BIOLOGY PROJECT TERM (1) Name - Sao Shee Class -X7 (4) Roll - 10[Detaits) Name - Saw Shee Class - X7 Roll no.- 70 session"; Section- (3 20ZI- ad Stream- 3i0-Scieme School- fast Poi, Board- (4S! would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to our teacher Mrs.Ranita Chatterjee who gave the opportunity to do this wonderful project.Secondly, | would like to thank the books and websites which helped me a lot,also the authors who wrote wonderful piece of works.Moreover, this project helped a lot in expanding my current knowledge as | came across many new information while doing this project. Also, | would like to thank my parents and friends who helped me alot in finishing the project in the given amount of time. AcknowledgementTopic Page Introduction Contents Light Reaction Process Transfer of Energy Emerson effect Two pigment System PS-Ivs. PS-II Photophosphorylation Cyclic & Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation Mechanism of Proton gradient Light -Independent Reaction Factors affecting photosynthesis Introduction to topic C3 Cycle Carboxylation Carbon reduction RuBp regeneration Outline of Dark reaction Blackmann's Law 18-19 External Factors 20-23 Interrnal Factors 24-25 Conclusion 26Photosynthesis Light Reactions & Light independent Reactions Factors affecting Phontosynthesis~ Nb odbucti Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis.The process is carried out by plants, algae, and some types of bacteria, which capture energy from sunlight to produce oxygen (02) and chemical energy stored in glucose (a sugar).During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H20) from the air and soil. Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon dioxide is reduced, meaning it gains electrons. This transforms the water into oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose. The plant then releases the oxygen back into the air, and stores energy within the glucose molecules. The process of photosynthesis is commonly written as: { 6CO2 + 6H20 > C6H1206 + 602} This means that the reactants, six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules, are converted by light energy captured by chlorophyll (implied by the arrow) into a sugar molecule and six oxygen molecules, the products. While there are many steps behind the process of photosynthesis, it can be broken down into two major stages: light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reaction takes place within the thylakoid membrane and requires a steady stream of sunlight, hence the name light-dependent reaction. The chlorophyll absorbs energy from the light waves, which is converted into chemical energy in the form of the molecules ATP and NADPH. The light-independent stage, also known as the Calvin Cycle, takes place in the stroma, the space between the thylakoid membranes and the chloroplast membranes, and does not require light, hence the name light-independent reaction. During this stage, energy from the ATP and NADPH molecules is used to assemble carbohydrate molecules, like glucose, from carbon dioxide. This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light-Pg-2 dependent reaction and a product of the light-independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation: {C02 + H20+ photons — [CH20] + 02} Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation. The ability to photosynthesize is found in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. The most well-known examples are plants, as all but a very few parasitic or mycoheterotrophic species contain chlorophyll and produce their own food. Algae are the other dominant group of eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms. All algae, which include massive kelps and microscopic diatoms, are important primary producers. Cyanobacteria and certain sulfur bacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes, in whom photosynthesis evolved. No animals are thought to be independently capable of photosynthesis, though the emerald green sea slug can temporarily incorporate algae chloroplasts in its body for food production."Light Reaction, The light energy absorbed by pigments in leaves is converted to a different form: chemical energy. Light energy is converted to chemical energy during the first stage of photosynthesis, which involves a series of chemical reactions known as the light-dependent reactions. Before we get into the details of the light-dependent reactions, let's step back and get an overview of this remarkable energy-transforming process. The light-dependent reactions use light energy to make two molecules needed for the next stage of photosynthesis: the energy storage molecule ATP and the reduced electron carrier NADPH. In plants, the light reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes of organelles called chloroplasts. entoroplast As we can also sayimbrief; “Light reaction is the process of photosynthesis that converts energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATR” Process : The process of light reaction is given below- ¢ — Inlight reactions, energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the