Mould Tech 6

NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION
MASTER FILE
FOR
MOULD TECHNOLOGY
SEMESTER 6
SUBJECT CODE: CP01 06 03
Prepared By: Approved by:

Mr. Tonish J Mr. Roshan Peter
Course coordinator- CP01
Tab Content Rev: 0 Released on: January 2018
NTTF_DIPLOMA IN TOOL AND DIE MAKING (CP01) _MOULD TECHNOLOGY_SMESTER VI_REV02 Page 1
Subject Code: CP01 06 03
Subject Title Mould Technology
Hours per semester 20h
Revision N0. 1
GENERAL OBJECTIVES :
21.0 Highlight the importance of mould Polishing.

22.0 Appreciation of the factors effecting mould service life and Mould Maintenance.
23.0 Familiarization in the design of injection moulding of Thermosets.
24.0 Awareness on different Surface treatment methods of Plastic.
25.0 Familiarization of the Die casting Die.
26.0 Familiarization of Flow systems of die casting.
27.0 Knowledge about the various Defects and remedies in die casting.
28.0 Familiarization of Product development.
29.0 Familiarization of Metal injection moulding.
Major Topics Time Allotted

21 Polishing 1h
22 Factors effecting mould service life. 3h
23 Injection moulding of thermoset plastics 2h
24 Surface treatment of plastics 3h
25 Die casting die 2h
26 Flow systems in die casting 3h
27 Defects and remedies of die casting 3h
28 Plastic product design guide lines 1h
29 Metal injection moulding. (MIM) 2h
Total Hours 20h
Break up
No. TOPIC/sub topic
Time
21 Polishing
21,0 Importance of mould polishing 15min
21.1 Importance of mould finishing – Chrome……… 45min
22 Factors effecting mould service life
22.1 Mechanical design – grade…… 1h30min
22.2 Mould maintenance – break…. 1h30min
23 Injection moulding of thermoset plastics
23.1 Injection moulding of thermosets…… 1h
23.2 Mould design – process of injection….. 1h
24 Surface Treatment of plastics
24.1 Screen printing – hot stamping – heat……. 3h
25 Die casting Die
25.1 Basic terminology- elements……. 2h
26 Flow systems of die casting.
26.1 Metal flow systems in die casting…… 3h
27 Defects and remedies of die casting
27.1 Cold type defects….. 1h
27.2 Hot type defects….. 1h
27.3 Miscellaneous defect…… 1h
28 Plastic Product design guide line
28.1 Selection of product market………. 1h
29 Injection moulding of metals
29.1 Introduction of MIM…. 15min
29.2 MIM process…. 1h15min
29.3 Applications of MIM parts….. 30min
SUBJECT CONTENT
21.0 Polishing
21.0 Importance of mould polishing.
21.1 Importance of mould finishing – Chrome plating – advantages of chrome plating –
practical hints – Sequence of lapping and polishing of mould parts.
22.0 Factors effecting mould service life.

22.1 Mechanical design – grade of tool steel – Machining procedure – heat treatment –
grinding – handling.
22.2 Mould maintenance – break down maintenance – Mould history card – Preventive
maintenance based on wear due to moulding.
23.0 Injection moulding of thermosets
23.1 Injection moulding of thermosets – describe the working of injection moulding of
thermosets – Advantages and disadvantages of direct screw transfer moulds.
23.2 Mould design – process of injection moulding of thermosets – mould heating - sprue –
runner – gate – venting – condition of injection moulding of thermosets – counter
pressure – injection pressure – hold on pressure – curing time.
24.0 Surface Treatment of plastics
24.1 Screen printing – hot stamping – heat transfer decoration – two colour moulding –
electroplating of plastics – vacuum metalizing of plastics.
25.0 Die casting Die
25.1 Basic terminology- elements of mould – function – Fixed half – moving half –
impression – cavity – core – ejector grid
26.0 Flow systems of die casting.
26.1 Metal flow systems in die casting die – Machine suitability – the goose neck – the
nozzle – the sprue – runner systems – shock absorber – gate – air vents – over flows.
27.0 Defects and remedies of die casting
27.1 Cold type defects – reasons for the occurrence of two type’s cold defects- remedies for
avoiding.
27.2 Hot type defects – reasons for the occurrence of five type’s hot defects on a die cast
component. – remedies for avoiding.
27.3 Miscellaneous defect – suggesting reasons and remedies for the six types of defects on
the die cast component.
28.0 Plastic Product design guide line
28.1 Selection of product market need – prototype – confirm specification – consolidate

design –manufacturing stage – quality parameters – validate the outcome – launch
product.
29.0 Injection moulding of metals (MIM)
29.1 Introduction of MIM.
29.2 MIM process
29.3 Applications of MIM parts.
21.0 POLISHING
21.0 The importance of mould polishing
Mould polishing is a very important step in producing a mould that works properly and a part
that is functional and visually attractive. Proper finishing of the mould is important for the release of
the part. Polishing insures that the part is not damaged during ejection. For example, scratches from
rough surfaces or dents from ejector pin. It also prevents damage to the mould that could occur if the
mould closed on a part stuck in the mould. The finish of the moulding largely depends on the finish of
the cavity and core. Here are several reasons for plastic mould polishing is listed below:
1. Plastic mold polishing may facilitate easy release of the component. Release is the ability of the mould
to eject the component. To accomplish this, all cutter marks must be removed from the moulding surface
of the cavities and cores. Further, the finish should be vertical, from bottom of the cavity or core to the
parting surface, to aid in the ease of ejection. This is called draw stone. This also will speed up the
moulding cycle.
2. Plastic mold polishing may enhance the appearance of the product.
3. Plastic mold polishing may achieve special optical properties in a product It will enlightens the beams
passing through the product wall (compact disc, mirrors, etc.). Any major unevenness or waviness will
distort the light and result in poor performance of the product.
21.0 The importance of mould polishing

In order save costs and time a mould maker must know the minimum type of finish required in mould
polishing. The best way to do this is to find several sample parts of different finishes and get your customer
to approve the minimum requirement. This sample can then be passed on to the mould polisher so he can
replicate the required finish.
If the polished finish is for functional or cosmetic reasons helps in deciding the type of finish will help
the polisher to decide the types of finish that has to be imparted on core and cavity. A stoned finished is
usually the minimum requirement for functional reasons (for easy ejection off the mould tool core). Mirror
polished mould tool surfaces will more likely give part ejection difficulties especially for deep parts with little
or no draft. This will result in longer cycle times and more part quality issues. So avoid mirror polishes if
possible.
Different types of polishing appearance
There are different types of appearance required after finishing. They are
1. High Gloss / Diamond Finishes

Diamond finishes are provided to produce the finest finish on moulds and components, producing highly
visible or lens quality parts. There are three types of finish
1. A-1
2. A-2
3. A-3
The SPI A-2 is the most widely used diamond finish, providing good release and good visual parts. An SPI
A-3 is a fine choice for release where a high-gloss appearance is not required.
4. Semi-Gloss / Paper Finishes
Next to diamond polishing, paper finishes are the second most refined finishes available. There are three types
of finish
1. B-1
2. B-2
3. B-3
Paper finishes can produce a slightly reflective or glossy shine and very good release. They are often
recommended for products that do not require a decorative or visual impact.
4. Low Gloss / Stone Finishes
The most economical finish, stone finishes are also the first step in the process of creating both the paper and
diamond finishes. There are three types of finish
1. C-1
2. C-2
3. C-3
Stone finishes provide good release but very little gloss to the plastic part. This is a good choice for strictly
functional moulded parts where aesthetics are of no importance.
4. Matte / Blast Finishes
When done properly, blasted finishes can produce some of the most interesting stipples and textures on mould
surfaces. From a fine satin texture with varied degrees of gloss to a flat, no-gloss coarse stipple. Blast finishes
are also an excellent way to camouflage weld repairs and slight imperfections. There are three types of finish
1. D-1
2. D-2
3. D-3
Currently, there are three standards being used to define a finish. They are the “OLD” SPI which
has six finishes, the “NEW” SPI which has 12 finishes and RMS values which is the measurement of
the depth of the scratches.
Final Tool used for achieving
Old SPI New SPI RMS Category Application
the grade
#1 A–1 3 micron Grade #3 Diamond buff Lens / Mirror – requires 420 SS
Diamond
finish &
material
buffing
- A–2 6 micron Grade #6 Diamond buff High Polish parts
#2 A–3 15 micron Grade #15 Diamond buff High Polish parts
B–1 20 micron 600 Grit emery Medium Polish parts
finishing
Paper
B–2 30 micron 400 Grit emery Medium Polish
B–3 40 micron 320 Grit emery Med – Low polish
#3 C – 1 25 micron 600 Draw stone Low Polish parts
finishing
Stone
C – 2 35 micron 400 Draw stone Low Polish parts
#4 C – 3 45 micron 320 draw stone Low Polish parts
D–1 * Dry Blast Glass Bead # 11 Satin finish
Finishes
Matte /
Blast
#5 D–2 * Dry Blast # 240 Aluminum Dull Finish
Oxide
#6 D–3 * Dry Blast #24 Aluminum Oxide Dull finish
Precaution taken while mould polishing
1. Polishing should be carried out in dust- and draught free places. Hard dust particles can easily
contaminate the abrasive and ruin an almost finished surface.
2. Each polishing tool should be used for only one paste grade and kept i n dust-proof containers.
3. The polishing tools gradually become “impregnated” and improve with use .
4. Hands and work piece should be cleaned carefully between each change of paste grade, the
work piece with a grease solvent and the hands with soap.
5. Paste should be applied to the polishing tool in manual polishing, while in machine polishing,
the paste should be applied to the work piece.
6. Polishing pressure should be adjusted to the hardness of the polishing tool and the grade of
the paste. For the finest grain sizes, the pressure should only be the weight of the polishing
tool.
7. Heavy material removal requires hard polishing tools and coarse paste.
8. Finish polishing of plastic moulds should be carried out in the release directional.
9. Polishing should start in the corners, edges and fillets or other difficult parts of the mould.
10. Be careful with sharp corners and edges, so they are not rounded off. Preferably use hard
polishing tools.
Sequence of polishing mould cavity
Following the basics is critical to achieve the best possible finish in the shortest possible time.
By completing each step in the process before going on to the next, a mould polisher will avoid doing
double work and over-polishing. Understanding and following the proper finishing process will save
time, money and avoids removing too much stock. Amount of material removal is only a few
hundredth. Remember, polishing is replacing one set of scratches with finer set of scratches until the
desired finish is reached. It is a laborious and time consuming process which determines the required
final dimensions of mould cavity and core. Therefore the polishing of moulds is to be carried out under
the close supervision of skilled mould makers. To avoid manual strain and to speed up the polishing
process there are polishing machines available with lot of accessories packed in a polishing kit.
The experienced mould polisher will follow the finishing sequence shown below to achieve the
desired finish in the most efficient manner.
a) Bench work
b) Stone Finishing
c) Paper Finishing
d) Diamond Finishing
e) Buffing
1. Bench work
Benching is the process of preparing the work piece for actual polishing. A bench work must
be complete before you begin to polish. Benching can be as little as installing a radius or as involved
as filling, discing, grinding and blending converging surfaces and then smoothing with flap wheels or
coarse emery. Extensive benching is required, when there is deep cutter marks. Stepped surfaces
should be worked first and then the radii should be installed or refined. A polisher will always work
from details to open areas. Start benching with coarse perishables, progressing to finer.
2. Stone Finishing
Stone finishing, also called stoning, refines all surfaces of the work piece. When each phase
of stoning is completed, all surfaces should have the same uniform surface. To get the best possible
finish in the least amount of time, stoning should always be done in the following order, starting with
the deepest area and working out.
1) Stone all corners and detail such as radii

