors
that affect the mechanical properties of PM stainless steel. The effect of cold work and
thermal history has been discussed in the previous section.
For ease of understanding and discussion, mechanical properties of stainless steel can be
divided into two main categories, which include mechanical properties at room temperature,
and mechanical properties at high temperatures.
Mechanical Properties at Room Temperature (As-Sintered Condition)
PM components are often designed to meet a given structural criteria in many

applications.
Typically, mechanical or sintered structural parts can be produced with properties that are
relatively equivalent to those produced using more traditional routes. Table 1 summarizes the
mechanical properties of powder metallurgy stainless steel.
Fatigue behavior: There exist a number of factors that influence the fatigue behavior of
the PM stainless steel and density of the sintered parts is one of the main factors [66].
Sintered parts with rounded and fine pores have superior dynamic mechanical behavior
compared to ones with angular and coarse pores [21, 74].
According to literature, porosity plays a very important role in the initiation, as well as
propagation, of fatigue cracks [75]. The presences of cracks in the sintered part initiates a
rapid initial strain hardening and plastic zones surrounding the pores get strain harden at
strain levels that are relatively low [76]. This leads to gradual growth of the plastic zones. The
pore-free materials on the other hand, undergo a strain hardening that is more homogeneous.
When a crack develops near a pore, the crack grows rapidly in the plastic zone that has
been induced by the pore [40]. When this crack reaches less strained section, its growth rate
slows down. In this regard, work hardened is an important aspect when determining crack
initiation [74]. For example, since austenitic stainless steel work harden at a higher strain rate
in comparison to ferritic stainless steel, they undergo crack initiation due to fatigue more
rapidly than ferritic stainless steel [77].
Porosity also plays an important role in the reduction of crack growth rate. When the
crack reaches the pore, the stress that is concentrated at the tip of crack is released and new
crack that is blunt, formed on the opposite side of the pore [78]. The growth of the crack may
stop until the concentration of stress on the opposite of the pore is sufficient. Other factors
that may affect fatigue behavior of PM stainless steel are microstructure, nitrides, pore
structure, non-metallic inclusions and carbides.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of PM stainless steel (as-sintered condition) [13]
Ultimate
Sintering Sintered Sintering Yield Elongation Hardness
Base tensile
% C Temp Density Atoms % N2 strength % HRC
alloy strength
(C) (g/cm3) (molecule)
MPa Ksi MPa Ksi
Fe-12Cr 0 1135 C 6.5 DA 0.3 469 68 NA NA 0.5 23
Fe-12Cr 0.15 1135 C 6.5 DA 0.26 552 80 NA NA 0.5 24
Fe-12Cr 0.3 1135 C 6.5 DA 0.34 538 78 NA NA 0.5 27
Fe-12Cr 0 1232 C 6.8 DA 0.16 655 95 579 84 1 30
Fe-12Cr 0.15 1232 C 6.8 DA 0.17 910 132 827 120 0.5 30
Fe-12Cr 0.3 1232 C 6.8 DA 0.16 848 123 848 123 0.5 31
Fe-12Cr 0 1232 C 6.9 H2 < 0.01 221 32 228 33 5 NA
Fe-12Cr 0.15 1232 C 6.9 H2 < 0.01 690 100 552 80 1.5 27
Fe-12Cr 0.3 1232 C 6.9 H2 < 0.01 889 129 827 120 1 26
90 H2/
Fe-12Cr 0 1250 C 6.9 NA 552 80 NA NA 2 88 HRB
10 N2
Fe-12Cr 0 1121 C 6.57 DA < 0.01 550.9 79.9 NA NA 0.5 30
Fe-11Cr-
0 1330 C 7.3 H2 < 0.01 600 87 490 71 8.5 87 HRB
1.2Ni
DA is dissociated ammonia.
Atoms is atmosphere.
Table 2. Mechanical properties of PM ferritic stainless steel [13]
Ultimate tensile Elongation Hardness

