See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/234002702

Marine algae: An Introduction, Food value and Medicinal uses

Article  in  Journal of Pharmacy Research · January 2011

CITATIONS READS
40 21,055

5 authors, including:

Ajit Kandale Ajay Kumar Meena

School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences
31 PUBLICATIONS   428 CITATIONS    160 PUBLICATIONS   2,628 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Mruthyumjaya Rao Meda Pratyush Panda

Central Council for Research in Ayurveda & Siddha KIIT University
80 PUBLICATIONS   789 CITATIONS    16 PUBLICATIONS   168 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

LITERARY RESAEARCH AND REVIEWS View project

QC Analysis, Estimation of Markers/PRS & Shelf-life Studies of AYUSH CCT” View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Ajit Kandale on 20 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Ajit Kandale et al. / Journal of Pharmacy Research 2011,4(1),219-221
Review Article
ISSN: 0974-6943 Available online through
www.jpronline.info
Marine algae: An Introduction, Food value and Medicinal uses
Ajit Kandale 1, A K Meena1*, M M Rao1, P Panda 1, AK Mangal1 G Reddy 3 and Ramesh Babu 2
1
National Institute of Ayurvedic Pharmaceutical Research, Patiala, Punjab.(India).
2
Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, New Delhi, (India).
3
Central Research Institute( Ayurveda), Mumbai.(India).
Received on: 15-09-2010; Revised on: 18-10-2010; Accepted on:13-12-2010

ABSTRACT
Seaweeds offer a wide range of therapeutic possibilities both internally and externally. The term seaweeds refer only to macrophytic marine algae, both wild and
cultivated, growing in saltwater. Botanically, seaweeds are classified as green, brown, or red. A particular seaweed’s placement in one of these groups is determined
first by its photosynthetic pigments, then its reproductive mode, then its micro and macro morphologies, and finally by its phycopolymers. In the last three
decades the discovery of metabolites with biological activities from macroalgae has increased significantly. However, despite the intense research effort by
academic and corporate institutions, very few products with real potential have been identified or developed. Substances that currently receive most attention from
pharmaceutical companies for use in drug development or from researchers in the field of medicine-related research include: sulphated polysaccharides as antiviral
substances, halogenated furanones from Delisea pulchra as antifouling compounds, and kahalalide F from a species of Bryopsis as a possible treatment of lung
cancer, tumours and AIDS. Other substances such as macroalgal lectins, fucoidans, kainoids and aplysiatoxins are routinely used in biomedical research and a
multitude of other substances have known biological activities. Fucus vesiculosus is a brown seaweed that grows on the northern coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans and the North and Baltic seas. This species is often included in kelp preparations along with other types of seaweed. As an herbal medicine, seaweed has been
used for traditional cosmetics, treatments for cough, asthma, hemorrhoid, boils, goiters, stomach ailments, and urinary diseases, and for reducing the incidence of
tumors, ulcers, and headaches.

