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Edward Carney - English Spelling (Language Workbooks) - Routledge (Taylor & Francis) (1997)
Edward Carney - English Spelling (Language Workbooks) - Routledge (Taylor & Francis) (1997)
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© 1997 Edward Carney
All right reserved, No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
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from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
Carney, Edward.
English Spelling/Edward Carney.
—(Language workbooks)
1. English Language-Orthography and spelling. I. Title.
II. Series
PE1143.C368 1997
428.1–dc21 96–47573
CIP
ISBN 0-203-13848-1 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-31893-5 (OEB Format)
ISBN 0-415-16109-6 (pbk)
The vowel phonemes of English often differ significantly from speaker to speaker. Check whether your accent has all seven
short vowels. The vowel developed out of some centuries ago, but did not reach the conservative north of
England, where pairs such as stud and stood, putt and put both have . The same northern speakers probably have the
long vowel of spook in look, took, etc. rather than . The vowel has lost its lip-rounding in AmE generally, so that
bomb and balm sound the same. For AmE use, simply turn the phonetic symbol the right way up to join .
2.6 In writing English we sometimes use graphic symbols that are not made up of ordinary letters. These include
punctuation marks, such as <!> and <?>. We also use signs in written texts such as <&>, <%>, . These have the
meaning of ‘and’, ‘per cent’, ‘heart’, but do not contain information about how they are pronounced in English. The symbol
<&> was borrowed from Latin manuscripts as a scribbled form of <et>, the Latin word for and . What looks like a letter <x>
in biology actually means ‘crossed with’, indicating a hybrid. You should be able to think of a dozen more such graphic signs
with ease.
Abbreviation
2.7 Pronunciation is partly ignored in ABBREVIATIONS such as <Mr>. If you want to read <Mr> aloud, you have to unpack
it as . Indeed, to understand properly what an abbreviation may refer to, you have to know what the particular
topic is. A simple abbreviation <c.> may refer to calorie, candle, cent, centime, century,
7.2 How may a writer know how to spell the ending in the following sample words? How do you decide between the
spelling <-o> and <-ow>?
avocado banjo beano cargo casino cello
echo gusto hero judo jumbo kilo
mango motto negro photo salvo solo
tango tempo torso trio veto yobbo
arrow barrow bellow borrow burrow elbow
fellow follow furrow hollow marrow meadow
minnow pillow shadow shallow sorrow sparrow
swallow widow willow window winnow yellow
Consonant clusters are simplified and unstressed syllables are often lost. This wearing down of a place-name by frequent
local use is similar to the reduced forms of words found in jargons. In nautical jargon the terms foresail, forecastle, foremast
are , and , with reduced forms for sail, castle and mast .
Strangers will naturally attempt a spelling pronunciation of a reduced place-name, and this outsider’s alternative may come
to be regarded as an ‘educated’ pronunciation. Cirencester and Uttoxeter locals may have a guilty feeling that they ought
really to be saying and . Alternatively, a worn-down name may be respelt and its original
reference lost. Churchdown near Gloucester came to be pronounced , which was reinterpreted as ,a
pronunciation that survives in Chosen Hill.
8.3 Quite different lexical words which have two-way identities as both homographs and homophones are homonyms:
Examples such as these clearly represent different lexemes. However, the full extent of the class of homonyms is bound to
be indeterminate since it depends on what constitutes a difference of meaning.
8.4 Possible homophones are:
bruise, browse, choose, clause, copse, cruise, daze, flex, phlox, phrase, guise, nose, lax, lapse, lynx, please, praise,
prise/prize, quartz, raise, size, tax, tease, treatise, wax
Some spellings show that the /s, z/ is not a suffix: word-final <-x> (lax, lynx) and what is sometimes called ‘lexical <-e>’
(copse, please) . A <-y> before the /s, z/ shows it to be a suffix, since <y> is the alternative spelling to <i> at the end of a
free-standing base form (days, guys).