Sintered Yield strength Impact Energy
Sintering Sintering strength % HRC
Grade Density
Temp(C) Atoms Joules
(g/cm3 ) MPa Ksi MPa Ksi ft.lbf
(J)
409L 1260 7.17 H2 374.5 54.3 220.0 31.9 21.0 NA 170 126
409L 1304 7.1 H2 358.6 52.0 193.1 28.0 18.0 57 115 85
409L 1304 7.25 H2 379.3 55.0 220.7 32.0 25.0 60 169 125
409L 1316 7.1 H2 358.6 52.0 189.0 27.4 NA NA 88 65
409L 1366 7.26 H2 373.0 54.1 214.0 31.0 17.0 NA 163 120
409L 1321 7.27 H2 366 53.1 212.0 30.7 16.0 NA 146 108
409L 1271 7.25 H2 357 51.8 209.0 30.3 17.0 NA 136 100
409L 1238 7.26 H2 377 54.7 208.0 30.2 9.0 NA 104 77
409L 1316 7.3 H2 372 53.9 211.0 30.6 32.0 57 NA NA
409L
N/A 7.75 N/A 408.3 59.2 234.5 34.0 N/A N/A NA NA
wrought
410L 1288 6.94 Vacuum 343.5 49.8 198.0 28.7 19.8 50 83.1 61.3
410L 1260 7.19 H2 389.7 56.5 319.3 46.3 18.0 N/A NA NA
410L 1304 7.1 H2 344.8 50.0 206.9 30.0 20.0 50 115 85
410L 1304 7.25 H2 358.6 52.0 220.7 32.0 25.0 55 169 125
410L 1316 7.1 H2 379.3 55.0 186.2 27.0 N/A N/A 81 60
410L 1250 6.96 H2 300 43.5 N/A N/A 17.5 39 98 72
430L 1121 7.08 DA 413.1 59.9 230.4 33.4 7.0 64 34.8 25.7
430L 1288 6.89 Vacuum 341.4 49.5 212.4 30.8 18.0 40 84 62
430L 1288 7.17 Vacuum 383.5 55.6 239.3 34.7 24.2 62 146 108
430L 1250 6.93 H2 300 43.5 N/A N/A 14.2 55 65 48
90 H2/
430L 1250 6.88 345.5 50.1 N/A N/A 7.5 62 41 30
10 N2
434L 1316 7.09 H2 DA 428.3 62.1 246.9 35.8 10.3 68 22.1 16.3
434L 1316 7.25 DA 460.7 66.8 257.9 37.4 17.2 73 24.8 18.3
434L 1288 7.06 Vacuum 377.3 54.7 251.1 36.4 18.7 57 102 75
434L 1200 7 H2 358.6 52.0 206.9 30.0 10.0 N/A NA NA
434L 1290 7.2 H2 400 58.0 234.5 34.0 16.0 N/A NA NA
434L 1316 7.2 H2 386.2 56.0 220.7 32.0 NA N/A 108 80
434L 1260 7.11 H2 404.8 58.7 264.8 38.4 22.0 N/A 130 96
434L 1360 7.28 H2 402.0 58.3 246.0 35.6 16.0 N/A 137 101
434L 1316 7.29 H2 405.0 58.7 248.0 36.0 16.0 N/A 146 108
434L 1260 7.29 H2 477.0 69.2 277.0 40.2 7.0 N/A 129 95
434L 1227 7.29 H2 512 74.3 329.0 47.7 3.0 N/A 42 31
434L 1304 7.1 H2 372.4 54.0 220.7 32.0 18.0 60 108 80
434L
N/A 7.75 N/A 379.3 55.0 262.1 38.0 50.0 N/A N/A N/A
wrought
DA is dissociated ammonia.
Atmos is atmosphere.
Mechanical Properties at Elevated Temperature
As compared to wrought stainless steel, sintered PM stainless steel tends to exhibit higher
tensile and yield strength. This is due to the fact that high-temperature sintered PM ferritic
stainless steels have large grain size compared to wrought stainless steel.
At higher temperatures, deformation occurs due to sliding of grain boundaries and