Key words: Marine algae,Food value , Medicinal uses

INTRODUCTION
The term seaweed refers to the large marine algae that grow almost exclu-
sively in the shallow waters at the edge of the world’s oceans. They provide
home and food for many different sea animals, lend beauty to the underwater
landscape, and are directly valuable to man as a food and industrial raw mate-
rial.
Fresh seaweeds, both wild and cultivated, have long been used in food diets, as
well as traditional remedies in Asian countries1. It has been reported that
seaweeds serve as an important source of bioactive natural substances2. Many
metabolites isolated from marine algae have been shown to possess bioactive
effects3. In fact, the discovery of metabolites with biological activities, from
macroalgae, has increased significantly in the past three decades. On the other
hand, seaweeds have recently received significant attention for their potential
as natural antioxidants4.
Seaweeds are plants because they use the sun’s energy to produce carbohy-
drates from carbon dioxide and water (this is called photosynthesis). They are
simpler than the land plants mainly because they absorb the nutrients that
they require from the surrounding water and have no need for roots or com-
plex conducting tissues. Some large seaweed such as the kelps have root-like
parts called holdfasts, but these only serve to attach them to the rock. Most
seaweed has to be attached to something in order to survive, and only a few
will grow while drifting loose in the sea5.
Three groups of seaweeds are recognized, according to their pigments that
absorb light of particular wavelengths and give them their characteristic col-
ors of green, brown or red. Because they need light to survive, seaweeds are
found only in the relatively shallow parts of the oceans, which means around
the shores. Here they occur in a variety of shapes and sizes, from the large
kelps (certain brown seaweeds) that form forests on temperate (cooler) coasts,
to the hard “encrusting corallines” that look like pink icing, but are so impor-
tant in building and cementing coral reefs in the tropics. Some seaweed, espe-
cially many of the larger reds, are showy and attractive, while others may be
small and inconspicuous, and grow in a low “turf” on the rocks6.
Of the five to six thousand seaweed species that occur worldwide, about 720
have been recorded on the coast of South Africa. Some of these grow only in
the warm waters of Natal, while others are restricted to the cool waters of the
Western Cape. Many occur only on South African shores, and the high propor-
tion of these endemic (occurs nowhere else) species makes our seaweed flora
unique.
Seaweed is a loose, colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular,
benthic marine algae. The term includes some members of the red, brown
and green algae. Seaweeds can also be classified by use (as food, medicine,
fertilizer, industrial, etc.)7. Seaweed may belong to one of several groups of
multicellular algae: the red algae, green algae, and brown algae. As these three
groups are not thought to have a common multicellular ancestor, the seaweeds
are a polyphyletic group. In addition, some tuft-forming blue green algae
(Cyanobacteria) are sometimes considered as seaweeds - “seaweed” is a collo-
quial term and lacks a formal definition.
Types of Seaweed
The simplest of the seaweeds are among the cyanobacteria, formerly called
the blue-green algae, and green algae (division Chlorophyta), found nearest
the shore in shallow waters and usually growing as threadlike filaments, irregu-
lar sheets, or branching fronds. The brown algae (division Phaeophyta), in
which brown pigment masks the green of the chlorophyll, are the most numer-
ous of the seaweeds of temperate and polar regions. They grow at depths of 50
to 75 ft (15–23 m). The red seaweeds (division Rhodophyta), many of them
delicate and fernlike, are found at the greatest depths (up to 879 ft/268 m);
their red pigment enables them to absorb the blue and violet light present at
those depths.