2) Stone all horizontal surfaces
3) Stone all vertical surfaces
All surfaces must be stone finished before changing to a finer grit.
3. Paper Finishing
Then there are “paper finishes” which is essentially a fine abrasive attached to paper which is
used after stoning to get some level of gloss on the mold tool surface. Fine emery paper of different
grades is used for this purpose.
4. Diamond Finishing
Rough diamonding removes the stone marks and begins the shining process. All brushes and
laps used for diamonding should be dedicated to each grade of diamond compound. To begin rough
diamonding, all surfaces should have at a #400 to 600 emery finish. Diamond steps are the same as
stoning. A mould polisher will diamond the deepest detail first and work out to larger surfaces. The
largest possible brush is used. In all diamonding, the key is to use a minimum of pressure and a brush
speed of 2000 to 3000 RPM.
It is done in one to three steps. The number is determined by the final finish required. Start the
fine diamond finishing with #6 grade diamond compound. If required, the second step is done with #3
grade diamond compound. For an optical quality finish, a third step is done using #1 grade diamond.
Every time the grade of diamond compound is changed, it is critical that all surfaces are free from
previous compound.
5. Buffing
Buffing is the final step. It is done both mechanically and by hand. Buffing begins when you
have completed your last diamonding step (any one of three steps). When buffing, a mould polisher
will start with the same grade of diamond as the last brushing steps. Techniques are same as
diamonding working from details to large surfaces using the large buff possible. Light pressure and a
speed of 4000 to 6000 RPM will produce the best results. When mechanical buffing is complete, hand
rubbing with soft felt to a cotton ball will remove any swirl marks left by the buffing process.
Note:- If the mould cavity surface has to be finished with a #3 grade diamond compound, polisher
will start polishing by bench work continued by stone finish and will apply #6 & #3 grade diamond
compound resp. Polisher will skip #1 grade diamond compound and start doing buffing.
Polishing defects
The predominant problem in polishing is so-called “overpolishing”. Overpolishing is the term

used when a polished surface gets worse the longer you polish it. There are basically two phenomena
which appear when a surface is over-polished: “Orange peel” and “Pitting”(pin holes).
1. Orange peel
The appearance of an irregular, rough surface, which is normally referred to as “orange peel”,
may depend on a number of different causes. The most common is overheating or overcarburization
from heat treatment in combination with high pressure and prolonged polishing. A harder material can
better withstand a high polishing pressure, softer steels overpolish more easily.
Either of the following alternatives can be adopted to restore the surface.
1. Remove the defective surface layer by grinding the surface using the next-to-last grinding
step prior to polishing. Start again at the final grinding stage. Use a lower pressure during
polishing than before.
2. Stress-relieve at a temperature about 25° C (45°F) below the last tempering temperature.
Regrind using the final grinding step prior to polishing until a satisfactory surface has been
obtained. Start polishing again, but at a lower polishing pressure than before.
3. Pitting
The very small pits which can occur in a polished surface generally result from slag (non-
metallic) inclusions in the form of hard, brittle oxides which have been torn out from the surface by
the polishing process. The causal factors which are of importance in this connection are:
• Polishing time and pressure.
• Purity of the steel, especially with regard to hard slag inclusions.
• The polishing tool.
• The abrasive.
If pitting still occurs the following measures should be taken:
• Regrind the surface carefully using the next-to-last grinding step prior to polishing. Use a soft
free-cutting stone. Then start with the final grinding step and then polish.
• When using grain sizes 10 μ m and smaller, the softest polishing tools should be avoided.
• Polish for the shortest possible time and under lowest possible pressure.
Chrome Plating
It is another method to for finishing the metal moulds other than polishing. It is mainly used for
finishing cavity of die casting die. The thickness of the plating should be greater than 0.025mm. The
followings are the advantages of chrome plating
1) Low co-efficient of friction.
2) Abrasion resistant and protects mould from wear.
3) Bright finish is duplicated on mould article.
4) Protects from rusting.
Process of Chrome plating
It is a metal coating process where in a thin metallic coat is deposited on the work piece by
means of an ionized electrolytic solution. The work piece (cathode) and the metallizing source
material (anode) are submerged in the solution where a direct electrical current causes the metallic
ions to migrate from the source material to the work piece. The work piece and source metal are
suspended in the ionized electrolytic solution by insulated rods. The usual range of coating thickness
is 1 to 50 microns, though thicknesses up to 1mm.
Fig.: Process of Chrome Plating
22.0 FACTORS EFFECTING MOULD SERVICELIFE
Introduction
Injection moulds play a vital role in production of qualified components. Consistency in the
quality would also depend on the quality of mould. Unreliable mould would need frequent
adjustment, repairs etc. It is therefore necessary that mould should be reliable in its function and
moulding of qualified components.
One of the prime objectives of any moulder is that the moulds in use should function well to the
maximum possible production quantities. A mould properly designed and made may not remain
necessarily proper, unless kept and maintained in a proper manner. Therefore, upkeep and
maintenance of moulds are important practical aspects of a moulding shop.
22.1 Points which affect physical life of a mould
The following points to be seriously considered which will affect the physical mould life.
1. Mechanical design
1. Mechanical design should consider wear of sliding parts.
2. Design should facilitate easy removal of parts which is getting frequent damage.
3. Adequate physical strength for mould parts to withstand the loads encountered and caused
by clamping force, injection pressure, ejection force etc.
4. Grade of tool steel
The selection material for each part should be done according to the function of the same
part. For example the material used for manufacturing core and cavity material should have
thermal stability and pillar and bush should have wear resistance.
5. Machining procedure
Heavy and continuous machining should be avoided while manufacturing the parts
because it will generate a large amount of heat inside, which will reduce the mechanical strength
of the part.
6. Heat treatment
1. Proper hardening methods should be followed for achieving the mentioned hardness
2. After hardening it should be ensure that required hardness is achieved.
1. Handling of mould
1. Improper mould making practice (hammering a part which in not assembled properly,
Improper tightening of fasteners)
2. Lack of lubrication of sliding faces
3. Poor maintenance practice and rough handling of the moulds
1. Moulder not adhering to the suggested start up and shut of mould during production.
2. The use of dirty and contaminated plastics while moulding
3. Usage of dirty and corrosive cooling water for mould cooling purpose
22.2 Mould maintenance
It means that we should keep the moulds and bring them to production in a worthy
condition. We can do a preventive maintenance of the moulds and it would cover examining mould
for small damages. Check whether any problem with clearance and the wedge blocks. If it is there,
increase in the clearance of the moving parts, the adjusting of the locking wedges. The cleaning of
the water channels is a must otherwise it will get rusted inside the hole and finally the flow of
water will not be sufficient. Then check for guide pins. Sometimes, any guide pin or cam pin may
found shaky in its holding hole. In that case, as a maintenance action, either a new pin may be
put or the existing one may be copper plated at the holding surface.
Types of Maintenance (frequency)
There are four levels of maintenance activities and one breakdown maintenance. All these
are explained in detail below. The types are
Routine Maintenance LEVEL I
Inspection Maintenance LEVEL II
General Maintenance LEVEL III
Major Maintenance LVEL IV
Breakdown Maintenance
1. Routine Maintenance – LEVEL I
This is a very simple preventive maintenance. Before the mould is removed from the machine,
it is to be heated (if it is chilled) so that all surface condensation is evaporated. With the
mould still warm, internal mould surface should be cleaned with shop safety solvent to remove
any residual dirt and stain. The ejector system moved fully forward then sprayed with approved
rust preventive before the ejector system is retracted and closed. Lenses and highly polished
surfaces should be protected by following specific instructions. All water lines should be drained
and blown free of all residual water to avoid buildup of rust due to standing water. Check and
assure all bolts , plates, clamps, etc. are in place and tight. Bag the last shot as an example of the
typical quality of this run. Any components missing or cavity blocked off should be noted and
attended to. Store these parts with the mould.
2. Inspection Maintenance – LEVEL II
It is done for every 20,000 cycles and also at the end of production run. Using the check
list and visual inspection technique, the mould is looked over. Any minor repairs that are necessary
are noted. If not, needed repairs or future required touch up notations are kept with the
mould history log for future evaluation. Any components missing or cavity blocked off should be
noted and attended to. A sample from blocked cavity should be retained for the mould maker to
make repairs. The mould should be washed with safety solvent to remove the varnish and
build up from the moulding process. Notations for work to be done during the general maintenance
procedure should be noted on the form for future work. Bent, worn or broken ejector elements
should be noted. The mould should be removed from the production and elements replaced
3. General Maintenance – LEVEL III
This is after 1,00,000 cycles of moulding. Only competently trained tool room technicians
should perform this maintenance. All plates are separated and their faces cleaned. Highly polished
surface should not be cleaned with brushes and rags. Clean with facial tissues or cotton balls. All
components are checked for wear. Any excessive wear is noted and a determination is made to
repair, replace or continue to use. All rough areas outside the cavity detail area are to be worked
out. All moving parts are to be lubricated if required. Vents should be checked for depth, width and
land as compared to the tool drawing specifications. “O” rings, seals and gaskets should be
checked for integrity. All water lines are to be pressure tested for any leaks and re-certified for flow
capacity. Water lines that have built up scales are restricted should be pressure cleaned with
descaling agent. The ejector system is to be examined for proper alignment. Any damaged hole or
pin should be reworked replacing broken return pins, re-plating or re-texturing to be done as a result
of the material eroding the mould surface. Replace all springs after 50,000 cycles. Nature of work
done should be recorded in the general maintenance file.
4. Major Maintenance – LEVEL IV
This is after 250,000 cycles. This maintenance should be performed by skilled tool makers.
Before maintenance starts, there should be four complete shots delivered with the tool for study.
Two shots should be from initial mould qualification. This gives a visual record of what was
acceptable when the mould was new and fully functional.
The second two shots should be the most recent parts produced before the tool was pulled for
maintenance. Comparison of the both shots will find an excellent indication of wear and abuse the
tool was suffered. All components determined and authorized to be replaced should be removed
and new components constructed and installed in accordance to the original design if previously
certified parts are not there. Worn leader pins, bushings and all bearing moving surfaces should be
checked for wear and replaced or repaired. Plates and mould cavity surfaces should be checked for
parallelism and ground flat required. Mould cavity surfaces should be cleaned and polished as
required to the original surface requirements. All moving components should be checked for easy
movements, adjustment to be made as required. Springs are to be replaced with new springs to
avoid fatigue.
5. Break down Maintenance:
It is done unexpectedly when an accident occurs to the mould is in production. The problem
may be, water leak, core/cavity damage, cooling line blocked, ejector system failure and heater
failure in case of hot runner mould, etc. We have to study the problems along with production
engineers and to bag a last shot from the production. The maintenance of the mould is done with
reference to the decision taken in the outcome of the meeting.
6. Preventive Maintenance
The preventive maintenance of the mould mainly depends on the role of designer and the mould
maker. If they do their job very well, then this maintenance will be very easy.
Specification sheet
Specification may vary from mould to mould. It gives complete information about the mould,
which can be stored in a computer. Each sheet may be stored in a computer, allotting a suitable file
number. This also helps to the persons, who are not familiar with the moulds and might have an
occasion to handle maintenance and upkeep of moulds.
Mould history card
This pinpoints the defects, which are occasional / which are repetitive / which are chronic
in nature. This helps to take appropriate steps to find the solutions to the defects and take
corrective measures. It also reveals the management a lot of information about the
p e r f o r m a n c e and capabilities of the shop floor personnel.
The role of designer in mould life
The designer must study the part drawing first. He must identify the area of concerns and to be
discussed with customer to avoid on doing mould and moulding problems.
He must discuss to customer about the part design which include sharp corners,
inadequate draft, and limited areas of ejection etc. which call fragile steel sections in the mould. He
should discuss with them to determine and modifications can be made in the part design. Mould
designer should incorporate into the mould design provision for mould maintenance. Critical area
should be inserted for ease of repairs. Materials should be used which are resistant to galling
when slides are required and wear strips and locks should be accessible and adjustable. Steel
should be selected for strength and hardness properties that will ensure reliable performance. Mould
bases for high production moulds should be fabricated from steel that will not collapse and more
under stresses induced by the moulding operation.
The role of the mould maker in mould life
Mould maker must follow the mould design, any changes in connection, should be with
concurrence of the mould designer. If a mistake in design has been noticed, the mould maker
should inform the designer so that the correction can be made & recorded. Identifying steel for parts
is important. After hard machining he should send the steel for stress relieve or send when
appropriate. Heat treatment of steel should be documented to ensure that proper hardness have
been achieved.
Maintenance system
An effective maintenance system will reduce the risk of needless downtime and poor quality
parts in both short and long run moulding condition. Maintenance report is important that
individual records are kept for each mould and injection moulding work. These records will document
their history and should contain the following
1. Machine/mould specifications including accessories.
2. Record all modifications
3. Maintenance logs
4. Downtime logs
5. Manufacture services call reports
6. All alterations made to the machine since installation.
23.0 INJECTION MOULDING MACHINE FOR THERMOSET
MATERIALS
23.1 Introduction
In the mid-1960s, about two years after the introduction of automatic transfer molding machines
and screw-preplasticizing/transfer molding machines, the concept of in-line screw injection molding
of thermosets (sometimes referred to as direct screw transfer or DST) was developed. It had long
been thought that this process, already highly successful with thermoplastic materials, would be
impractical for thermosetting plastics because the critical time-temperature relationship would prove
uncontrollable, and material would solidify in the barrel itself.
Thermoset materials begin in a liquid state and become solid when heated. This process is
known as curing. The curing (or hardening) process permanently changes the material through
chemical reactions that create “cross-links” (permanent connections between molecular chains).
Thermoset materials were only compression moulded or transfer moulded in the early days. But
lately the machine manufacturer modified the injection moulding machine of thermoplastic materials
to injection moulding of thermoset plastics. The machine numbers were limited while comparing with
injection moulding machines.
Advantages of thermoset injection moulding machine
Advantages of thermoset injection moulding machine comparing to conventional thermoset