therefore powders with coarse grains tend to perform better at elevated temperatures. Also,
high-temperature-sintered PM stainless steels have clean grain boundaries with respect to
constituents such as carbon, phorophorus, nitrogen, and sculpture [78].
Creep and Stress Rupture Properties
Creep is typically a time-dependent deformation of a material under an applied load,

which is below its yield strength. Creep operates mostly in applications of heat resistant
castings of high alloy. It has the ability to cause excessive deformation as well as fractures.
This however could mainly happen at stresses that are below the ones determined at room
temperature. Stress rupture testing is meant to determine the time to cause failure.
Typically, the design stress is mainly based on the minimum rate of creep as well as the
design life, after giving room for the initial transient creep. This happens when the degree or
rate of deformation is the limiting factor [13]. Table 3 shows the stress and rapture lifetime of
stainless steel at different conditions (material, density, and testing temperatures) [13].
CORROSION TESTING AND PERFORMANCE

There are a number of reasons why sintered parts must be tested for corrosion resistance
including:
1 To check whether the produced material fits the intended use in terms of the required
standards of corrosion resistance [79].
2 To develop or come up with corrosion resistance standards [80].
3 As an assurance to purchaser that material meets the accepted criteria [41, 81].
4 To develop materials of superior quality.
5 To be carried out when monitoring certain aspects of processing.
6 To be carried out as a trouble shooting procedure particularly for corrosion related
failures.
7 To be carried out as a general quality control procedure in the stainless steel
manufacturing companies [20].
Intergranular corrosion refers to the corrosion between grains. It is a form of corrosion in

which crystallites boundaries of the material are more susceptible to corrosion as compared to
their insides. The microstructure of a stainless steel could be in a normalized microstructure
or in sensitized microstructure as shown in Figures 20 (a) and 20(b) as examples of stainless
steel microstructures; non-corroded and the other corroded.
Essentially, corrosion would occur differently with respect to the degree of sintering. The
level of corrosion could however be affected by various factors with respect to different
combinations of time and temperature. Figure 21 shows two different level of sintering as
depicted by the cross-sectional images.
Table 3. Stress and rapture lifetime of stainless steel at different conditions [13]
Test temperature Stress Steady-

Rapture
Material and density State creep
C F MPa Ksi life, h
rate, %/h
3
PM 409LE 7.35 g/cm 649 1200 69.0 10.0 910 0.0014
PM 409LE 7.35 g/cm3 649 1200 86.2 12.5 101 0.028
PM 409LE 7.35 g/cm3 649 1200 86.2 12.5 99 0.10
PM 409LE 7.35 g/cm3 649 1200 103.4 15.0 15.7 0.10
PM 409LE 7.35 g/cm3 649 1200 103.4 15.0 16.0 …
PM 409L 7.30 g/cm3 677 1250 57 8.3 100 …
Wrought 409L 677 1250 30 4.4 100 …
PM 409L 7.15 g/cm3 677 1250 68 9.9 30 …
PM 409L 7.15 g/cm3 677 1250 60 8.7 174 …
PM 409L 7.15 g/cm3 677 1250 55 8.0 900 …
Wrought 409L 704 1300 28 4.1 100 …
Wrought 409L 704 1300 22 3.2 1000 …
Wrought 430L 649 1200 30 4.4 1000 …
a b
Taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergranular_corrosion.
Figure 19. (a) Microstructure of stainless steel that is not that is susceptible to corrosion and (b)
Microstructure of stainless steel that is susceptible to corrosion.
The under-sintered cross-section is characterized by prior-particle boundaries and angular

pores while the well sintered cross-section is characterize by inter-particle bonding, twin
boundaries, twin pores, as well as precipitate-free grain boundaries.
Tests on Corrosion
There exist a number of tests to evaluate corrosion, which a PM stainless steel parts can
be subjected to such as: immersion test, salt spray test, electrochemical test, ferric chloride
and ferroxyl test, and elevated temperature oxidation (corrosion) resistance test.
Figure 21. Sintering and cross-section resistance showing under-sintered and well sintered cross section
respectively [13].
Theses test procedure has been discussed as follows:
Salt Spray Test