pigment chlorophyll and is converted into chemical energy in the form of electron charge carrier molecules such as NADPH and ATP. ¢ Light energy is utilized in both the Photosystems | and II, present inside thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts.Pg-4 «The carbohydrate molecules are obtained from the carbon dioxide from the use of chemical energy gathered during the reactions. * The Light energy tends to split into the water and later extracts the electrons from the photosystem II; then the electrons move from the PSII to b6f (cytochrome) to the photosystem | (PSI and reduce in the form of energy. * The electrons are re-energized in the Photosystems | and the electrons of high energy reduce NADP+ into NADPH. * In the process of non-cyclic photophosphorylation, the cytochrome uses the electron energy from Photosystem II to pump the ions of hydrogen from the lumen to stroma; later, this energy allows the ATP synthase to bind to the third phosphate group to the ADP molecule, which then forms the ATP. * Inthe process of cyclic photophosphorylation, the cytochrome béf uses electron energy from both the Photosystems | and II to create a number of ATP and stops the production of the NADPH, thus maintaining the right quantities of ATP and NADPH. Thus, the light reactions harness the light energy to drive the transport of electrons and the pumping of the proton, to convert the energy from the light into the biologically useful form ATP and produces a usable source of reducing the power NADPH.Transfer of Energy _ ¢ When photon of light energy falls on chlorophyll molecule, one of the electrons pair from ground Absorption of photon hoton bumps an electron to or higher ommeee singlet state passes into higher energy level called _ | |____Qu(@)y excited singlet state. Pigment molecule O i@amesiaekio hole of chlorophyll molecule within 10-9sec. Increasing energy * This light energy absorbed by chlorophyll molecule before coining back to ground state appears as radiation energy, while that coming back from excited singlet state is called fluorescence and is temperature independent. * Sometimes the electron at excited singlet state gets its spin reversed because two electrons at the same energy level cannot stay; for some time it fails to return to its partner electron. e As aresult it gets trapped at a high energy level. Due to little loss of energy, it stays at comparatively lower energy level (triplet state) from excited singlet state. * Now at this moment, it can change its spin and from this triplet state, it comes back to ground state again losing excess of energy in the form of radiation. This type of loss of energy is called as phosphorescence. ¢ When electron is raised to higher energy level, it is called at second singlet state. ¢ It can lose its energy in the form of heat also. Migration of electron from excited singlet state to ground state along with the release of excess energy into radiation energy is of no importance to this process. Po-5* Somehow when this excess energy is converted to chemical energy, it plays a definite constructive role in the process. Emerson effect Enhancement it QUANTUM YIELD 0.04] 0.04 480, 560 640 720 WAVELENGTH IN my. Red drop and Emerson's enhancement effect in chlorella Emerson and Lewis (1943) measured quantum yield at different wavelengths of light. A sudden drop in rate of photosynthesis was noticed at 680 nm (red region). This sudden fall in the photosynthesis yield beyond red region of spectrum is called red drop.Emerson further noticed that photosynthetic rate can be restored if simultaneously shorter wavelength is provided. This simultaneous giving of shorter and longer wavelengths gave photosynthetic rate higher than total rate from the beams separately. This photosynthetic enhancement is referred as Emerson enhancement effect or Emerson effect. E= Quantum yield in combined beam - Quantum yield in red beam Quantum yield in far red beam The results obtained by Emerson were as under: Photosynthesis at 700 nm =10 Photosynthesis at 653 nm = 43.5 Photosynthesis at 653 + 700 nm = 72.5 Po-6‘Two pigment system The discovery of Emerson effect has clearly shown the existence of two distinct photochemical processes, which are believed to be associated with two different specific group of pigments called pigment or photosystem | and pigment or photo system II.Each photosystem has all the pigments, except one molecule of chlorophyll a forming a light Photosystem harvesting system also called Stroma antennae. Reaction Primary Ligh Pigment center electron “Out maleciles sceepto The thylakoid membrane contains fj ~some integral membrane | protein complexes that catalyze the _ light reactions. There are four major protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane: 1. Photosystem II (PSII) 2. Cytochrome b6f complex 3. Photosystem | (PSI) 4. ATP synthase. These four complexes work together to ultimately create the products ATP and NADPH. Photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll 6, and carotenoids, are light-harvesting molecules found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. As