*Corresponding author.
Ajit Kandale
National Institute of Ayurvedic Pharmaceutical Research,
Patiala, Punjab.India
Tel.: + 91-9465159789
E-mail:ajitkandale7585@gmail.com; 1. Brown Algae - the Phaeophyta
ajaysheera@gmail.com
Journal of Pharmacy Research Vol.4.Issue 1. January 2011 219-221
 Ajit Kandale et al. / Journal of Pharmacy Research 2011,4(1),219-221
Brown algae is the largest type of algae. Brown algae is in the phylum
Phaeophyta, which means “dusky plants.” Brown algae is brown or yellow-
brown in color and found in temperate or arctic waters. Brown algae typically
have a root-like structure called a “holdfast” to anchor the algae to a surface.
Worldwide there are about 1500-2000 species of brown algae4. Some species
are of sufficient commercial importance, such as ascophyllum nodosum, that
they have become subjects of extensive research in their own right5. Examples
of brown algae: kelp, rockweed (Fucus), Sargassum .
2. Red Algae - the Rhodophyta
There are more than 6,000 species of red algae8. Red algae have its often
brilliant colour due to the pigment phycoerythrin. These algae can live at
greater depths than brown and green algae because it absorbs blue light. Coralline
algae, a group of red algae, are important in the formation of coral reefs.
Example of red algae: Irish moss, coralline algae, dulse (Palmaria palmata ).
3. Green Algae - the Chlorophyta
There are more than 4,000 species of green algae9. Green algae may be found in
marine or freshwater habitats, and some even thrive in moist soil. These algae
come in 3 forms: unicellular, colonial or multicellular. Examples of green
algae: sea lettuce (Ulva sp.), which is commonly found in tide pools, Codium
sp., one species of which is commonly called “dead man’s fingers.”
Sea weeds as a food
Seaweed draws an extraordinary wealth of mineral elements from the sea that
can account for up to 36% of its dry mass. The mineral macronutrients include
sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chlorine, sulfur and phosphorus; the
micronutrients include iodine, iron, zinc, copper, selenium, molybdenum, fluo-
ride, manganese, boron, nickel and cobalt 10.
Seaweed has such a large proportion of iodine compared to dietary minimum
requirements, that it is primarily known as a source of this nutrient. The
highest iodine content is found in brown algae, with dry kelp ranging from
1500-8000 ppm (parts per million) and dry rockweed (Fucus) from 500-
1000 ppm 11. In most instances, red and green algae have lower contents, about
100-300 ppm in dried seaweeds, but remain high in comparison to any land
plants. Daily adult requirements, currently recommended at 150 µg/day, could
be covered by very small quantities of seaweed. Just one gram of dried brown
algae provides from 500-8,000 µg of iodine and even the green and red algae
(such as the purple nori that is used in Japanese cuisine) provides 100-300 µg
in a single gram12.
Journal of Pharmacy Research Vol.4.Issue 1. January 2011
The amounts of seaweed ingested as food in Japan, or in supplements, is often
considerably more than 1 gram a day. Studies show that the human body adapts
readily to higher iodine intake, where the thyroid gland is the main tissue
involved in use of iodine (it is a component of thyroid hormones). Huge
portions of the world population get insufficient iodine because the land,
plants, and animals that serve as common dietary sources are very low in
iodine. In many countries, iodine is added to table salt to assure adequate levels
are attained. However, some developing countries are still catching up and
suffering from the effects of low iodine intake. China is has the largest popu-
lation with a history of low iodine intake, followed by India.
Aside from iodine, seaweed is one of the richest plant sources of calcium, but
its calcium content relative to dietary requirements pales in comparison to
the iodine. The calcium content of seaweeds is typically about 4-7% of dry
matter. At 7% calcium, one gram of dried seaweed provides 70 mg of calcium,
compared to a daily dietary requirement of about 1,000 mg. Still, this is higher
than a serving of most non-milk based foods.
Protein content in seaweed varies somewhat. It is low in brown algae at 5-11%
of dry matter, but comparable in quantitative terms to legumes at 30-40% of
dry matter in some species of red algae. Green algae, which are still not
harvested much, also have significant protein content, i.e., up to 20% of dry
matter. Spirulina, a micro-alga, is well known for its very high content, i.e.,
70% of dry matter.
Seaweed contains several vitamins. Red and brown algae are rich in carotenes
(provitamin A) and are used, in fact, as a source of natural mixed carotenes for
dietary supplements. The content ranges from 20-170 ppm. The vitamin C in
red and brown algae is also notable, with contents ranging from 500-3000
ppm. Other vitamins are also present, including B12, which is not found in most
land plants.
Seaweed has very little fat, ranging from 1-5% of dry matter, although sea-
weed lipids have a higher proportion of essential fatty acids than land plants.
Green algae, whose fatty acid make-up is the closest to higher plants, have a