Salt spray test in the recent years has been employed as quality control test in PM
stainless steel components as possible substitutes for wrought stainless steel parts [82]. As
PM stainless steel parts are usually subjected to atmospheric conditions during their
application, it is important that they undergo long term salt spray test which is considered to
be a realistic test for environmental conditions over which a PM stainless steel part may be
subjected to during its service life. This test is sensitive to porosity as well as other
metallurgical defects [83]. The test can also be used in the optimization of sintering process.
As compared to natural salt immersion, natural salt spray test is more aggressive and visual
rating can be applied [84]. Figure 22 shows typical salt Spray corrosion test results for a 304
series stainless steel.
Immersion Test
This is the most widely used corrosion test for sintered stainless steel parts as it is simple
to conduct and involves immersion of parts in natural salt solutions and acids [16]. This
corrosion test is sensitive to the various forms of corrosion but it is impossible to obtain
corrosion mechanism data from rust development and/or plain loss of weight [85]. However,
when the test is combined with chemical analysis and/or metallographic analysis, corrosion
mechanism information can be obtained [86]. Figure 23 shows photographic chart for sintered
stainless steel tested at 5 % sodium chloride solution. Typically, the environmental
conditions, which have to be simulated as well as the required degree of acceleration,
determine the laboratory test choice. In an immersion test, achievement of accelerations
reached by lengthening exposure to critical conditions that are suspected to result to corrosion
damage. It is also achieved by intensifying the conditions so as to increase the corrosion rates.
Immersion test in acids usually involve weight loss which is used to calculate corrosion
rate [57] as described below [88]:
where D is the density of the specimen (g/cm3), W is the weight loss in mg (milligrams), A is
the specimen’s surface area (cm2), T is exposure time in hrs (hours)
Figure 22. Salt Spray corrosion test result for 304 stainless steel [84].
Figure 23. Photographic chart for sintered stainless steel tested at 5 % sodium chloride solution [86].
Table 4. Corrosion rate classification
Corrosion resistance rate Classification/Comment

Less than 0.02 mm/yr Outstanding
0.1 to 0.5 mm/yr Good
0.5 to 1 mm/yr Fair
1 to 5 mm/yr Poor
Corrosion rate are usually classified as shown in Table 4. Usually, the recommended time
frame with the use of coupons placed in a corrosion test rack is about 90 days as the minimum
amount of time. Water flow should be continuous at all time for the corrosion rate to be
meaningful.
Electrochemical Corrosion Tests

In an electrochemical corrosion test, an electrochemical cell is set up. The cell consists of
an electrolyte solution, a counter electrode, a reference electrode, as well as the sample of
interest, which is connected to a holder. The electrodes are then connected to a specific
electronic instrument referred to as a potentiostat. The setup constituents are placed into the
electrolyte solution where a voltage is generated between the electrodes. The corrosion
potential is then measured using the potentiostat as an energy difference between both the
working electrode and reference electrode. The electrochemical corrosion tests provide
qualitative data for comparison purposes and more importantly quantitative rate of corrosion.
The test can also give information on the corrosion mechanism [89]. The test can also be
useful in investigating the effect alloying elements on the behavior of stainless steel in terms
of anodic polarization [86].
Even though the criteria for characterization of sintered materials can be applied for
wrought materials, the availability of metallurgical defects including porosity may make
interpretation of the electrochemical data complicated [90]. A lot of care must be taken in
order to minimize effects of cleaning, degreasing, and polishing of the sintered parts.
Ferric Chloride and Ferroxyl Tests

Ferric Chloride Test: In this test, ferric chloride solution is used to test wrought stainless
steel for crevice erosion and pitting. In addition, it is used in sintered stainless steels in order
to identify same types of corrosion [91] as stated.
Ferroxyl Test: The major solution that is used in this type of corrosion test is
hexacyanoferrate (II/III) solution and a variable quantity of sodium chloride (NaCl). This type
of testing can identify the metallurgical defects resulting from iron contamination or improper
conditions of sintering [91].
Elevated Temperature Oxidation Test