moulding are
7. Considerable cycle time saving
8. Increase productivity
9. Compound more homogeneously fused by the screw action
10. Compound transferred to the mould at high temperature
11. More uniform curing
12. Void free compression
13. Can be moulded larger variations in part thickness
14. Complex articles having very thin walls sections can be moulded
15. Greater dimensional accuracy and stability
16. Very thin flash appears which can be trimmed easily
17. Compound need not weigh or palleting
Disadvantages of thermoset injection moulding machine are
1. High capital investment
2. Higher maintenance
3. Greater complexity of operation
Direct Screw Transfer Machine (DST)
The most popular type of machine used for injection moulding thermoset is the in-line screw
injection molding machine. This is also known as the direct screw transfer (DST) and is basically
similar to that used for thermoplastic moulding. It is similar to injection moulding machine used for
thermoplastic materials. The moulding cycle time for the conventional moulding (transfer &
compression) of thermosets, are fairly long. The thermosetting material, fed to the machine, is pre-
heated below curing temperature as the screw rotates with in the heated barrel. It is then injected
through the nozzle at the front of the barrel directly into the heated mould and curing takes place in
the heated mould.
An injection moulding press consists of two major sections: the clamp and the injection unit.
The clamping section, which is similar to a compression press, uses either a hydraulic cylinder
(hydraulic clamp) or a hydraulic cylinder and linkage mechanism (toggle clamp) to close the mould
halves and hold them together under pressure. This section of the press also contains the main
ejection system for part removal from the mould.
The injection unit includes the injection barrel, reciprocating screw or sometimes a plunger, the
injection screw motor, the material hopper for granular materials and heater for heating thermoset
. The rotational motion advances the material down the screw to where it is plasticized
(changed from a solid to a semi-viscous state) and then injected into the mould. At the same time that
the screw rotation is advancing the material, the screw is being forced backward. This “backing up”
of the screw allows the plasticized material to move in front of the screw so it can then be injected
into the mould. Once the pre-determined amount of material is plasticized in front of the screw, the
screw is pushed forward, forcing the material out of the barrel and into the mould.
Today thermoset injection molding machines are available in all clamp tonnages up to 1200 tons
and shot sizes up to 20lb. (See Fig below shows a 300-ton DST machine).
DST machine parameters.
There some parameters which have to be controlled properly for injecting the material from
machine to the mold and to get a defect free components. The main parameters are
4. Back or counter pressure
5. Injection pressure
6. Dwell or hold on pressure.
7. Stock temperature
1. Back Pressure:
The back pressure is the hydraulic pressure applied to the screw during plasticizing to
prevent the screw from moving through the plastic or semi plastic moulding material. This ensure that
the forward zone of barrel is fully packed with pre plasticized material and correct quantity of material
deliver for next shot. While screw rotates, any volatiles forces back to the feed section and can be
escaped. If high back pressure exerts, high load on screw drive may cause excessive wear of the
screw and barrel liner.
2. Injection Pressure:
The injection pressure effects on mould dimensions, mould material, plasticity and injection
machine. It is to be controlled to give mould filling rate of about 40 to 85gm per second. If the pressure
is excess, it will cause burn marks, mould wear and nozzle wear. It also may result in air trapping
and porous moulding due to injected material curing before the mould cavity is completely filled.
3. Dwell or Hold on Pressure
It is the reduced pressure approx. one sixth of injection pressure and it is applied after the
selected shot volume has been injected until sprue is cured. It will prevent porosity and blisters. The
exact duration of application vary with
• Type of machine
• Size of moulding
• Nozzle and sprue diameter
• Type of moulding material
4. Stock temperature
The melt temperature of the moulding material (stock temperature) is controlled by the barrel
temperatures, screw speed, injection speed and back pressure. The greatest influence comes from
back pressure and barrel temperatures. The water jackets around the barrel regulate the point at which
the material will start to plasticize. The screw speed, injection speed and back pressure create frictional
heat. To maintain a consistent and workable stock temperature, all of these variables must be adjusted
properly. The stock temperature cannot be too hot that the material cures before it is able to fill the
parts. Likewise it should not be so cold that it cannot be injected into the mould or require additional
cycle time to cure the moulded parts.
Difference between thermoset & thermo plastic injection machine
Thermo plastic injection machine Thermoset plastic injection machine
Mould mounted on machine is cooled during Mould mounted on machine is heated during
mould cycle mould cycle
Plasticizing screw is tapered Plasticizing screw is straight
Two hopers are mounted at the end of machine One hoper is mounted at the end of machine
screw for loading resin and colorant screw for loading resin.
Machine installation cost is low Machine installation cost is high
Thermo plastic material is processed used for