much higher oleic and alpha-linoleic acid content. Red algae have a high EPA
content, a substance mostly found in animals, especially fish. Seaweed has
high fiber content, making up 32% to 50% of dry matter. The soluble fiber
fraction accounts for 51-56% of total fibers in green (ulvans) and red algae
(agars, carrageenans and xylans) and for 67-87% in brown algae (laminaria,
fucus, and others). Soluble fibers are generally associated with having choles-
terol-lowering and hypoglycemic effects.
Seaweeds are also harvested or cultivated for the extraction of alginate, agar and
carrageenan, gelatinous substances collectively known ashydrocolloids or
phycocolloids. Hydrocolloids have attained commercial significance as food
additives. The food industry exploits their gelling, water-retention, emulsify-
ing and other physical properties. Agar is used in foods such as confectionery,
meat and poultry products, desserts and beverages and moulded foods. Carrag-
eenan is used in salad dressings and sauces, dietetic foods, and as a preservative
in meat and fish products, dairy items and baked goods.
Medicinal uses of sea weeds
Seaweeds have a salty taste that is an indication that the material can disperse
phlegm accumulation, particularly as it forms soft masses, include goiter, the
thyroid swelling that indicates severe iodine deficiency. Following are the
descriptions of the seaweeds from Oriental Materia Medica13.
Kunbu (Laminaria and Ecklonia)
a) Essence and Flavor: Salty, Cold
b) Channel Entered: Liver, Stomach, Kidney
c) Actions: Softens hardness, disperses accumulation, resolves phlegm, cleanses heat
d) Applications: Scrofula, goiter, tumor, edema, accumulation, testicular pain and
swelling
Haizao (Sargassum)
a) Essence and Flavor: Bitter, Salty, Cold
b) Channel Entered: Liver, Stomach, Kidney
c) Actions: Disperses accumulated phlegm, disperses goiter and tumor, delivers water,
cleanses heat
d) Applications: Scrofula, goiter, tumor, edema, testicular pain and swelling
Zicai (Porphyra)
a) Essence and Flavor: Sweet, Salty, Cold
b) Channel Entered: Lung
c) Actions: Resolves phlegm, softens hardness, dispels heat, promotes diuresis
d) Applications: Goiter, beriberi [leg swelling], edema, urinary infection, sore throat
219-221
 Ajit Kandale et al. / Journal of Pharmacy Research 2011,4(1),219-221
The descriptions for kunbu and haizao are quite similar. Yang Yifan wrote about
the differences between these commonly used seaweeds: Haizao and Kunbu are
salty and cold, and enter the liver, lung, and kidney meridians. Both can clear
heat, transform phlegm, soften hardness, and dissipate nodules. They can also
promote urination and reduce edema. In clinical practice, they are often used
together to treat nodules such as goiter and scrofula.
There are some differences between the two herbs. Haizao is stronger in trans-
forming phlegm and dissipating nodules, and it is more suitable for treating
goiter and scrofula. Kunbu is stronger in softening hardness and reducing con-
gealed blood; it is more suitable for treating liver-spleen enlargement, liver
cirrhosis, and tumors.
One of the best known formulas with the seaweeds is Haizao Yuhu Tang, or the
Sargassum Decoction for the Jade Flask 14. This formula of 12 ingredients in-
cludes Sargassum, Ecklonia, and Laminaria. It was used to treat a condition of
goiter which was so severe it made the throat look like a large flask. However,
these seaweeds have been adopted into formulas for treating other soft swell-
ings, including ovarian cysts, breast lumps, lymph node swellings, lipomas, and
fat accumulation from simple obesity.
Alginates are used in wound dressings, and production of dental moulds.
In microbiology research, agar is extensively used as culture medium. Seaweed is
a source of iodine, necessary for thyroid function and to prevent goitre. Excess
intake of seaweed may raise iodine to toxic levels, however. Seaweeds may have
curative properties for tuberculosis, arthritis, colds and influenza, worm infes-
tations and even tumors. Seaweed extract is used in some diet pills. Other sea-
weed pills exploit the same effect as gastric banding, expanding in the stomach
to make the body feel fuller.
Respiratory Treatment
Red algae containing carrageenan have been used for millennia as treatments for
respiratory ailments, especially intractable sinus infections and lingering
pneumonias. Asthma was not separated out as such in the old literature.
Hormones in Seaweeds
Melatonin
Melatonin is abundant in many seaweeds, up to 1000 times the amounts found
in land plants such as Feverfew and St. John’s Wort. This may explain some of
the calming effects of eating seaweeds. Night-time harvested seaweed has much
more melatonin content than daytime-harvested seaweed of the same species.
There may be some useful therapeutic opportunities using seaweed-sourced
melatonin 15.
Thyroid Hormones in Seaweeds
Brown seaweeds are the only known non-animal sources of thyroid hormones.
The presence of organically-bound iodine in brown seaweeds as thyroid hor-
mones may explain some of the effects of eating some brown seaweeds.
Di-iodothyronine
Fucus species of brown seaweeds have been used as treatment for thyroid disor-