Due to the current applications such as automotive exhaust system which subject
components to elevated-temperature oxidation, it is important that sintered stainless steel
parts are also resistant to oxidation. The presence of pores in the sintered parts leads to
complications with regard to oxidation resistance [92]. Indeed, the presence of porosity
causes the kinetics of oxidation to differ from those of solid metals. High porosity leads to
increased oxidation as temperature increases as well.
However, there are attempts to improve oxidation resistance sintered parts and these
attempts are based on the principles of oxidation that were developed for solid metals [93].
A large number of alloys that perform well in high temperatures depends on the presence
of chromium in order to form an oxide scale that offers the much needed protection against
oxidation [2]. Other than chromium, other metallic elements are capable of forming the
protective layer such as nickel. These metals normally obey the parabolic equation for the
time dependence of oxidation [94]. This happens because they rely on chromium in forming a
protective oxide scale through the oxidation process. This means that migratio of electrons or
ions via the oxide layer control the rate at which oxidation is taking place. According to
Wagner theory of oxidation, ‘the concentration of ionic defects, and therefore the rate of
oxidation, can be influenced by doping and by changing the phase structure through alloying’
[13].
Effect of Sintering on Corrosion Resistance
The main reason as to why sintering is normally carried out in stainless steel processing
is promote corrosion resistance [87]. Generally, if sintering is carried out in conducive
environment and desirable corrosion resistance is achieved, the components normally exhibit
superior mechanical properties [66]. It is, however, important to note that the inverse is not
true.
APPLICATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY PRODUCTS

Structural/Automotive Applications
Powder metallurgy products find wide application in the automotive industry. Some of
the major applications are discussed below.
Automotive Exhaust system: One of the major applications of PM products is in
automotive exhaust system. Due to the strict environmental regulations and consumer’s
demand for long lasting components, the PM stainless steel is used in the manufacture of
various components of exhaust systems in the automotive industry as shown in Figure 24
[95]. These components include: sensor bosses, hot exhaust gas outlet fittings and flanges.
According to the requirement these components must perform well in room temperature, at
elevated temperatures, resist environmental corrosion, weldable, resist oxidation and have
good gas-sealing quality [96]. The PM components exhibit such characteristics and therefore,
can be used in the automotive exhaust system.
Also, PM components can results into parts with the following desired properties: good
surface finish, desired flatness and dimensional accuracy. These qualities are very essential in
the manufacture of exhaust system parts with good gas-sealing qualities [97, 98].
Sensor rings in the antilock brake system: Sensor rings in antilock brake system must
have good ductility, mechanical strength, accurate in dimension. In addition, these rings must
have adequate magnetic properties and their resistance to corrosion must be sufficient in order
that they survive the expose to rough road conditions [99, 100].
Figure 24. Exhaust system component fabricated by PM [13].
Figure 25. Sensor rings for antilock brake systems [13].
The PM stainless steel has been developed in order to achieve the mentioned objectives.
It is for this reason that most of antilock brake system sensor rings are made from 434L, 410L
and modified 434L stainless steel grades as shown in Figure 25 [100].
In order to ensure good magnetic response, nitrogen is preferred to be less than 50 ppm.
Good magnetic response entails maximum induction, low remittance, low coercive force and
high permeability [101]. In addition, sintering at high temperature and low interstitial levels
may enhance magnetic response as well as corrosion resistance [102].
Bracket of the Rearview Mirror: The brackets of the rearview mirror are mainly made
from 434L, 410L and 430L by sintering in Hydrogen or DA (i.e., Dissociated Ammonia) at
temperature ranges of 1121- 1149C.
Sintered density for these brackets is approximately 7.1 g/cm3 [91, 103]. As for the
rearview mirror bracket, the requirements for mechanical properties as well as those of
corrosion resistance are not much demanding. Nevertheless, the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the bracket must be almost similar to that of the glass [26] as metal bracket is
normally glued (i.e., attached) to the windshield window. Figure 26 shows the stainless steel
bracket for automotive rearview mirror.
Power Generation
Other than automotive industry, another industry in which PM technology has made
major contribution is power generation. Components of power plants such as turbines are
normally subjected to extreme conditions: corrosion, oxidation, wear and elevated
temperatures. Therefore, the components must not only be able to survive the extreme
conditions, but must also be strong enough to withstand the turning forces. Commonly
employed alloys include PM stainless steel (super and high alloyed), nickel and cobalt based
alloys (these alloys can also be processed by PM).
Electrical and Magnetic Materials
With powder metallurgy, both hard and soft magnetic materials can be produced. The
production of magnetic materials from PM is advantageous in terms of benefits associated
with near net shaping and control of chemistry. The most suited method for the production
large quantity at low cost and near-net shape magnetic components is conventional press-and-
sinter. However, for magnetic application that requires special treatment, the most suitable
method of production is powder injection molding. This is because it can produce
components that are near-full-dense. The PM soft magnetic materials include ferritic stainless
steels, iron, iron-phosphorus, iron-silicon, cobalt-iron, and nickel-iron.
Figure 26. Stainless steel bracket for automotive rearview mirror [13].
The major applications of PM soft magnetic materials include telecommunications

