Tool Engineering and Design Design of Si

Tool Engineering and Design: Design of single point cutting tools
Module 01
Chapter 02: Basic requirement of cutting tools, Single point tools, Tools nomenclature,
geometry of single point cutting tool, design of shank dimension using strength and rigidity
consideration and selection of geometry for the cutting tool point, Boring tools, types of
boring tools, Boring-bar and cutting adjustment, Design features of shaper, Planner and
slotter tools, Selection of carbide cutting tools, Determining shank size for single point
carbide tools, Determining the insert thickness for carbide tools.
2. Design of Single Point Cutting Tools
2.1. BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CUTTING TOOLS

 The tool must be harder than the material being cut
 The tool and material being cut must be held rigidly in a manner that will cause the
tool to penetrate the workpiece when forces are applied.
 The terms commonly used to define the shape of the tool are rake angles and relief
angles.
 Rake angles vary from positive to negative where as relief angles are always positive.
Fig 2.1: Variation of rake angles from positive to negative: (a) positive rake (b) zero rake (c) negative
rake
Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Prepared by: Prof Prabhudev Mallapur, Department of Mechanical Engg. Page 1
Positive rake angle:
 Positive rake angles (side and back) increase the cutting performance of the tool by
decreasing cutting forces, workpiece deflection and power consumption.
 The smaller point angle resulting from positive rake angles penetrates the metal more
readily and reduces cutting pressures.
 High positive rake angles result in a fragile (weak) cutting edge.
 They are limited to machining softer materials because of the keenness of the cutting
edge.
 Tools made of tough materials like HSS are given positive rake angles.
Negative rake angle:
 Negative rake angles increase cutting forces but make the tool stronger or less liable
to fracture or crumbling.
 Tools made of brittle materials like oxides are given negative rake angle.
2.2. SIGLE POINT TOOLS

 Single-point metal-cutting tools are normally used when performing turning, boring,
shaping, or planing operations.
 The introduction of expensive cutting tool materials has necessitated that the body of
the tool be made of a less costly material with a tip of cutting material attached at the
cutting point.
 The cutting-tool materials commonly used are high-speed steel, cast alloy, cemented
carbide, and cemented oxide.
 The tip or cutting insert is held in the proper position mechanically or permanently
soldered or brazed in position. It may be pre-sharpened or be an unground blank that
is sharpened after installation in the cutter body.

Fig 2.2: Single-point cutting tool

2.3. GEOMETRY OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL
Fig 2.3: Geometry of single-point cutting tool
General nomenclature for a single-point cutting tool:
 Shank: Main body of the tool.

 Size: Determined by the width of the shank, the height of the shank, and the total overall
length.

 Flank: The surface or surfaces below and adjacent to the cutting edge.
 Heel: The intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
 Face: The surface on which the chip impinges.
 Cutting edge: The portion of the face edge that separates the chip from the work-piece.
The total cutting edge consists of the side cutting edge, the nose, and the end cutting edge.
 Nose: The intersection of the side cutting edge and end cutting edge.
 Side cutting-edge angle: The angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool
shank. It is often referred to as the lead angle.
 End cutting-edge angle: The angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular
to the shank of the tool.
 Side relief angle: The angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the
side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angles
to the side flank. It is the angle that prevents interference as the tool enters the work
material.
 End relief angle: The angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the
end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angles
to the end flank. It is the angle that allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the
workpiece.
 Side clearance angle: A secondary angle directly below the side relief angle, measured
with the same reference.
 End clearance angle: A secondary angle directly below the end relief angle, measured
with the same reference.
 Back-rake angle: The angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with the base
of the tool, measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. It is the angle
which measures the slope of the face of the tool from the nose toward the rear. If the
slope is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake; and if the slope is downward
from the nose, it is positive back rake. The back-rake angle is zero if there is no slope.
 Side-rake angle: The angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with the base of
the tool, measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge. It is the
angle that measures the slope of the tool face from the cutting edge. If the slope is toward
the cutting edge, it is negative side rake; and if the slope is away from the cutting edge, it
is positive side rake. If there is no slope the side-rake angle is zero.