ders. The thyroid hormone present in Fucus is Di-Iodothyronine (DIT); it is
weakly active if at all as a thyroid hormone in the mammalian body. Two DIT
molecules are condensed in an elegant esterification reaction to produce
tetraiodotyrosine(T4, Thyroxine). The organically bound iodine in Fucus may
enhance T4 production by providing some prefabricated portions of T4. I have
not seen any studies tracing Fucus-sourced DIT to either the thyroid gland or
circulating T4.
The therapeutic effects of using powdered Fucus, 3-5 grams daily resemble the
Source of support: Nil, Conflict of interest: None Declared
Journal of Pharmacy Research Vol.4.Issue 1. January 2011
View publication stats
therapeutic effects of thyroxine medications: shrinking of goiters, weight loss,
resolution of symptomatic non-autoimmune hypothyroidism, return of vim
and vigor, lessening of psychiatric disruptions, and resolution of eczemas. This
is especially true of women enduring postpartum physiological depression after
several years of being pregnant and nursing one or more children.
Thyroxine and Tri-iodothyronine in Brown Seaweeds T4 and T3 have been
found as the main organically bound iodine compounds in several brown seaweeds,
notably Laminaria sp. and Sargassum sp. Up to 10% of Lamiarian iodine may be
in MIT, DIT, T3, orT4. Even more in the less commoinly available Sargassum
(less commercially available; it is a rapidly expanding invasive of all temperate
coasts; this may be good news for thyroid sufferers).
Kombu is one of the top 5 most consumed seaweeds in Japan and USA. The
physiological effects of regular kombu consumption can be: resolution of coro-
nary artery disease, healthier liver function, higher metabolic rate, faster food
transit time, lower LDL cholesterol,, higher HDL cholesterol blood levels. If
the thyroid hormones in kombu and Sargassum are available from food, this
could turn out to be an effective treatment to replace both synthetic thyroxines
and animal-thyroid medications16.
Essential Fat and Vitamins in Seaweeds
Most seaweeds are rich in vitamins, especially the B vitamins, including B12.They
also have significant amounts (1-3%)of Omega-3 fatty acids. Nori, in particular
has 3% omega-3 fatty acids and large amounts of vitamins A and C. Interest-
ingly, eating lots of nori is the Japanese prescription for boys who may have
inherited male pattern baldness.
Other uses
Other seaweeds may be used as fertilizer. Seaweed is currently under consider-
ation as a potential source of bioethanol. Seaweed is an ingredient in toothpaste,
cosmetics and paints. Alginates enjoy many of the same uses as carrageenan, and
are used in industrial products such as paper coatings, adhesives, dyes, gels,
explosives and in processes such as paper sizing, textile printing, hydro-mulch-
ing and drilling17.
REFERENCES
1. APHA. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. 16th American
Public Health Association. Washington, DC, 1998.
2. Smit, A.J. Medicinal and pharmaceutical uses of seaweed natural products: A review. Journal
of Applied Phycology, 16: 2004, 245-262.
3. Faulkner, D.J. Marine natural products. Natural Product Reports, 19: 1-48. Aust. J. Basic &
Appl. Sci., 3(4): 2002, 3179-3185.
4. Chandini, S.K, Ganesan P. and Bhaskar N. In vitro antioxidant activities of three selected brown
seaweeds of India. Food Chemistry, 107, 2008, 707-713.
5. www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/seaweeds/index.htm
6. Drum, R.. Sea Vegetables. In Planting Our Future. Gladstar &Hirsch, eds. 2000. Pp 277-284.
7. Athukorale D. P. The health giving benefits of seaweed , Leader Publication (Pvt) Ltd. 3rd
November 2002, Volume 9, Issue 16, 1st Floor, Colombo Commercial Building., 121, Sir
James Peiris Mawatha., Colombo.
8. Hoek, C. van den; Mann D. G.; Jahns H. M.. Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. pp. 166. (1995) ISBN 0-521-31687-1.
9. Senn T. L.. Seaweed and Plant Growth. Clemson, S.C.: T.L. Senn. p. 181 pp. (1987) ISBN 0-
939241-01-3.
10. Thomas D.. Seaweeds. Life Series. Natural History Museum, London. (2002) ISBN 0-565-
09175-1.
11. Woelkerling W. J.. “An introduction”. in K. M. Cole & R. G. Sheath. Biology of the Red Algae.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 1–6. (1990) ISBN 0-521-34301-1.
12. Hoek, C. van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. 1995. Algae An Introduction to Phycology.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0 521 30419 9.
13. Hsu, H.Y., Chen Y.P., Shen S.J., Hsu C.S., Chen C.C. and Chang H.C., 1986. Oriental Materia
Medica: A Concise Guide. Oriental Healing Arts Institute, Long Beach, CA.
14. The Healing Powers of Seaweed and Algae by George Felfoldi Page 34.
15. Albay folk promote seaweed ‘pansit’”. ABS-CBN Regional Network Group. 2008-04-08.http:/
/www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/regions/04/08/08/albay-folk-promote-seaweed-pansit.
Retrieved 2009-08-04.
16. Secretariat of the Pacific Community Coastal Fisheries Programme, Seaweed’s nutritional
value, Fisheries Information Newsletter #95, October-December 2000.
17. Dharmananda Subhuti. The Nutritional And Medicinal Value of Seaweeds used in Chinese
Medicine.
219-221