Thermoset plastic material is used for moulding
moulding
Barrel temperature is more than mould Barrel temperature is less than mould
temperature temperature
Thermo plastic is heated above the melting Thermoset plastic is heated below the curing
temperature in the machine barrel temperature in the machine barrel
23.2 Mould design for a DST machine
Mould design for thermosetting materials generally follows the similar principles used for
thermoplastic materials. But mould must be heated to 150o to 300o Celsius, instead of being cooled.
Thermosetting materials are more abrasives than unfilled thermoplastics. Therefore to reduce wear
rate, hardened replaceable gates should be used and runners should be chromium plated.
1. Mould heating
To obtain short cure time, the material temperature should be as high as possible (near to cure
temperature) when it emerges from nozzle. It is usually in the range of 100-150oC, approximately
30oC higher than barrel temperature. Material is heated up to curing temperature inside the mould.
Small moulds up to 50mm thickness are heated by conduction heat from hot plates. Larger
moulds are heated directly by electric cartridge heaters, steam or hot oil to typical temperature ranges
of 150°C - 300°C. Care should be taken to ensure even heating of all mould cavities. Stripper plates
should be avoided in the design because they make even heating of the mould and mould locking
may occur.
2. Sprue and runner
Sprue and runners should be as short as possible to avoid material wastage since thermoset
plastic materials can’t be recycled. Sprue pullers of the Z or cone type are normally used. But Z type
should be locked to prevent rotation. To minimize the wear, the sprue bush and runners must be
hardened and chromium plated. Runners should preferably be fully round and about 6 mm in
diameter. Diameter of runner cross section increases by 30% over increase in each 100mm length.
3. Gates and venting
Gating generally follow thermoplastic practice. Cross sectional areas can be calculated roughly
from the recommended formula for injection moulding of thermoplastics. Gate is (sq.mm) = 23/100 of
the mass of moulding in grams. The gates should be large enough to allow filling of the mould at
about 40 to 85 gram / second. Adequate venting is essential to obtain moulding free from blisters and
porosity. Vents (0.0012 to 0.05mm) with relieved ejector pins and inserts should be used to achieve
maximum venting and to case mould filling.
4. Ejection of moulding
Cavities and flash lands should be chrome plated to reduce the tendency of moulding to stick
in the cavities while ejection. Liberal draft angle on moulds and an adequate number of evenly spaced
ejector pins are essential to reduce distortion of component on ejection. Ejector pins should have
surface hardness of about 60 HRC and should be of as large as possible to have a maximum contact
area between ejector top surface and moulding.
24.0 DECORATION OF PLASTICS
Introduction
Appearance plays a vital role in the product success and plastics provide a wide scope of
decoration through various decorative techniques. Unlike metals where color is only at the surface in
plastics color is distributed on the surface and in depth (partial/throughout) the material. This section
deals with the decorative techniques of plastic parts.
Surface treatment of plastic component prior to decoration
Some plastic, notably poly olefins and acetyls, are high resistant to bonding other media
(inks, paints etc.) to themselves. To overcome this deficiency treatments like flame treatment,
electronic treatment (corona discharge, plasma discharge) and chemical treatments are commonly
done prior to decoration of plastic surfaces. Flame treatment consists of passing the object through
an oxidizing gas flame. The flame causes an oxidation on the plastic surface and enables the
adhesion of inks, enamels etc. In corona discharge process high voltage current is used for the
oxidation of the surface. In plasma process air at low pressure through an electric discharge is used
to change the physical, chemical properties of plastics. In chemical treatment products are dipped in
acids resulting in an etched surface which makes it receptive to paint.
24.1 Types of plastics decoration
Techniques of lettering/multi colors on plastic parts are broadly categorized as processes during
molding and post molding processes.
Coloring techniques during molding process are performed during the molding of a component.
This type of decoration last long since the color is added to a certain depth from the top surface.
Different type decoration processes during molding are
1. Dye injection molding
2. Two colour injection molding
3. In-mold decoration
Post molding processes of colouring are those which are performed after the component is
ejected out of the mould. Compared to decoration processes done during molding, in this process
color is added only at top surface. So decoration done will not last more. Different type post molding
processes decoration is
1. Screen process printing
2. Hot stamping
3. Heat transfer decoration
4. Electroplating
5. Vacuum metalizing
1. Dye injection molding
In dye injection molding, the dye is injected at nozzle during the formation of parison/ injection
of material to the mould. Dye is a colour agent which is added to plastic to change the colour
pattern. Dye will be injected at the predefined points, which makes the melt flow in a different
coloured pattern.
2. Two colour injection molding
Two-color moulding is an injection process where two colors are successively moulded to create
their portion of the finished parts. The shell is moulded first and then it is transferred to another cavity
where the second colour is injected to complete the product.
3. In mould decoration
In-mould decoration, a special type of plastic moulding, is used for decorating plastic surfaces
with color and/or with an abrasion resistant coat. A carrier foil is placed inside the opened mould. It
carries the dried paint layers which are to be transferred to the plastic part, with the paint facing the
gate. After filling with plastic the paint adheres to the plastic, and is removed from the carrier when
opening the mould. For the next cycle the carrier foil is moved, positioning the next carrier foil in the
same position. The mould must be constructed so that the back side of the carrier foil rests against a
flat wall. To place the carrier quickly in the mould, the carrier foil is wound on a coil. The full supply
roll is above the mould, and the take-up roll beneath.
4. Screen process printing:
The process of printing through a screen consists of forcing ink or paint through the interstices of
stenciled screen of the required image with a squeeze. The screen material is often nylon mesh
or other synthetic material. Metallic screens such as stainless steels are also in common use.
5. Hot stamping:
Hot stamping by the roll leaf process is a method of decorating plastic materials. The leaf or foil
consists of a thermoplastic colour coat applied to an acetate or cellophane carrier film. When a heated
die is pressed against the foil carrier film, the colour coat is released and adheres to the product
placed beneath it.
6. Heat transfer decoration
It consists of a paper carrier, a fusible release coat and a thermo plastic ink image. The ink
becomes sticky when heated by a hot platen. It is pressed against the product surface for bonding
the ink to the component surface. Some of the fusible release coat carries over with the ink, providing
the image with a glossy protective coating.
7. Electro plating
Plating is done on many plastics to increase wear and corrosion - resistant surface. Physical
properties such as tensile strength, heat deflection temperature etc. will be enhanced in plated
plastics. The surface to be plated is to be properly conditioned and sensitized. The proper choice of
resin for products to be plated is also very important. Many parts like knobs, light reflectors, name
plates etc. are made out of plastics and plated to give metallic appearance with light weight and
corrosion resistance. Plating is done on many plastics including Phenolic, urea, acetyl, ABS,
polycarbonate etc. As far as the types of metals plated, copper plating on plastic is a common
industrial practice, especially for applications where electrical conductivity is required. Other metals
that are amenable to plating onto plastic include chromium, gold, silver and nickel. In some instances,
multiple layers of various metals may be applied. The figure below is the component example, which
is electro plated.
8. Vacuum metalizing
It is process whereby a bright thin film of metal is deposited on the surface of a plastic moulded
product or film while being subjected to a high vacuum. The deposited metal may be gold, silver or
most generally aluminum. Deposition is the result of vaporization of small clips of the metal to be
deposited attached to an electrically heated filament. When electrical energy is applied to the filament,
the clips melt and coat the filament. Increased energy caused vaporization of this coating, and plating
of the product takes place. The deposition is compiled at high vacuum, in order of 0.5 micron. The
thickness of the resulting coating is about 1 micron.
25.0 DIE CASTING DIE
25.1 Introduction
Die casting is a technique for mass-producing metal products and components. The total
construction of the assembly made for casting the component is referred as “Die or mould’. Mold design
is one of the most important steps in the process because the shape and attributes of the mold will
directly affect the final product. The die casting procedure forces molten metal into molds using high
pressure and it requires a mold with exact specifications to achieve the task. The primary function of a
mould is to shape the finished product. In other words, it is imparting the desired shape to the
plasticized polymer and cooling it to get the moulded part. The mould is loaded on to a machine where
the metal can be injected, cooled and ejected.
The dies into which the molten metal is injected are the custom tooling used in this process. The
dies are typically composed of two halves –
1. Cover die or fixed half, which is mounted onto a stationary platen, and
2. Ejector die or moving half, which is mounted onto a movable platen.
This design allows the die to open and close along its parting line. Once closed, the two die
halves form an internal part cavity which is filled with the molten metal to form the casting. This
component shape is formed by two inserts, the cavity insert and the core insert, which are inserted into
the cover die and ejector die, respectively. The cover die allows the molten metal to flow from the
injection system, through an opening, and into the part cavity. The ejector die includes a support plate
and the ejector box, which is mounted onto the platen and inside contains the ejection system. When
the clamping unit separates the die halves, the clamping bar pushes the ejector plate forward inside the
ejector box which pushes the ejector pins into the molded part, ejecting it from the core insert. Multiple-
cavity dies are sometimes used, in which the two die halves form several identical part cavities
Elements of die casting die
When comparing to an injection mould of thermo plastics, there is no much variation in the
construction. Major change is the material used for manufacturing the elements because of the metal
melt temperature is very high compared to plastics. Also the wear rate is more for the melt flow. Below
figure shows the sectional assembly view of a hot chamber die casting die.
Die construction is common to hot and cold chamber casting. Besides determining the shape
of the finished part, the dies act as a heat sink to cool the casting, provide a vent for trapped air and
gases, and contain the mechanism to eject the finished part. These dies are usually made of hot-work
tool steel, mould steel, maraging steels, and to a lesser extent, tungsten or molybdenum alloys. They
are usually machined from solid wrought blocks, but may also be machined castings. The dies are
initially expensive to produce, but their cost can be amortized over thousands and even hundreds of
thousands parts. Major parts of a die casting die is discussed below.
1. Cavity housing
The cavity housing houses the cavity insert which is clamped within the housing by means of the
allen screws and this is clamped to the fixed platen of the die casting machine. Materials used for
manufacturing cavity housing are mild steel and cast iron
2. Core housing
The core housing houses the core insert which is clamped within the housing by means of the
Allen screws. Materials used for manufacturing core housing are mild steel and cast iron.
3. Spacer blocks
These are the support blocks mounted on to the back plate of the die to support the core hosing
assembly. It also creates a space for ejector assembly to move front back for the ejection of
component. A material used for manufacturing spacer block is mild steel.
4. Ejector retainer plate
It retains all types of ejectors (ejector pins, ejector sleeve) and return pins, after the ejection of
component. A material used for manufacturing ejector retainer plate is mild steel.
5. Ejector back plate
Ejector back plate supports the ejector retainer plate for the purpose of retaining the ejectors and
other elements housed within the ejector retainer plate. It is used for serving the purpose of
transmitting the ejector force from the ejecting system of the die casting machine. Material used for
manufacturing ejector back plate is mild steel.
6. Back plate (bottom plate)
Holds the moveable portion of the die assembly and is clamped to the moving platen of the die
casting machine. Material used for manufacturing back plate is mild steel.
7. Guide pillar and guide bush
To form a wall thickness of the casting, it is necessary to ensure that the core and cavity inserts
are kept in alignment during opening and closing of the die casting for every shot. This is done by
providing guide pillar and guide bush. A guide bush is incorporated in the die to provide suitable wear,
resisting the working surface for the guide pillar and to permit replacement in event of wear or
damage. Material used for manufacturing pillar and bush is high quality steel and case hardened.
8. Ejector guide pillar and ejector guide bush
After the solidification of the alloy, die opens and the casting is ejected out by means of ejectors.
The ejector assembly needs guiding to move forward such that the casting is ejected out in line. Thus
the guiding of the ejector assembly is done with ejector guide pillar and ejector guide bush. The guide
bush is located in the ejector assembly and the ejector guide pillar is press fitted into the core housing
from bottom.
9. Push back pin
During the closing of the die the ejector assembly must be retracted to its position for this the pus
back pins are incorporated in the die to push back the ejector assembly to its rear position as the die
starts closing. Material:- OHNS – Oil hardness non shrinkable steel, hardened to 58/60 HRc.
10. Ejectors
The die opens after the solidification of the molten alloy, the solidified casting need to be ejected
out from the core die, and the ejection of the casting is done with the ejectors. Material:- HDS,
hardened to 48 Hrc.
11. Sprue bush and spreader
During casting process the hot molten alloy from the furnace is transferred to the shot cylinder of
the machine. This shot is advanced further to the sprue bush by a plunger. The sprue bush provides
the smooth transition of the molten alloy further through a spreader to feed system and die inserts
and finally fills the cavity. Thus the function of the nozzle is to connect machine piston to the feed
system and the function of the spreader is to spreads the molten from nozzle to the feed system and
fill the impressions. Sprue bush and spreader is mainly used in the mould loaded in hot chamber
process.
Material:- HDS and hardened to 48 Hrc.
12. Cavity
It is the space within the die casting die, which makes the outer shape of the part to be cast.
The molten metal flows into this space and is held until it has solidified. A separate cavity block is
mounted into the cavity housing to form an external feature of the casting which is known as cavity
insert. Sometimes the entire cavity will be in built on the cavity housing. Material used for
manufacturing cavity is HDS and hardened to 48 Hrc.
13. Core
It is the space within the die casting die, which makes the inner shape of the part to be cast.
The molten metal flows into this space and is held until it has solidified. A separate core block is
mounted into the core housing to form an internal feature of the casting which is known as core insert.
Sometimes the entire cavity core will be in built on the core housing. Material used for manufacturing
core is HDS and hardened to 48 Hrc.
Material and hardness for die used for casting various metals
The main failure mode for die casting dies is wear or erosion. Other failure modes are heat
checking and thermal fatigue. Heat checking is when surface cracks occur on the die due to a large
temperature change on every cycle. Thermal fatigue is when surface cracks occur on the die due to
a large number of cycles. The chart shown below gives the information of materials used for
manufacturing different parts of die used for moulding different types of materials.
Cast metal
Tin, lead & zinc Aluminium & Copper & brass