industries, computer, automotive and office equipments and appliance, and so on. In
automotive industry for example, they are used in the production of electromagnetic
couplings in power steering wheel, electric locks control, fuel injection solenoid valves, and
hydraulic control units. This application involves the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy that is, conversion of the electrical signals into motion.
Therefore, the material that is required for this application must be able to respond to low
remanence and must be able to respond quickly and strongly to the applied field. In addition,
the materials must have low coercive field (measure of a material to withstand an external
field, high induction, and high permeability).
Another application that involves electricity and magnetism is the antilock brake sensor
system. In this type of application, motion is converted into electrical signal. Therefore,
moderate coercive field and induction is essential. It is important to note that flux density that
is shifting rapidly changes the amount of voltage that is generated and the higher the
permeability, the higher the amount of voltage that is produced.
Biomedical Applications
Metals have been implemented in living being for more than 100 years when Lane
introduces the first metal plate to replace fractured bone in 1895.
In those early days, implants faced several problems like corrosion and low strength.
With the introduction of stainless steel which has superior corrosion resistance, it created a
very big impact in the biomaterials industries [50].
The types of biomaterials used in implant depend on the specific applications. 316L type
stainless steel is still the most widely used alloy in surgical implants which ranging from
cardiovascular to orthodontic [50, 56]. Figure 27 shows the component for a surgical robot.
Adapted from www. micromanufacturing.com/content/sintering-3d-parts-powdered-metal-rise.
Figure 27. A component for a surgical robot created by high-resolution metal laser sintering of PM
stainless steel.
Others
Other than the above mentioned applications, PM stainless steel are also applied in a
great number of fields such as parts expected to undergo welding, flame arrestors, filters,
distribution and metering of gases and liquids, hearing aids etc. as well as in household
applications where hygienic standards is of a great importance, the use of sintered stainless
steel is inevitable.
TECHNO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF
POWDER METALLURGY PROCESSING
The application of PM in the production of structural parts is based on the comparison of
its cost against the cost of other methods of forming of the same structural part and the
influencing factors superiority and efficiency in which the starting raw materials are utilized,
and the energy consumption rate (generally, the lower the energy consumed the better) [9].
The economic and technical qualification of the PM as a method of processing
components depends on a number of factors:
1 Geometry of the product

Powder metallurgy is suited for forming prismatic products with limited complexity in
one dimension (i.e., through the axial dimension or through thickness dimension), but with
unlimited complexity in shape on the other two dimensions (i.e., the plan view or the radial
view) [9].
2 Weight and size of the product

Comparing billet or steel bars that are fabricated in the conventional processes competing
with PM, powders feedstock are usually expensive materials even though material utilization
may be high in PM. Therefore, PM is suitable in production of parts that are relatively light
and small where the cost associated with materials can be maintained to a small percentage of
the total cost of manufacturing (approximately 20%) [9].
The tonnage capacities of the available PM compaction process are limited to a value that
is not more than 1,000 tones and therefore it is not suitable for parts with large plane view.
Also, the larger the part is in plan view, the larger is the compaction tonnage required and the
tonnage capacity of PM compaction process is limited to no more than around 1,000 tone.
3 Quantity of product required