The tool angles are taken with reference to the cutting edge and are therefore normal to
the cutting edge. They are of particular importance to the tool designer and machinist as
they are the ones specified when designing or grinding a single-point tool. A convenient
way to specify tool angles is by use of a standardized abbreviated system called tool
signature (sometimes referred to as tool character).
A typical tool signature will always appear in a definite order. The order used is back rate,
side rake, end relief, end clearance, end cutting edge, side cutting edge, and nose radius.
End clearance and side clearance are omitted unless clearance is used below the relief
angles. Parentheses are placed around these values when they are included in the tool
signature.
Tool signature = 0-7-7-7-15-15-0.8
Back rake 0°
Side rake 7°
End relief 7°
Side relief 7°
End cutting-edge angle 15°
Side cutting-edge angle 15°
Nose radius 0.8 mm
2.4. TYPES OF SINGLE-POINT CUTTING TOOL

The types of tool commonly used for single-point cutting operations are the solid, the brazed-
tip, the long indexable insert, and the throwaway indexable insert types.
The solid type:
 The solid-type tool bit is one made entirely of the same material.
 High speed and cast-alloy tools are commonly of the solid type.
 Solid tools may be purchased already ground, but as a general rule they are ground to
the required geometry by the machinist or machine operator.
 The materials used in solid-bit tools are less expensive
 They can be purchased as squares, rounds, rectangles, and special shapes
 They may be mounted on the machine tool directly in the tool post or block, but the
smaller sizes usually are held in a tool holder.
Brazed-tip tools:
 They have the cutting insert held in the tool shank by silver brazing (soldering).

 Tungsten carbide is almost exclusively used as the tool material.

 There are three basic methods generally used for brazing the carbide tips to the tool
shanks: torch, gas burner, and induction heating. In all three methods, a pocket is
machined in the shank material to fit the shape of the carbide insert.
 They don’t require the space that a mechanical tool holder does.
 They are also used for the construction of special tools with formed cutting edges that
are not available as standard items.
 Because of the differences in coefficient of thermal expansion for carbide insert and
steel shank, the insert will always be under stress. The carbide has a lower coefficient
of thermal expansion, while the steel has higher.
Long indexable insert tools:
 Sometimes called as on-end or slug-type tools.

 These inserts are removable cutting tips, which mean they are not brazed or welded to
the tool body.
 They are usually indexable, meaning that they can be rotated or flipped without
disturbing the overall geometry of the tool (effective diameter, tool length offset, etc.).
 Regrinding is done by grinding the ends of the insert normal to the sides only enough
to clean up the cutting edge.
Throwaway or disposable insert:
 One of the latest developments in single-point tools.

 Inserts are mechanically held in the tool holder.
 The inserts are purchased ready for use and, depending upon the shape and insert
geometry, have a number of cutting edges that can be indexed into position.
 When all cutting edges are used, the insert is discarded and not resharpened. This
approach to tooling completely eliminates tool grinding and resharpening.

Fig 2.4 positive and negative disposable inserts
Inserts are available in triangular, square, round, diamond, parallelogram, and button shapes.
All edges of the square and triangular inserts can be used, and with negative rake inserts, both
top and bottom edges are to be used. Thus, with a negative triangular insert, there are six
cutting edges per insert. Positive rake tools are indexable on one side only (see Fig. 2.4)
2.5. DESIGN OF TOOL SHANKS FOR STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY
The shank of a cutting tool is generally analyzed for strength and rigidity. The tool is
assumed to be loaded as a cantilever by tool forces at the cutting edge as shown in fig. 2.5.
The main design criterion for shank size is rigidity. The deflection at the cutting edge is
limited to a certain value depending on the size of the machine, cutting conditions and tool
overhung. The tool overhung (Le) is related also to the shank size as well as to end fixity
conditions. Fig 2.6 shows the amplitude and frequency of chatter for several overhung values.
Fig 2.5 Tool forces at the cutting edge