Die
magnesium
component
Material Hardness Material Hardness Material Hardness
P20 290–330 H13 42–48 HRC DIN 1.2367 38–44

Cavity inserts H11 HB
46–50 H11 42–48 HRC H20, H21, H22 HRC
44–48
H13 HRC
46–50 HRC
HRC
46–52 40–46
H13 H13 44–48 HRC DIN 1.2367
HRC HRC
Cores
DIN 1.2367 42–48 HRC
48–52 DIN 1.2367 DIN 1.2367 37–40

Core pins H13 37–40 HRC
HRC prehard prehard HRC
Sprue H13 46–48 HRC

parts 48–52 42–46
H13 DIN 1.2367 44–46 HRC DIN 1.2367
HRC HRC
40–44
DIN 1.2367 HRC
Nozzle 40–44
420 H13 42–48 HRC H13 42–48
HRC
HRC
46–50 46–50
Ejector pins H13 H13 46–50 HRC H13
HRC HRC
42–46
Plunger shot H13 42–48 HRC DIN 1.2367 HRC
sleeve 46–50
H13 DIN 1.2367 42–48 HRC H13 42–46
HRC
HRC
4140 4140
Holder block ~300 HB 4140 prehard ~300 HB
prehard ~300 HB prehard
26.0 Flow system of die casting
26.1 Metal flow system in die casting die
The design of a flow system to inject molten alloy in to a die cavity greatly influences the success
of a die. The failure of many dies can be traced to faulty design of the flow system. By applying the
basic principles of hydraulics a proper molten metal flow system can be developed. The following
explains the recent trend in the die - casting die design, which lays much emphasis on the molten
alloy flow system. The system aims at an efficient controlled delivery of molten alloy through the flow
system to the die casting with minimum mixing of molten alloy and air. Main parts of flow system are:-
1. Nozzle
2. Sprue runner
3. Main runner
4. Tapered tangential runners
5. Shock absorbers
6. Gate
7. Air vent
8. Over flow
1. Nozzle
The nozzle is basically a heated pipe connecting gooseneck to the sprue bush. The bore of
the nozzle should be only slightly smaller than the bore of the gooseneck so that the velocity of the
molten metal through the nozzle is kept down to the recommended value. Low goose neck and nozzle
velocity ensures that the pressure losses are low when the molten alloy reaches the sprue. If
calculation indicate the need for a smaller nozzle exit diameter, the step down should be at the exit
and the change in diameter should be smooth to minimize pressure losses. The metal velocity through
the nozzle should not exceed 30m/s. Higher velocities are acceptable if the distance from nozzle to
gate is short and the gate velocity is same or only slightly higher the nozzle velocity.
Velocity can be decreased by
1. Use of a large diameter nozzle (provided it does not exceed the gooseneck bore)
2. Use of a small diameter injection sleeve and plunger
3. Sprue runner
Conventional sprue designs do not satisfy the converging flow system. There are massive
variations in cross sectional area of flow paths at various points of the sprue. This causes
pressure losses and the flow velocity of molten metal is not uniform. .Runner type sprues have
been developed to achieve a smooth flow path with uniform cross section, minimum change
of direction and smooth transition from nozzle to sprue and sprue to runner. The shape of flow
path is good, metal flow characteristics are excellent and the transitional curve into the runner is a
relatively large radius. The sprue has two basic functions:
1. To provide a smooth flow path between nozzle and runners
2. To provide a means of rapidly solidifying molten metal alloy at the entrance of the die after the
cavity has filled and the flow has stopped (This requires a large temperature difference between
sprue and nozzle).
3. Main runner
The main runners join the sprue to the final tapered tangential runners feeding the gate. They
should be as short as possible and must have a constant cross sectional area.
4. Tapered tangential runners
Tapered tangential runners provide the final flow path from main runners to gate. They provide an
efficient flow path based on simple geometry and permit the use of very thin gates (from 0.15 -
0.3mm). The velocity of molten metal in a 10 mm long parallel section 2 x 2 mm running into the
simple disc shaped shock absorbers.
5. Design of runner system
Circular sections give best flow efficiency and minimize thermal losses, but are the least practical
cross section from the tool - maker's view point. For tapered tangential runners modified square or
trapezoidal shapes are used. Area calculations are based on square sections and are converted
into trapezoidal shapes. Pairs of tapered tangential runners can be used to feed a long gate into a
single cavity.
A further development of the above system is to make the bend approximate to an elliptical curve.
Theoretically the static pressure of the molten metal in the bend area is high and chances for
cavitation are reduced. The delta region becomes short compared to its width. The flow across it is
improved. The delta region is initially cut to gate depth. After trials if the flow path is found unfavorable
(pre mature freezing may occur), the delta geometry is changed to encourage flow.
General rules for runner design are mentioned below
1. Ratio of width to depth is 2 : 1 to 3 : 1
2. Ratio of gating thickness to runner thickness is 1 : 6 to 1 : 10
3. Ratio of gating area to runner area is 1 : 3 to 1 : 4
4. Side walls should be machined at an angle of 2 deg. To 5 deg
5. Runner should be designed short & straight into the cavity wherever possible
6. Long runners will result in undesirable loss of metal temperature & over heating of the die
on the gating area.
7. Never design a runner having abrupt changes in direction, which may tend to develop turbulence
8. Side of the runner away from the gate is slightly angled to provide draft for ejection
9. The side next to the gate has a definite angle (approach angle) which directs the metal in to the
gate.
10. Bottom is flat but corners is a radius
11. The runner as approaches the sprue / biscuit down the stream will become progressively larger.
12. Shock absorbers
The small end of tapered tangential runners terminates in simple disc shaped shock absorbers.
They control the very high transient velocities which may occur at the small ends of the runners. High
energy release through the extremities of a gate will cause severe damage to the die. Shock
absorbers also protect the die when the gate does not flow completely as in the case of a cold die
during set up, when very high velocities can be reached.
Simple shock absorbers are in the form of small circular cavities cut tangentially to the standard
10 mm long 2 x 2 mm parallel section at the small end of the runner. Metal flow into and around the
shock absorber will trap air that is compressed, causing the metal to decelerate. The volume of the
shock absorber is arrived by making it 2 mm deep (for machining convenience) and calculating its
top area to match that to the entry to the tapered runner.
13. Gate
With thin gates as soon as the hot injected metal comes in contact with the relatively cold die, the
outer skin freezes. This introduces a chocking effect. Hence the metal has to flow through the core
portion, which is still in the molten stage. During filling time, the gate progressively solidifies from the
outer skin to the inner core. This increases the resistance to flow. This would demand higher injection
pressure when very thin gate is used. The proportion of the area of the runner to the area
of gate must be1.25:1 to 1.6 : 1
The table shown below explains the general rule followed for designing the gate thickness for the
different casted materials.
Component weight
Up to 100 grams 100 – 1000grams 1kg – 5 Kgs
Zinc alloy (0.3 – 0.6) mm (0.5 – 1.2)mm (0.8 – 1.8)mm
Aluminum alloy (0.5 – 1.0)mm (0.8 – 1.8)mm (1.5 – 3.5)mm
Below mentioned are general rules for designing the gate
1. Thin gates are preferable for trimming operations.
2. It is very unlikely to achieve solid front fill with thin gates
3. With very thick gate there is a possibility of pinhole porosity
4. at the gate area coupled with trimming problems
5. However with thick gates it is possible to achieve solid front fill
6. Preferably only one gating should be provided. In case more gating, care should be taken
that individual metal stream entering the cavity does not interfere.
7. The cavity should be filled from one direction to another; care should be taken to avoid the
formation of jets in the incoming stream.
8. It is preferably for large castings to provide the gating point somewhere in the middle, this will
shorten the distance the metal has to travel through the cavity.
9. Care should be taken while deciding the place & direction of gating that no air pockets can be
developed during the filling period.
10. On a correct gating, the metal entering the cavity should push the air to the air vents
11. On thin walled castings, the best surface finish can be obtained generally with thin gating & high
injection pressure.
12. On thick walled castings, sound & pressure tight castings can be obtained only with thick
gating, slow injection speed but high pressure
13. The metal stream should fill the cavity with the least possible obstruction. i.e. direct hitting on
cores should be avoided as far as possible.
14. The gating point should be so arranged that easy breaking of gating be ensured without
spoiling the corners of the casting.
15. It is always advisable to start a new die with a thinner gating since it is easy to increase as &
when the condition so require
16. The gating section depends on the volume of the casting; hence the thin gating are to be
made longer than thick gating for castings of the same weight.
17. The travel of small individual streams should be as short as possible. On long travel, the alloy
may cool on the die wall to an extend that fusing at the meeting points is hardly possible.
18. Small passages should be fed directly from the runner with hot metal, otherwise deep
flow marks may occur
19. The meeting points should be preferably on thick sections where the die temperature can
be maintained hot.
The fan gate has been largely superseded by the tapered tangential runner. But fan gate is useful
in some applications. To increase its efficiency the inlet should be larger than the gate. Correct
design and dimensions of gates is essential to achieve high casting quality and efficiency. To obtain
desired metal flow velocities gate thick ness from 0.15 - 0.3 mm and gate lands 1.0 - 1.5 mm are
used for castings up to 1.5 kg. Thin gates simplify the trimming of castings.
General guidelines for gate positioning are given below:
1. Center gating offers the best feeding configuration. It permits the use of short direct feed system.
It achieves an ideal flow path across the die cavity.
2. Edge gating is another method used filling the cavity. The longest uninterrupted length of
casting available for casting should be chosen for positioning the gate but it must satisfy the
shortest and smoothest flow path across the cavity.
3. Air vents
The use of converging flow system with correctly designed runners ensures that air in the feed
system is pushed out ahead of the molten alloy flow and expelled through the cavity to the air vents.
Air vents with total entrance areas up to 20% of gate areas are recommended (depth 0.075 mm).
Depths greater than 0.075 mm may lead to flashing problems. Corrugated vents up to 1 mm may be
used. Vents are positioned where the flow on the cavity is expected at a late stage of cavity fill. For
casting metals that melts at high temperature such as aluminum, magnesium and brass.
4. Overflows
No overflows need be cut prior to the first casting trial unless their use is specified for ejection
purposes. On trial if the castings exhibit poor finish or blister the following conditions must be checked
first:
1. Machine operations and performance.
2. Feed system design and performance.
This will establish that both machine and die are operating at the design parameters.
Purpose of an over flow are
• To maintain an even die temperature
• To venting of the die cavity
• To receive the cold metal (first flow)
• Reception of lubricants remains.
If overflows are found necessary, its positions are determined by examination of flow patterns in
the casting. The design considerations are
1. Depth of overflow must not be great, as the solidification will take time leading increase in the
cycle time.
2. The depth of the overflow should be about 3 times the section of the casting and width about
double the depth
3. Overflows should be matched close to the cavity approximately 3 to 6 mm and their thickness
between 0.5 to 1.5 mm depending upon casting section.
4. Overflow should be so provided that heat will enter the appropriate area of the die
5. Shape should be such that it should be easy machining and ejection
6. Generous radii should be provided at bottoms/corners of the die
7. Each overflow should have one ejector pin
8. Better to have series of overflows than one longer overflow
9. If the metal flows a long distance, the overflow size should be enlarged.
10. Overflow should be sized according to the volume of the cavity, from which the overflow receives
molten metals.
Figure shown below is a typical example of moving half of die casting die
Machine suitability