mentioned above, pigments are organized along with proteins into complexes called photosystems. Each photosystem has light-harvesting complexes that contain proteins, 300-400 chlorophylls, and other pigments. When a pigment absorbs a photon, it is raised to an excited state, meaning that one of its electrons is boosted to a higher-energy orbital.Photosystem Ivs. Photossstem I Pato Proosystom a Photosystem, large complexes of proteins Caray vernary cee) and pigments (light- absorbing molecules) that are optimized to harvest light, play a key role in the light reactions. There are two types of photosystems in the light-dependent reactions, photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem | (PSI). PSII comes first in the path of electron flow, but it is named as second because it was discovered after PSI. Basis Photosystem - | Photosystem - Il =) ai-<| The PSIspecial absorbs best at __ |The PSII special pair absorbs best at [Special Pairs] 759 nthe special pairs 680 nm special pairs are are P700. called P680 Primary ean The primary electron acceptor of cons acceptor of PSIis ag PSII is pheophytin, an organic hioropryileaiieaaz2. molecule that resembles 0 chlorophyll Source of The PSI reaction center is Once an electron is replenished by electrons that lostPSII reaction center electrons. | sow down an electron gets electrons from water. transport chain from PSII. Pg-8Photophosphorylation Light phase includes the interaction of two pigment systems. PS | and PS Il constitute various types of pigments. Arnon showed that during light reaction not only reduced NADP is formed and oxygen is evolved but ATP is also formed. This formation of high energy phosphates (ATP) is dependent on light hence called photophosphorylation. ADP + Pi —— ATP + H,O ¢ When the light quantum is absorbed by various types of pigments (like chlorophylls, phycobilins, carotenoids etc), it is transferred to reaction centre i.e. P700 in PS | and P680 in PS II. ¢ Electrons excite from reaction centres due to funnelling of energy. ¢ P700 gets photo excited and comes under first excited singlet state. ¢ Asaresult electron is lost, which is accepted by an electron, acceptor in the way. ¢ After absorbing light, excited electron liberated from reaction centre interacts with water. ¢ Another important aspect of light reactions is the formation of ATP and NADPH2 (Assimilatory power). ¢ H+ from water and electron from chlorophyll are made available to NADP to form NADPH2. ¢ The electrons are accepted by NADP after passing through electron carriers. e The carriers in the way undergo oxidation and reduction and are arranged in accordance with their redox potential value. Pg-9a Cyclic Photophosphorylation vS._ Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation j'-As the name suggests, in [7 Electron movement is non-cyclic in noncyclic photophosphorylation: ircular pattern 2.Involves only Photosystem I (PS 1). Photosystem I and II (PS. Land PS IN). [3.The electron circle is [3. The electron circle is closed not closed. 4 Photolysis of water does | 4.Photolysis of water not occur. occur. '5.Oxygen is not evolved. | 5.Oxygen is evolved. 6.Usually occurs at 6.1t is favoured by high low light intensity. light intensity. 7.Occurs when the 7. Occurs when the concentration of COZ is _ | concentration of CO2 is less in the atmosphere. sufficient in the atmosphere. BElectron is not returned to the P700 after passing |to the reaction centre through the electron (P680), rather it is transport system (ETS). _ | accepted by NADP +. ‘ ace (ra ne azalll Zschere] GH tm rs} || ' aN \ 7B} i ! aoe | Phe H eo ' ea { : ' L / ee fase ! : : | ! ates i | : = | P70) He+ re Pigment S-Il 7 Piament 1 Lee wae THO r seonmh saonmlMechanism of development of proton gradient: In lumen of lamellae (thylakoids) protons or hydrogen protons are produced due to splitting of water. Splitting of water occurs on the inner side of membrane. While electrons move through photosystems and protons move through across the membrane. Primary acceptor of electron is located on the outer side of membrane. Due to this from primary acceptor, electron is transferred to a H carrier and not to an electron carrier. As a result, this molecule removes a proton from stroma during the transport process of an electron. During the migration of electron to electron carrier at this step on inner side of membrane, proton is released on inner side lumen of membrane. On the stroma side of membrane, NADP reductase enzyme is found. Electrons from acceptor of electrons of PSI, protons are responsible for reduction of NADP+ to NADPH + H+. Such electrons are also removed from stroma of chloroplast. In lumen protons increase, while in stroma, they decrease leading to establishment of proton gradient across the membrane. Breaking down of proton gradient is responsible for release of energy. When proton migrate across the membrane to the stroma via transmembrane channel of FO of ATPase. FO of ATPase is embedded in membrane and is responsible for carrying on facilitated diffusion of protons across the membrane. F1 of ATPase protrudes on outer