Fig 2.6 Amplitude and frequency of chatter for several overhung values
It is seen that only below (Le/H) of 2, the amplitude is practically zero. The recommended
value of (Le/H) is between 1.2 and 2. The shank size of the cutting tool considering rigidity as
design criterion,
h2
 3000
H
Table 2.1 Standard shank sizes
Height of centres Shank size

(h) H B
250 20 12
300 30 20
350 40 25
Usually, the shank size is also checked for strength. Considering strength as a design
criterion,
Z 
PZ 
K p Le
Where, PZ is the permissible tangential force during machining.

1
Z BH 2 , mm, for rectangular sections,
6
K p  A factor for other components of force = 1.4 to 2,
   Permissible stress of shank material = 20 Kg/mm2
2.6. BORING TOOLS

 These are always associated with the internal machining because a boring operation
consists of enlarging to accurate dimensions a previously drilled, cored, or punched
hole.
 Boring operations generally require longer tool with a higher length-to-diameter ratio
in order to reach into the bore.
2.7. TYPES OF BORING TOOLS
Boring tool-holders can be classified into two categories, namely fixed and rotating ones.
Fixed holders are used in work-rotating machines such as lathes, and rotating holders are
used in tool-rotating machines, such as boring machines.
The simplest form of a boring tool-holder is the boring bar with the boring bit held in a cross
hole as shown in Fig 2.4. The boring tool bit can be of high speed steel, solid or brazed
carbide.
Fig 2.4 Boring bar of simple design
Adjustable Boring Bars: Fig 2.5 to 2.7 show some designs of adjustable boring bars. These
boring bars can also be preset away from the machine on a presetting device. Boring bars are
also built with cartridges which hold throwaway type inserts (Fig 2.8 & 2.9). These cartridges
are adjustable in both axial and radial direction by means of set-screws. Boring bars built
with more number of cartridges are used for multi-point cutting (Fig 2.10).

Fig 2.5 Adjustable boring bar

Fig 2.8 Cartridge of boring tool
Fig 2.9 A Boring unit

Fig 2.10 Combination of boring bar built with cartridges
Damped Boring Bars: The normal recommendation is that the bar diameter should be
approximately 0.7 times the bore diameter. Boring bars made of steel can be advantageously
used for boring holes of length five times the diameter. But quite often the ratio of bore
length to diameter is more. In such cases, the use of conventional boring bars of steel may
result in poor surface finish and lower accuracy of the bore. There are number of methods of
overcoming this problem. One of the most successful ways is to use a solid carbide boring
bar. The modulus of elasticity of carbide is about 2.5 times that of steel, and it can be used for
bores of length-to-diameter ratios of up to 8. Other methods involve brazing a carbide shank
to the steel boring bar (Fig 2.11.a), or providing a carbide core inside the steel quill (Fig
2.11.b), or fitting separate carbide inserts on to the steel shank (Fig 2.11.c).
Fig 2.11 Boring quills with increased rigidity
A better method of reducing vibrations is to damp them by the use of dampers provided at the
free end of the bar. Principles of some of the damped bars in use are diagrammatically shown
in Fig 2.12

Fig 2.12 Different methods of damping vibrations in boring bars
Line Boring bars: these are used for long bores (Fig 2.13) and they are supported at the free
end in suitable bearings provided in the boring fixture or in the machine upright. They can be
made to accommodate fly cutters, tool blocks, cartridges, etc. Some line boring bars are also
provided with presetting arrangements.
Line Boring bar