Choice of suitable machine is an important aspect of die designing. Two main considerations
determine suitability
1. Clamping force.
2. Injection capability.
Clamping force can be calculated by multiplying the projected area of the impression including
runners, gate overflow by the injection pressure. The result should be less than the clamping force of
the machine.
The injection capability or metal pumping capacity of the machine must be determined from
the PQ2 diagram. In a typical PQ2 diagram, metal pressure “P” is shown on the vertical axis and
flow rate “Q” on the horizontal. Metal pressure is approximately proportional to the square of flow
rate. Pressure P is plotted on linear scale and Q on a squared scale. The flow system comprises of
a series of passage of varying lengths and diameters which carry molten alloy at varying high
velocities from the underside of the injection plunger to the gate. In addition to variation in length and
diameter a number of changes in directions occur. At each change energy is consumed to overcome
the resistance to the flow. The flow system should be properly designed and manufactured to
minimize the energy losses. The flow system should converge from gooseneck to gate, sharp corners
should be avoided and the surface of the flow path should be smooth and well finished. The use of
controlled fully converging flow paths through nozzle, sprue and runners and gate contracts with
traditional designs which typically includes large random changes in cross sectional area and shape.
27.0 DIE CASTING DEFECTS
Introduction
Casting is a process which carries risk of failure occurrence during all the process of
accomplishment of the finished product. Hence necessary action should be taken while manufacturing
of cast product so that defect free parts are obtained. Mostly casting defects are concerned with
process parameters. Hence one has to control the process parameter to achieve zero defect parts.
For controlling process parameter one must have knowledge about effect of process parameter on
casting and their influence on defect. To obtain this all knowledge about casting defect, their causes,
and defect remedies one has to be analyse casting defects. Casting defect analysis is the process of
finding root causes of occurrence of defects in the rejection of casting and taking necessary step to
reduce the defects and to improve the casting yield.
Types of defects
The various faults commonly encountered in die casting can be classified under three groups
according to the process used for manufacturing. They are cold type defect, hot type defect and
miscellaneous defects. Different types of defects seen in casting are mentioned below
1. Cold type defects
1. Lack of fill
2. Cold shut
3. Severe chill
4. Chill
5. Flow lines
1. Hot type defects
1. Soldering
2. Cracks
3. Broken part
4. Bent part
5. Heat marks or shrinkage pits
1. Miscellaneous defects
1. Scale
2. Blisters
3. Porosity
4. Excessive flash
5. Mechanical defects
6. Ejector pin marks
1. Lack of fill
This condition has three basic causes. The first cause is inadequate metal in the
gooseneck or cold chamber. The metal level in the holding furnace of a hot chamber must be
maintained above the goose neck inlet ports. For cold chamber machines, the correct size ladle is
used, and care must be taken to ensure that the ladle is full for each shot. When an automatic ladle
is used, it must be proper1y adjusted to ladle exactly the correct amount of metal into the cold
chamber. Secondly this defect may be caused by cold metal, cold die, or both. The temperatures
should be checked and adjusted as necessary. Finally a lack of fill may be the result of slow shot
speeds. The shot control hydraulic valve should be opened the proper amount.
2. Cold shut
Cold shut, like lack of fill is caused by cold metal, slow shot or low die temperatures. If air vents
and /or over flows are clogged with flash they may also contribute to the problem. All these factors
must be checked and corrected as necessary.
3. Severe chill
Severe chill is similar to cold shut but it will cover a large surface of casting instead of being a
single line. Excessive release material as well as cold metal, slow shot, low die temperature or
clogged air vents may be the cause. Severe chill usually appears when shots are made into a cold
die, but will rarely occur during normal operation
4. Chill
This defect has the same appearance and is caused by the same conditions as severe chill but
is less noticeable. Slight or faint chill lines on the surface cause for the rejection of certain types of
castings. However castings used for ornamental parts will usually require a chill free surface. Low
die temperature, low metal temperature, slow shot speed, or excessive die release material are
all causes of chill.
5. Flow lines
Flow line defects are similar to chill and cold shut. Flow lines can usually be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the die temperature, metal temperature or both. Like chill, the defect may be
corrected by higher shot speed or less die release material.
6. Soldering
This condition is the result of the cast metal bonding to the die surface. Upon ejection the casting
tears away leaving layer that has bonded to the die. When soldering occurs, it may create additional
problems such as cracking or bending on the casting, out of tolerance dimensions, depressed ejector
pin marks in the casting and/or porosity within the casting.
Soldering may be caused by excessive metal temperature, incorrect die temperature (too hot or
too cold) or insufficient die release material. If the condition is severe or when other methods
fail to remove the solder, it must be cleaned from the die. Caustic solutions provided for this purpose
may be used or the material may be polished out of the die. It is recommended that the die maker or
other person with special training polish the die cavity. If the polishing is not done properly, a rough
die surface may be created that will increase the soldering condition. Care must also be exercised
when increasing the amount of die release material applied to the soldering area. Excessive amounts
of this material may create other defects such as porosity, chill or blisters. When adjustments to the
above conditions do not eliminate the soldering condition, it is likely that the problem may have been
caused by the metal alloy being cast or it may result from the die construction.
7. Cracks
Castings may crack from internal stress or from abnormal pressure during ejection. The first
cause, internal stress is created from excessive metal or dies temperatures. If the condition persists
after several temperature adjustments have been made, it may be necessary to increase the shot or
machine timer settings. The timer should be adjusted only after everything else has failed.
Cracks from abnormal ejection pressure may be indirectly the result of soldering. The
operator should caref ully inspect the casting for signs of soldering. If soldering exists, the
appropriate corrective measure should be taken. Insufficient drafts or a rough cavity finish in
the die can also cause abnormal ejection pressure. Additional die release material may help, but
it will not correct this situation. In severe instances die repair may be necessary.
8. Broken part
A portion of the casting may stick in the die during ejection and the rest of the casting break away
and eject normally. The cause is the same conditions as described for cracks - excessive
metal or die temperature, insufficient die release material or soldering.
9. Bent parts
Castings may bend instead of breaking when part of the casting sticks in the die. This is a
different result from the same conditions that cause a broken part.
10. Heat marks
Have the appearance of surface pits and are caused by excessive die temperature or excessive
metal temperature. Depressed areas in the castings and sharp inside comers are the most
susceptible to this defect. Sometimes die temperature balance can be adjusted to eliminate heat
marks. For example the flow of cooling water to the area affected may be increased and decreased
to the die half in the same area. Clogged vents or excessive die release may cause large volumes
of gas to become entrapped in the die. Such gases will increase the size of heat marks and may
cause the pits to become rounded and smooth in the inside.
11. Wave or lake
Irregular lines or slight steps on otherwise smooth casting surfaces are usually caused by
excessive die temperature in the area of the defect. Increasing the flow of die cooling water or
increasing the water (or solvent) dilutions of the die release material will reduce such defects.
12. Sink marks
Shallow smooth depressions on the casting surface are called sink marks. Such marks usually
appear on the casting surface opposite any heavy section such as a rib or boss, and are
caused by uneven shrinkage of the casting. Reduced die temperature in the area of the sink mark.
Reduced metal temperature and sometimes increasing the temperature of the other die half will
minimize these defects. Somet imes increase injection (shot) pressure coupled with higher die
temperature between the defects and the gate will help reduce sink marks.
13. Scale
Build - up of die release materials (or their oxides) on the die results in an irregular rough surface on
the casting. The material must be removed with caustic solutions or by polishing the die. The same
care is needed as described for soldering. After cleaning the die, the amount of release material
applied for each shot must be reduced. Sometimes it may be desirable to change the type of release
material and /or the ratio of the release material to solvent (or water).
14. Blisters
Bubble like bumps on the casting surface are caused by air or other gases trapped inside the
casting. Slower shot speed, clean vents, reduced die temperature, or less die release material will
usually eliminate blisters.
15. Porosity
Large holes in the castings are called porosity. Low die temperatures (particularly in the runner
and gate areas), low shot pressure, clogged vents, or excessive release material can cause porosity.
Porosity is also often related to lack of fill, cold shut, heat marks, and blisters. When such a
relationship exists the correction for the related defect will often improve or eliminate the porosity.
16. Excessive flash
Excessive flash results from material such as flash sticking to the die faces and holding the die
open, excessive injection pressure or speed, or insufficient clamping force. The first problem is
corrected by cleaning the die faces. Flash that has become embedded into the die face must be
scraped off corrections to the injection speed and pressure must be made by adjusting the
appropriate hydraulic valves. The clamping force is increased by adjusting the tie bar nuts. Very slight
adjustments to these nuts are usually all that is required. Flash indicates that an extra thick casting
is being made. Extra thickness causes extra heat input to the die, and may result in additional
problems.
17. Mechanical defects
The operator must be aware of all moving and fragile parts of the die cavity, which are subject to
wear, breakage or other failures that could cause defective castings. Small cores or thin blades of
the die forming deep narrow holes or slots in the casting can be easily broken or bent. Ejector pins,
and moving cores can wear, break or not seat properly. In any of this situation the die will not make
the part of the correct shape.
18. Ejector pin marks
High and low ejector pin marks: ejector pins may push into the casting when solder and /
or a rough cavity surface result in the casting sticking in the cavity. High casting temperature at the
time of ejection also can let the pins push into the part. Increased flow of cooling water or more liberal
application of release material will sometimes reduce low ejector pin marks.
28.0 PLASTIC PRODUCT DESIGN GUIDE LINE
28.1 Introduction
Product development and design is closely linked with industrial activity and production.
When a new product is planned, the designer has to bear in mind the available resources of the plant
and the possible impact of the firm having to acquire, modify or substitute existing machines and
equipment or buy various components from other suppliers. It is therefore obvious that product
development and design is at the core of the development and growth of the production centre and
its departments. Thus, product design is one of the fundamental elements of management policy.
There is different strategy for the company before they start to introduce a new product to the market.
Product design strategy
Depending on the product utilization in the society they will stick on to any one or two strategy
as their prime consideration. The different types of strategy seen in product design are
1. Pricing Strategy
2. Product Quality Strategy
3. Product luxuriousness strategy
4. Product Utility Strategy
5. Time to market
1. Pricing Strategy for Product
Surveys in industry, by use of questionnaires and interaction with executives of manufacturing