In order that PM becomes economically viable, the production runs should be large.
However, as manufacturing tooling is expensive and complex, the cost associated with these
activities should be amortized over a large quantity of products. Moreover, the capital cost
associated with the PM equipments are high, therefore, should also be amortized over a large
number of products [9].
In conclusion, the use of PM technology is important in manufacturing various
components. This technology has grown significantly. To improve on various aspects like
efficiency, quality of components, and time/cost minimization, modern techniques have
largely replaced traditional methods. Factors like sintering temperatures and sintering time
have highly improved. Components like stainless steel can today be produced in commercial
quantities at fair costs within minimal time amount. This is made possible through various
efforts to improve the various PM stainless steel processing techniques, properties and
applications.
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Powder metallurgy of stainless steel: State-of-the art, challenges, and

Chapter · January 2015

Direct Metal Laser Sintering of 17-4 stainless steel View project

Selective laser melting of 316L nanocomposites View project

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POWDER METALLURGY OF STAINLESS

Keywords: Power Metallurgy, sintering, powder compaction, microstructure, mechanical

METALLURGY AND ALLOY COMPOSITIONS

resistance, precipitation hardening, machienability, and sensitization reduction among others.

In order to understand the fundamentals of powder metallurgy, it is important that the

Selection Criterion for PM Stainless Steel and Wrought Stainless Steel

Figure 2. The binary Fe-Cr phase diagram [17].

PRODUCTION OF STAINLESS STEEL POWDERS

Figure 3. The conventional production sequence of powder metallurgy [25].

The dependence of engineering requirements and properties in the powder manufacture is

Figure 5. Gas atomized stainless steel powder [13].

Figure 6. Schematic of water atomization scheme [31].

Even though a decrease in pouring-temperature is advantageous, care must be taken to

Drying, Screening, Annealing, and Lubricating the Atomized Powders

Figure 7. Schematic of gas atomization system [39].

CHARACTERISTICS OF STAINLESS STEEL POWDERS

Physical Characteristics of PM Stainless Steel Powders

Figure 8. Particles Morphology [25].

Chemical Characteristics of PM Stainless Steel Powders

POWDER COMPACTION, CONSOLIDATION, AND SHAPING

Powder compaction comprises of three main stages as discussed below:

The effect of compaction pressure is in such a way that, an increase in compaction

Figure 10. Effect of Compaction Pressure on Density [45].

Compaction of Stainless Steel Powders

Rigid Die Compaction

Taken from www.substech.com.

Figure 12. Simple die compaction process.

Powder Injection Moulding

Powder injection molding is suitable for manufacturing large number of components in

Taken from www.substech.com.

Figure 13. Cycle of rigid die compaction.

As sintering is accomplished to near-fill density condition, the particles must be small in

Hot Isostatic Pressing

Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) is a process in which porosity of a component is reduced

Adapted from www.nhml.com.

Figure 14. Schematic of HIP process.

Temperature is regulated to maintain the plastic deformation of the material in it solid

Figure 15. Powder Rolling [25].

SINTERING THEORY AND TECHNOLOGY

1 Particle bonding is done at the contact points

Figure 16. Sintering on a Microscopic Scale [25].

Figure 17. Schematic illustration of two-mechanism Sintering [45].

Sintering may involve single or multi-component system. In single component system,

Sintering Process of Stainless Steel

Sintering process is of a great importance in the processing of a successful PM stainless

Adapted from www.azom.com.

Figure 18. Schematic of microwave sintering furnace.

1 To avoid excessive oxidation during sintering in hydrogen atmosphere, sintering

THERMAL AND COLD SPRAYING

MECHANICAL TESTING AND PROPERTIES

Mechanical Properties at Room Temperature (As-Sintered Condition)

PM components are often designed to meet a given structural criteria in many

Table 1. Mechanical properties of PM stainless steel (as-sintered condition) [13]

Table 2. Mechanical properties of PM ferritic stainless steel [13]

Ultimate tensile Elongation Hardness

Mechanical Properties at Elevated Temperature

At higher temperatures, deformation occurs due to sliding of grain boundaries and