Fig 2.13 Insert boring heads for line bar
Boring Head: A boring head (Fig 2.14) is a more rigid boring tool-holder than a boring bar
and is used for roughing and finishing of large bores in the range of 100 to 500 mm. It has the
means for precisely adjusting the boring tool. Also, there is a provision to place the boring
tool in several radial positions to suit various bore sizes. Boring heads are available with
either integral shanks or interchangeable shanks. These are also available with two cutting
edges at 1800 to give a balanced cutting action.
Fig 2.14 Boring Head
Boring and Facing Heads: The boring and facing head enables boring of large-diameter bores
and also facing of seating surfaces at right angles to the bore in the same setting. Apart from

the radial adjustment, these tools incorporate a radial feed mechanism to feed the tool for the
facing operation. Other applications of the boring and facing head are machining of taper
bores and internal recesses.
In a recent development, a small built-in stepper motor provides the drive for the tool slide in
the boring and facing head. Fig 2.15 shows a sectional view of this type of tool. The
advantage of such a tool is that it is possible to bore and face a number of steps and also to
machine tapers or contours by suitably programming the sequence of operation.
Fig 2.15 Boring and facing head built-in stepper motor
2.7 BORING-BAR CUTTERS AND ADJUSTMENTS
A large number of designs for holding and adjusting cutters for boring operations have been
developed over the years. The object of all cutters of this type is to secure rigidity and
accuracy of cutter setting in the simplest manner possible.
A similar type is used on jig-boring machines, vertical milling machines, and radial drill
presses. It is often referred to as a boring head or wobble head. The adjustment for the bore
diameter is made by turning the lead screw (see Fig. 2.16), which moves the slide in the V
block and changes the eccentricity of the stub boring bar.

Fig 2.16 An adjustable boring or wobble head.
Figure 2.17 shows common methods of holding and adjusting standard rectangular tool
blanks in stub and line boring bars. A single screw is used if adjustment of the tool within the
bar is not necessary, and two screws are used when such an adjustment is desirable. One
screw is to adjust and back up the cutter, and the second is to lock the cutter into position.
The locking screw can be placed on the side of the bar or at the end, whichever is most
convenient.
Fig 2.17 Methods of holing and adjusting standard rectangular tool blanks in stub and line
boring bars

As shown in Fig 2.18, the square hole containing the cutter can be broached through the bar
and counter bored and threaded for a large adjusting screw. However, if the cuts are heavy, it
may be better to broach the square hole to a blind stop and drill a round hole much smaller in
diameter than the cutter cross section. This avoids weakening the bar in the outside fibres that
resist the bending action.
Fig 2.18 Use of a standard broached sleeve to hold a boring cutter in a line boring bar
Figure 2.19 shows a simple method of fastening a cutter to a boring bar that can be used
where a variation in hole diameter is unnecessary. The cutter is located by means of shoulders
and is held firmly in place by wedge. This cutter has the advantage of having two cutting
edges. Its disadvantage of having no adjustment is largely offset by the fact that this type of
cutter blade can be inexpensively made from flat stock.
Fig 2.19 Wedge-type holder

Boring-tool designs of the preceding types have been used successfully in the past but under
present manufacturing conditions they have one disadvantage: they require time and skilled
toolmakers to manufacture. When commercial boring tools were not available, there was no
other solution, but now commercial tools are easily purchased. Standard bars and cutters will
do a variety of boring operations, and boring-bar components are standard items for the
constructions of special bars. The tool designer should investigate and seriously consider the
use of commercial items before designing a special bar which will require several hours of a
skilled toolmakers time to manufacture. A few of the standard commercial boring-bar
components are mentioned in the following discussion. Their utilization is limited only by the
tool designer’s imagination.
2.8 Planing:
Planing is a machining process in which the metal is removed by the relative linear
movement of the tool over the surface of the work. The planing machine consists of a
reciprocating table on which the work is held. The cutting tool, which is a single-point tool, is
held in a tool post carried on a vertical tool slide, the saddle of which can be traversed on a
cross rail. The cutting takes place during the forward stroke of the table and the tool is lifted
by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic means to avoid rubbing during the return stroke. The
tool slide and the saddle on the cross slide provide feed in the vertical and horizontal
directions.
2.8.1 Planing tools:
High speed steel and tungsten carbide are the most commonly used materials in planing.
Planing tools have relatively large cross-section, because they are designed for maximum
rigidity. The shank of the tool made of high strength heat treated alloy steel. The inserts are
brazed or mechanically secured. Under conditions of maximum rigidity of the machine and
workpiece set-up, carbide tools are more efficient than high-speed steel tools. Planing time is
often reduced by 50% or more by using carbides instead of high speed steel.
Carbide tools should not be used under the fallowing conditions:
 Workpieces that limit the tool over-travel to only a few centimeters (higher over
travel is required because of high speeds).
 Workpiece that require the use of s longitudinal extension on the tool holder for
reaching into blind areas.