8.5 Possible homophones are:
band, bald, build, bold, braid, brood, candid, chaste, coward, crude, duct, find, guest, mind, mist, mode, mustard, ode,
paste, pact, side, staid, suede, tact, tide, toad, trust, wade, wield, word
Examples with final before the /-d/ suffix, such as tied—tide, will not be homophones for those Scottish speakers who
have two different variants, with [ae] in tied before the morpheme boundary and medially in tide (J. C. Wells, Accents of
English (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 405). Scottish speakers will generally have a longer vowel
showing the boundary in brewed as distinct from brood [brud].
8.6 Possible homophones are:
border, boulder, dire, fissure, friar, grocer, hangar, hire, lever, meteor, rigo(u)r, savo(u)r, cellar, succo(u)r, tenor
back formation 87
beta <β> 2
bound forms 41, 43–4, 46, 78, 87
boundary, morpheme 25, 36, 49, 55, 85
boundary, word 10, 55–6, 58, 60, 71, 79, 81
British English (BrE) 8, 34–6, 39, 54, 61, 64–6, 68, 72, 75, 78, 81–3, 88, 92, 94
<C>-doubling 3, 17–26, 49, 53–4, 57, 65, 69, 71–2, 74–9, 89–91
capital letters 62, 92
checked vowels 9
Chinese 2, 90
competence errors 54, 57, 59
compounds 38, 61, 92
consistency 43, 45, 56–8, 67–8, 70–1, 77, 91
consonant phonemes:
/d/ 35, 42, 85, 87, 89;
/f/ 68, 88;
/g/ 4, 28–9, 37, 56, 71, 80, 86, 91;
/h/ 8, 10, 19, 35, 37, 53;
/j/ 8, 19, 70;
/k/ 3, 6, 18, 41, 51, 71, 74, 78, 80–1, 86, 88, 91;
/l/ 3, 37;
/m/ 37;
/n/ 37, 42, 87;
/ŋ/ 4, 6, 8, 71, 75;
/r/ 9–10, 14, 35, 37;
/s/ 3, 6, 29, 34–6, 42–3, 65, 71, 75, 81, 85, 87–8, 91;
/s/
varying with /k/ 81, 91;
/∫/ 6, 23, 71, 76, 80–1, 88, 91;
/t/ 35, 42, 79–81, 85, 87, 89;
/v/ 6, 74–5;
/w/ 6, 19, 37, 80, 82;
, /hw/ 7;
/x/ 7;
/z/ 6, 21, 34–6, 46, 51, 71, 75, 85;
7–8;
/t∫/ 7, 18, 23, 71, 74, 80–1, 86, 91;
7, 18–19, 29, 43, 57, 68, 71, 74–5, 80;
/θ/ 6, 70, 79, 88;
/ð/ 7, 21, 70, 75, 79
consonant spellings:
<b> 69, 80;
<c> 3, 29, 54, 65, 71, 76, 78, 81, 91;
<cc> 18–19, 51;
<ch> 2, 23, 29–30, 56, 71, 74, 80–1, 88;
<chl>, <chr> 81;
<ck> 19, 51, 53, 56, 71, 74–5, 78;
<(d)ge> 43, 50, 57, 75, 90–1;
<-e>-marking:
of long vowels 27, 43, 55, 65, 68, 70–1, 75–6, 84, 89;
of particular consonants 43, 57, 75–6, 81, 89
economy 68–9
embarrassing names 50
emphasis 62
empty letters 30, 37, 48–9, 80, 84, 86
exceptions 22–3, 42–4, 54, 64, 75, 77–8, 80, 84, 87
exotic words 18–19, 77, 82, 84;
names 49
jargon 51
Johnson, Dr Samuel 81
jumbling 58–9
justified text 55
Lancashire 10
Latin/Latinate 11, 13, 15, 17–19, 23–27, 34, 41–3, 45–6, 65, 79–81, 87, 90
lexeme 34, 43, 85
lexical <-e> 20–1, 75, 85
lexical errors 59, 89–90
lexical words 22, 27, 34, 54, 61, 69, 76–7, 79, 84
linking /r/ 10
Yule, Valerie 68