firms, have revealed that there is no such common policy for all organizations. As an example of
pricing strategy, one large chain of departmental stores aims at offering commodities to the public at
a minimum price, whatever be the quality. In fact, one may be quite sure that articles bought at these
stores cannot be obtained cheaper or even at the same price elsewhere. The company bases this
policy on the assumption that the type of goods it offers need not have a very long life and that, if
sold cheaply enough, the volume of sales is likely to be very large, so that even a very marginal profit
per unit will lead to substantial gains. This strategy is termed pricing strategy.
2. Product Quality Strategy
Other manufacturers (e.g. the aircraft industry and many precision instrument makers) define
their aim as high qualify, whatever be the cost. The Chairman of Bajaj Auto Ltd. has recently
expressed that for his company, product quality is the secret of success for over the last three
decades. The high quality is manifested in minimal maintenance, high reliability and ergonomic
superiority of the Bajaj scooter for Indian conditions. Similarly, LML Vespa and Kinetic Honda have
been able to capture substantial market share due to their superior product quality.
3. Product luxuriousness strategy
In some cases, luxury and comfort are the prime considerations that cost becomes secondary.
An example for this is Rolls Royce cars. However, in others, precision and prestige play an important
part, for instance, Mercedes, BMW and Toyota. The manufacturers of these automobiles produce
luxurious models (of course, Toyota has several popular models besides the luxury models), but the
number produced is not very large, and in spite of the high price of the finished product, the firm
cannot expect to get high profits from this line of production alone.
4. Product Utility Strategy
Other automobile firms like Monto aim at large volume production of a low-priced car that will
compete with more expensive models' (Esteem) by having .some of their successful and popular
features and innovations. Most companies, however, say they aim at striking a satisfactory balance
between very high quality and a reasonable price. Others go further and try to improve this balance
in favor of the customer, by improving quality and leaving the price unchanged or by improving
production methods and offering the same quality at a reduced price.
5. Time to market
The importance of product development and design for long-range planning by management is
further emphasized by the amount of time that elapses from the inception of the idea for the new
design until production starts.
Analysis of the product
Many factors have to be analyzed in relation to development and design factors which vary in
character and complexity, and factors related to different fields in production and industrial
engineering. Some of these may be grouped as follows:
1. Marketing aspect
2. Product characteristics
o Functional aspect
o Operational aspect
o Durability and dependability aspects
o Aesthetic aspect
1. Economic analysis
o Profit consideration
o Effect of standardization, simplification and specialization (c) Break-even analysis
2. Production aspects.
All these factors are interrelated and each presents many issues that have to be carefully
considered. Market research may guide product designers in their work to improve existing products
or to develop new ones. The design and its characteristics have to undergo an economic analysis
and must be researched in the light of available production facilities and techniques. A costing
analysis is naturally dependent on the sales volume; hence the proposed design has to be re-
evaluated by market research so that a sales projection can be done. This expected sales volume
provides the basis for a further study from the production methods aspect, and the economic analyses
have to be rechecked and perhaps modified. Thus product development and design is an excellent
example of interdependence of a multitude of factors that have to be unified and integrated into a final
composition
Basic design considerations
Let us assume that a five-year product plan has been established. There are still major
factors which the designer must consider before he puts pencil to sketch pad:
(a) Convenience of use
(b) Maintenance
(c) Costs
(d) Sales
(e) Appearance.
a) Convenience of use
No matter what the product is, convenience is of primary importance. Whether the customer or
user is a housewife with a hair-dryer or an engineer driving a limousine, it is the designer's primary
objective to make the product desirable through its utility. In determining the proper approach, he has
several sources from which he may seek assistance. Below mentioned are some sources followed
by companies.
3. It is always possible for marketing research people to find out what the customer dislikes
about the company's previous models. Returned warranty cards and field reports from dealers
and sales representatives are good sources of information.
4. Customer surveys may be conducted by making working models and pre-testing potential
users. This is, of course, a costly method whose value is sometimes questionable. Both the
automobile industry, through its experimental car models, and appliance manufacturers, through
their "kitchens of the future", use this approach to elicit public reaction.
5. The least costly and the most commonly used approach is common sense.
6. Maintenance
Ease of maintenance and life of parts are important factors. It is the customer who ultimately
benefits from proper consideration in this area, and the designer must be careful to resist the
temptation of designing primarily to please the service personnel. It cannot be repeated too often that
the customer must always come first in the designer's thinking.
7. Cost
Although cost certainly cannot be ignored, it should not be the overriding consideration in all
cases. The lowest-priced item does not necessarily out-sell the highest-priced, as the automobile
industry offers ample evidence. If the only consideration was cost, we would still be using the hand
crank handle instead of the automatic starter, and the manual shift instead of the automatic
transmission. Here again, it is the customer who must ultimately decide how much the product is
worth.
8. Sales
We must know the volume of sales anticipated, the competition that will be encountered,
what the competitors are offering, and what we plan to offer. With regard' to sales, it will be better to
remember that maximum efficiency and good performance do not necessarily help in selling the
product. Again, as an example, the first automatic washing machines did not wash clothes as clean
as the wringer-type, yet they were sold in great quantity. A good number of men use electric razors,
even though these razors cannot give as good a shave as the safety razors. Like all the rest, people
prefer convenience; and this seems to be the overriding consideration in the motivation of most sales
today.
9. Appearance
Appearance should not be underestimated, for it determines the whole "character" of the
product. It should reflect pride of ownership, the function served, high product quality and value, and
the reputation of the maker.
Types of models designed by industrial designers
The types of models usually met with in the development of the product or a line of products
are: Clay studies, mock-ups, scale models, and prototypes. These are now briefly described.
1. Clay studies:
These are made full size or to a smaller scale by the designer himself, not his understudy. These
are valuable in the study of form relationships, e.g. Is the base too small for the superstructure of
subtitles, of curvature and camber, of size, of radii and fillets, and so on? Though primarily intended
for form analysis, these can be of great help later in discussions with tool and die engineers in the
final stages of the project.
2. Mock-ups:
This is a proven and old technique in model-making. It involves making a false model to simulate
the real product or prototypes. It is made in wood or plaster instead of, say, cast iron or plastics. The
mock-up has to be painted in suitable metallic or other paint to create an impression of the actual
future product. There is a trend now-a-days of designing for ease of operation, i.e., ergonomic design.
The person who is to use the product is looked upon as an object needing space, user of physical
effort, sensor or observer and finally, controller of the product. The latest trends in mock-ups
simulate human mannequins on the CAD terminal and determine "Space requirement envelope"
of the dummy, checkup how man and machine fit, and carry out a stress analysis on the dummy,
should an accident occur. These methods help build better and user friendly designs through
interactive computer graphics and animation. The latest trend in "mock-up" is to use CAD instead
of plaster of paris or wood mock-ups.
3. Scale models
These are favored when a material, which can take a very good finish is available, this is not
possible in clay modeling. Plaster is the commonest material for scale models.
4. Prototypes:
It is a full size model of the real product, but is seldom made by the designer. Before going into
large scale production of any major product, an operating or working model has to be built, exact in
every minute detail, inside and outside. Prototypes are costly in terms of labour but are essential
before going for mass production. Nowadays, computer simulation is widely used for testing a final
design. A prototype is still the best technique to improve the level of confidence of the designer for
new products.
5. Rapid Prototyping
Since the middle of the last decade, a silent revolution has been taking place in the field of
manufacturing. As a result, a host of new manufacturing techniques have been developed using
which it is possible to produce a solid object with the required shape, size, and accuracy
directly from its computer model. Though at present such techniques of direct shape generation
are being applied primarily for rapid prototype development, it is firmly believed by many that the age-
old concepts and methods will gradually be replaced by these techniques in the actual manufacture
of shaped articles and components as also spare part production. Most of the generative
manufacturing machines, commonly known as rapid prototyping machines, are still in the developing
stage. A few such as stereo lithography, selective laser sintering, solid ground curing, fused
deposition modeling, and laminated object manufacturing are now commercially available and are
being used by many industries for rapid prototyping.
Manufacturing
The conversion of resource into raw materials is normally done by two sub disciplines of
engineering: mining and metallurgy. The real shaping starts from the stage a material is available in
raw form. Changing a raw material into a final product generally involves various processes. The
major processes a component undergoes before it is converted into a final product are:
1. Casting: primary and secondary forming,
2. Machining,
3. Joining: assembly and finishing.
A material is often subjected to primary forming for producing standard shapes such as those of
rods, bars and sheets. However, it may also undergo secondary forming, and this is performed when
the objective is to obtain a shape other than the standard shapes. The three engineering activities
that require an understanding of the production processes are
1. Designing
2. Production
3. Development of new techniques.
At the design stage, manufacturing considerations have to be taken into account, not only for
producing the part in the most economical manner, but also for imparting to the part some required
properties such as strength and hardness. Besides, in the production shop, a successful engineer
must have a thorough understanding of the subject if he has to select and implement the right
processes. The selection of the important process parameters is extremely important to achieve
success in manufacturing. The third type activity is development of new manufacturing processes
and modification of the existing technology. It has already been mentioned that the production
engineers are facing more and more challenging problems, and often such problems cannot be
solved with the help of existing conventional methods. Thus, a variety of new processes have evolved
during the last two decades.
Quality of performance
How well a product performs in tough environmental conditions is determined by the following
metrics of product quality:
1. Reliability: It is the probability that a product shall perform the assigned function for a time
termed mission time.
2. Maintainability: It is the probability that a product can be maintained and brought back to
working condition in the shortest service time. The Japanese take another view of
maintainability: they address design as maintenance prevention (or MP) design. An MP
design is one in which modularity is incorporated so that, if a certain module of the design
system fails, instead of repairing, it is substituted by a stand-by module.
3. Availability: Availability of a design is the multiple of reliability and maintainability.
Theory of sampling inspection
Sampling inspection is carried out for assessing quality of incoming raw materials and quality
of finished goods in stores. Sampling plans are used for checking the quality of the material before
and after production.
A single random sample of a predetermined size (n) is taken, each of the units in the sarnple is
inspected, and at the end of the inspection, the number of defective (x) found is noted. If this is less
than or equal to a stated (acceptance) number (c), then the lot is accepted; otherwise. if there are
more than c defectives in the sample), the lot is rejected. Note that the decision to accept or reject
refers to the lot and not to the sample. The sample is only an aid to make the decision.
Test marketing
The important phase in the development cycle called “test marketing” consists of small-scale
tests with customers. Until this stage, the idea and the product have been tested in a somewhat
artificial context. At this stage, the appeal of the product is tested amidst the mix of activities
comprising the market launch. That is salesmanship, advertising, sales promotion, distributor
incentives and public relations. The objectives of test marketing are
1. Find out the consumer needs of buying
2. Evaluate impact of local advertising and promotion during the test
3. Evaluate the market potential for other competing products
4. Find out the area coverage for sales
5. Find the consumer ability to buy the product based on price.
Commercialization or launch
This is the final stage of the initial development process and is very costly. It involves
decision making on issues such as when to launch the product, where to launch it, how and to whom
to launch. It is based on information collected throughout the development process. With regard to
timing, important considerations include:
1. Seasonality of the product
2. Whether the launch should fit any trade or commercial event
3. Whether the new product is a replacement for the old one.
Location for large companies describes the number of countries in which the product will be
launched and whether national launches need be simultaneous or they need to roll out from one
country to another. For smaller companies, the decision is restricted to a narrower geographical
region. The factors upon which such decisions are based, depend upon the required lead-times for
product to reach all the distributive outlets and the relative power and influence of channel members.
Launch strategy encompasses any advertising and trade promotions necessary. Space must be
booked, copy and visual material prepared, both for the launch proper and for the pre-sales into the
distribution pipeline. The sales force may require extra training in order to sell the new product
effectively. Different methods for launching are
1. Immediate national launch: This is one way to overcome the competition and to save on the cost
of launch. The risk of national launch is that it leaves the company with many problems, which
were not contemplated during the test marketing. Production routines that work well in theory
may not result as expected. Early problems of supply may create problems during actual launch.
(ii) Rolling launch: This is an alternative to the full national launch. It involves building towards full
national coverage by starting with one or two recognized distribution areas, then gradually
adding new regions to those already served as experience and success of the product further
increases. This helps the company to concentrate on getting the logistics and production
schedules in tune with the requirements. Coca Cola, Kelloggs, and several other major players
including HLL use this strategy effectively.
29.0 Injection molding of metals (MIM)
29.1 Introduction
MIM is a process that merges two established technologies: plastic injection molding and
powdered metallurgy (PM). It is a metalworking process in which finely-powdered metal is mixed with
binder material to create a "feedstock" that is then shaped and solidified using injection molding. The
molding process allows high volume, complex parts to be shaped in a single step. After molding, the
part undergoes conditioning operations to remove the binder (debinding) and densify the powders.
Finished products are small components used in many industries and applications.
An early developer of the process during the 1970s and was widely adopted for manufacturing
use in the 1980s.MIM gained recognition throughout the 1990s as improvements to subsequent
conditioning processes resulted in an end product that performs similarly to or better than those made
through competing traditional metallurgy processes. MIM technology improved cost efficiency through
high volume production to "net-shape", negating costly, additional operations such as machining
although MIM is weak in terms of tight dimensional specifications.
29.2 MIM Process
The MIM process involves 6 steps. They are
1. Mixing
2. Granulation
3. Moulding
4. De-binding
5. Sintering
1. Mixing
Very fine metal powders usually (<15 microns) are mixed with a primary binder (paraffin material) and a
secondary binder (thermoplastic polymer). Together they act as binders by covering the surface of each particle
metal powder and increase the ability of metal to flow while injection moulding.
Several different types are available for mixing the metal powder and binders. Double planetary
and sigma-blade are examples. A major objective is to ensure that the whole of the surface of each
particle is coated with binder.
2. Granulation
The powder from the mixer is fed into a twin screw mixer which is having a two inter meshing screws
(tapered) which compress, shear and extrude out mixer in the form of a continuous rode. Further it will fed in
to a grinder, which will grind the mixer into a granular form known as pellets. This will be the raw material for
MIM machine.
3. Moulding
The machines used for this part of the MIM process are substantially the same as those in use
in the plastics industry. These pellets will be fed into the moulding machine as required. The screw
from which the mix is extruded into the die cavity is heated and the nozzle temperature carefully
controlled to ensure constant conditions. The die temperature also is controlled by cooling the mould.
Mould temperature must be low enough to ensure that the compact is rigid when it is removed. A
method of reducing the unit cost of parts is to use a mould with multiple cavities so that several parts
are produced at each injection. Once molded, the component is referred to as a “green” part.
4. De-binding
Next, a portion of the binder material is removed using solvent, thermal furnaces, catalytic process, or a
combination of methods. After de-binding, part will be referred to as 'brown' part. During debinding the strength
of the compact decreases markedly and great care is necessary in handling the 'brown' parts. There are two
basic processes for de-binding:
1. Heating of the green compact to cause the binder to melt, decompose, and/or evaporate. This
must be done with great care in order to avoid disruption of the as-moulded part, and in this
connection the use of binders with several ingredients which decompose or evaporate at different
temperatures is advantageous. The process normally takes many hours, the time being
dependent, inter alia, on the thickness of the thickest section.
1. The second debinding process applicable to certain binder systems only, is to dissolve out the
binder with suitable solvents such as trichlorethane.
1. Sintering
This is the name given to the heating process in which the separate particles weld together and
provide the necessary strength in the finished product. The “brown” part is held together by a small
amount of the binder, and is very fragile. Sintering eliminates the remaining binder and gives the part
its final geometry. During sintering, the part is subjected to temperatures near the melting point of the
material. The entire sintering process takes 15-20 hours.
The process is carried out in controlled atmosphere furnaces - sometimes in vacuum - at a
temperature below the melting point of the metal. Sintering in MIM is substantially the same as that
used for traditional powder metallurgy (PM) parts. Because it is essential to avoid oxidation of the
metal, the atmospheres used are generally reducing. The exact composition of the sintering
atmosphere used depends on the metal being sintered. For many metals a straightforward
atmosphere containing hydrogen is all that is required, but in the case of steels which have carbon as
an essential alloying element, the atmosphere must contain a carbon compound or compounds so
that it is in equilibrium with the steel, i.e. it must neither carburise nor de-carburise the steel.
As the 'brown' part is extremely porous, a very large shrinkage occurs and the sintering
temperature must be very closely controlled in order to retain the shape and prevent 'slumping'.
The final part has a density closely approaching theoretical, usually greater than 97%.
Advantages of the MIM Process
Metal injection moulding (MIM) is a development of the traditional powder metallurgy (PM) process
and is rightly regarded as a branch of that technology. So advantages and disadvantage of MIM
process is defined by comparing to PM process
Advantages are mentioned below
1. Excellent shaping possibilities
Very complex-shaped parts can be manufactured with or without very little secondary finishing.
Undercuts in the parts, which are not possible with conventional sintering processes, can be
realized with the MIM Process without problems.
2. Excellent surface quality
The surface of MIM parts is far superior to that of precision cast parts. There by,finishing and
polishing costs can be eliminated or substantially reduced.
3. Very good material properties
The MIM process reaches densities of between 96% and 100% of the theoretical material density.
4. Low tolerance limits
The MIM process allows an accuracy of better than +/-0.3% of the required dimensions.
5. Material selection
MIM parts usually do not have to be mechanically refinished. The harder it is for a material to be
machined, the more advantageous the MIM process.
Disadvantages are mentioned below
6. Profitable only when the mass of the component is less
When the weight increases, it will increase the debinding time and thus the higher the cost of that part
of the process.
7. Initial instalment cost is high
Since it is a new technology and not much familiar to the present company layouts, the installation
cost will be high.
8. Toxic to nature
De-binding operations generate toxic emissions such as formaldehyde, dispose of chlorinated