 Workpiece that require excessive overhang of the tool.

 Weldments in which metal hardness at junctions varies considerably; high-speed steel
tools operating at low speeds give better results.
 Planing of metals that are harder than 40 HRC.
2.8.2 Planing tool geometry:
Fig 2.20 Recommended design of high-speed planer tools
Especially in carbide tools, to take care of shock loading and interrupted cuts, negative rakes
are generally preferred. Table 2.1 gives the values of tool angles and nose radii for planing
tools. Recommended design details for the cutting portion: of high-speed steel planer are
shown in figure 2.20
Table 2.1: Planing tool angles
These tools can he designed for a variety of operations such as undercutting, slotting, and
straight planing of either horizontal or vertical surfaces. Tools having relatively small nose
radius are preferred in roughing cuts. Broad, flat nosed tools often as wide as 30 mm are used
for finish machining of most metals. Carbide roughing tools are provided with a back rake
angle of 0 to -15°. As a general rule, the tougher the metal, the higher is the negative back
rake. Zero degree back rake angle is used for soft metals and -3 to -50 for cast iron, mild steel
and medium carbon steels. Difficult-to-machine materials require a back rake angle of - 5 to -
15°. Side rake angles range from +3 to -150 depending upon the machinability of the metals.

A side rake of 0 to + 3° is usually suitable for free cutting metals and 0 to -150 for difficult-
to-machine materials. Excessive negative side rake angle should he avoided as it is likely to
cause chatter. Side rake or the land of the tool is the largest single factor in controlling chip
flow. The use of an optimum side rake eliminates the need for chip breakers which is an
advantage because mechanical chip breakers are readily knocked off by heavy chips and
ground-in chip breakers weaken the cutting edges.
The approach angle controls the chip thickness in relation to feed. A 450 approach angle
produces thinner chips than an 800 approach angle, and a 90° approach angle produces chips
of thickness equal to the value of feed. An approach angle of 65 to 700 is commonly
employed for most metals.
Clearance angles vary with the type of materials being planed. Side and end clearance angles
of 5° are usually suitable for east iron. For machining steels clearance angles should be
reduced to make the tool edge stronger.
In brazed tools, the carbide tip is generally brazed sideways to the tool shank so as to provide
a greater depth of carbide in the direction of loading. Disposable carbide inserts are also
finding application in the planing operation. Tougher grades, throwaway type carbides like
P40, P50, and K40 are now used in planing. Some of the typical planing tools are described
below.
2.8.3 Types of planing tools

i. Goose neck tools: These tools carry the cutting edge in a plane behind the base of the
tool shank (Fig. 2.21). When the tool deflects under the influence of heavy forces, the
goose neck tools does not dig in or chatter so readily as is the case with conventional
tool when the cutting edge is ahead of the base of the shank.
Fig 2.21 Goose neck tool

ii. V-Guideway tool: Machine guideways are generally planed and scrapped or ground.
It is possible to avoid grinding by using a suitable carbide guide way finishing tool
with which the required geometry and surface finish of upto 0.8  m can be achieved.
In the tool shown in and (Fig 2.22) the functional surfaces are ground and lapped so
as to give a good surface finish on the work and a longer life.
Fig 2.22 V-Guide way planing tool

iii. Finishing Tool: Flat surfaces are generally finish-planed with broad-nose tools. A
typical geometry of this tool is shown in fig 2.23
Fig 2.23 Broad-nose finishing tool

iv. Tools for T-slot cutting: T-slot planing tools are available in left and right hand
versions, and as brazed and disposable inserts. Fig 2.24 shows a disposable insert
planing tool.
Some T-slot cutting tools incorporate a special design where a wedge is introduced in
the split position of the tool face to assure correct width of the machined slot (Fig.
2.25). At the time of resharpening, the tool width is adjusted to the exact required
value. With this type of tool, both the sides of a slot can be simultaneously machined
and close tolerances on the slot width can be easily achieved.
v. Mechanically clamped circular insert tool: This tool consists of a circular insert made
of high-speed or carbide, and it is used for profile and finish planing. The insert is

clamped on to the shank by a screw through the centre hole. The main advantage of
the tool is that when one portion of the cutting edge wears out the insert can be rotated
to bring the unused portion of the edge into position. In the case of high-speed tools,
when the insert is worn out all around, it can be reground and used again.
Fig 2.24 Planing tool holder for circular tip
2.9 Shaping:
The shaping process is similar to planing, and it can be described as a process for removing
metal from surfaces in horizontal, vertical and angular planes by the use of a single-point tool
held in a ram that reciprocates the tool in a linear direction across the workpiece. Shaping is
also employed to produce contoured surfaces with the use of copying attachments.
Fig 2.25 The shaping machine
High-speed steel is commonly used in shaping because speeds are low. Since shaping is an
interrupted cutting operation in which the cutting tool is subjected to impact forces at the

beginning of each stroke, the carbide tools, when used, are prone to chip. The tool geometry
and design of shaping tools are similar to planing tools. Figure 2.26 shows a variety of high-
speed steel tools used in shaping.
Fig 2.26 (a) Recommended designs of high-speed steel tools for shaping steel
Fig 2.26 (b) Recommended designs of high-speed steel tools for shaping cast iron


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Tool Engineering and Design: Design of single point cutting tools

2. Design of Single Point Cutting Tools

2.1. BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CUTTING TOOLS

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Positive rake angle:

Negative rake angle:

2.2. SIGLE POINT TOOLS

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Fig 2.2: Single-point cutting tool

Fig 2.3: Geometry of single-point cutting tool

General nomenclature for a single-point cutting tool:

 Shank: Main body of the tool.

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

2.4. TYPES OF SINGLE-POINT CUTTING TOOL

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

 Tungsten carbide is almost exclusively used as the tool material.

Long indexable insert tools:

 Sometimes called as on-end or slug-type tools.

Throwaway or disposable insert:

 One of the latest developments in single-point tools.

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Fig 2.4 positive and negative disposable inserts

2.5. DESIGN OF TOOL SHANKS FOR STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY

Fig 2.5 Tool forces at the cutting edge

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Table 2.1 Standard shank sizes

Height of centres Shank size

Where, PZ is the permissible tangential force during machining.

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

   Permissible stress of shank material = 20 Kg/mm2

2.6. BORING TOOLS

Fig 2.4 Boring bar of simple design

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Fig 2.5 Adjustable boring bar

Fig 2.6 Adjustable boring bar

Fig 2.7 Adjustable boring bar

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Fig 2.8 Cartridge of boring tool

Fig 2.9 A Boring unit

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Fig 2.10 Combination of boring bar built with cartridges

Fig 2.11 Boring quills with increased rigidity

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

Fig 2.12 Different methods of damping vibrations in boring bars

Line Boring bar

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Fig 2.13 Insert boring heads for line bar

Fig 2.14 Boring Head

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Fig 2.15 Boring and facing head built-in stepper motor

2.7 BORING-BAR CUTTERS AND ADJUSTMENTS

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Fig 2.16 An adjustable boring or wobble head.

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Fig 2.19 Wedge-type holder

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

2.8.1 Planing tools:

Carbide tools should not be used under the fallowing conditions:

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa

 Workpiece that require excessive overhang of the tool.

Fig 2.20 Recommended design of high-speed planer tools

Table 2.1: Planing tool angles

Agnel Institute of technology and design, Assagao, Bardez-Goa