solvents, and must burn off wax or other polymers, leading to greenhouse gas emissions.
29.3 Application of MIM Parts

The window of economic advantage in metal injection molded parts lies in complexity and
volume for small-size parts. MIM materials are comparable to metal formed by competing methods,
and final products are used in a broad range of industrial, commercial, medical, dental, firearms,
aerospace, and automotive applications. Dimensional tolerances of ±0.3% are common and
machining is required for closer tolerances. MIM can produce parts where it is difficult, or even
impossible, to efficiently manufacture an item through other means of fabrication. Ideally, at least 75
dimensional specifications in a component of just 25 mm maximum size and 10 g mass is best - as
for example required for watch cases, cellular telephone plugs, and laptop computer hinges.
Increased costs for traditional manufacturing methods inherent to part complexity, such as
internal/external threads, miniaturization, or identity marking, typically do not increase the cost in a
MIM operation due to the flexibility of injection molding.

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Mould Tech 6

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NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION

SUBJECT CODE: CP01 06 03

Prepared By: Approved by:

Tab Content Rev: 0 Released on: January 2018

Subject Title Mould Technology

Hours per semester 20h

21.0 Highlight the importance of mould Polishing.

Major Topics Time Allotted

22.0 Factors effecting mould service life.

28.0 Plastic Product design guide line

28.1 Selection of product market need – prototype – confirm specification – consolidate

21.0 The importance of mould polishing

1. High Gloss / Diamond Finishes

#1 A–1 3 micron Grade #3 Diamond buff Lens / Mirror – requires 420 SS

Precaution taken while mould polishing

Sequence of polishing mould cavity

1) Stone all corners and detail such as radii

All surfaces must be stone finished before changing to a finer grit.

The predominant problem in polishing is so-called “overpolishing”. Overpolishing is the term

Either of the following alternatives can be adopted to restore the surface.

• Polishing time and pressure.

• Purity of the steel, especially with regard to hard slag inclusions.

• The polishing tool.

If pitting still occurs the following measures should be taken:

1) Low co-efficient of friction.

2) Abrasion resistant and protects mould from wear.

3) Bright finish is duplicated on mould article.

4) Protects from rusting.

Process of Chrome plating

22.1 Points which affect physical life of a mould

1. Mechanical design should consider wear of sliding parts.

4. Grade of tool steel

2. After hardening it should be ensure that required hardness is achieved.

2. Lack of lubrication of sliding faces

3. Poor maintenance practice and rough handling of the moulds

2. The use of dirty and contaminated plastics while moulding

22.2 Mould maintenance

Types of Maintenance (frequency)

Routine Maintenance LEVEL I

Inspection Maintenance LEVEL II

General Maintenance LEVEL III

Major Maintenance LVEL IV

1. Routine Maintenance – LEVEL I

2. Inspection Maintenance – LEVEL II

3. General Maintenance – LEVEL III

4. Major Maintenance – LEVEL IV

5. Break down Maintenance:

Mould history card

The role of designer in mould life

The role of the mould maker in mould life

1. Machine/mould specifications including accessories.

2. Record all modifications

6. All alterations made to the machine since installation.

Advantages of thermoset injection moulding machine

Advantages of thermoset injection moulding machine comparing to conventional thermoset

7. Considerable cycle time saving

9. Compound more homogeneously fused by the screw action

10. Compound transferred to the mould at high temperature

11. More uniform curing

12. Void free compression

13. Can be moulded larger variations in part thickness

15. Greater dimensional accuracy and stability

16. Very thin flash appears which can be trimmed easily

Disadvantages of thermoset injection moulding machine are