side of membrane facing the stroma. F2 particle undergoes conformational change due to break down of gradient due to availability of energy. This leads to formation of ATP (photo phosphorylation in photosynthesis). Pg-11© Ligh Ledapeederd Reactions The Calvin cycle, light-independent reactions, bio synthetic phase, dark reactions, or photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle of photosynthesis are the a series of biochemical reactions in photosynthesis not requiring light to proceed, and ultimately produce organic molecules from carbon dioxide. The energy released from ATP (produced during the light reactions) drives this metabolic pathway they are the chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. The pathway by which all photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms ultimately incorporate CO2 into carbohydrate is known as carbon fixation or photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle or dark reactions. The dark reactions are sensitive to temperature changes, but are independent of light hence it is called dark reaction, however it depends upon the products of light reaction of photosynthesis, i.e., NADPH and ATP. The carbon dioxide fixation takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts becauseit has enzymes essential for oe | fixation of CO2 and oe synthesis of sugar.The car assimilation and reduction of CO2 takes place in this reaction by which carbohydrate is synthesized through following three pathways. In plants, carbon dioxide (C02) enters the interior of a leaf via pores called stomata and diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast—the site of the Calvin cycle reactions, where sugar is synthesized. These reactions are also called the light- Sugar Granum Inner membraneindependent reactions because they are not directly driven by light. In the Calvin cycle, carbon atoms from CO2 are fixed (incorporated into organic molecules) and used to build three-carbon sugars. This process is fueled by, and dependent on, ATP and NADPH from the light reactions. Unlike the light reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, the reactions of the Calvin cycle take place in the stroma (the inner space of chloroplasts). The techniques used for studying different steps were Radioactive tracer technique using 14C (Half-life -5720 years), Chromatography and Autoradiography and the material used was Chlorella (Cloacal alga) and Scenedesmus (these are microscopic, unicellular algae and can be easily maintained in laboratory). Calvin Cycle/C3 Cycle Melvin Calvin (1954) an American scientist worked out the path of carbon by using paper chromatography technique .It comprises a series of 13 reactions. These reactions of the Calvin cycle are divided into three phases: i. Carboxylation (Uptake of CO2) ii. Carbon reduction iii. RUBP regeneration All 13 enzymes that catalyse steps in the Calvin cycle are located in the stroma of the chloroplast. These enzymes catalyse reversible reactions, degrading carbohydrate molecules in cellular respiration and synthesizing carbohydrate molecules in photosynthesis. Pg-13Carboxylation(uptake of CO2) «The first phase of the Calvin cycle consists of a single reaction. * In this reaction, 6 molecule of CO2 reacts with 6 molecules phosphorylated 5-carbon compound, ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) to form six molecules of six carbon unstable compound which is converted into 12 molecules of PGA (3 carbon compound) with the help of an enzyme called carboxydismutase. * This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, also termed as rubisco. * The chloroplast contains abundant rubisco enzyme than any other protein. e The carbon that was initially the part of a CO2 molecule is now part of a carbon skeleton; i.e. the carbon has been “fixed.” «The Calvin cycle is also known as the C3 pathway asthe product of the initial carbon fixation reaction is a 3-carbon compound. * Plants that initially fix carbon in this way are called C3 plants. Carbon reduction PGA is reduced to PGAL (Phosphoglyceraldehyde). This process is the reverse of oxidation step in glycolysis. * Total number of PGAL molecules thus formed are 12. * The reaction occurs in two steps, Firstly, PGA is phosphorylated by ATP to 1,3 diphosphoglyceric acid. Secondly, 1,3 diphosphoglyceric acid forms phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) with the help of NADPH + H+. From phosphoglyceraldehyde, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) is formed with the help of enzyme triose phosphate isomerase. * DHAP condenses with PGAL to form fructose 1,6 diphosphate.* From fructose 1,6 diphosphate, one phosphate group is removed to form fructose 6 phosphate and the step is called dephosphorylation. ¢ Finally different types of compounds like glucose, starch are synthesized from fructose 6 Phosphate(F-6-P). RuBP regeneration e F-6-P next undergoes a transketolase reaction that removes the two top carbons as the thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) derivative of glycoaldehyde, leaving the tetrose erythrose 4-phosphate (E-4-P). «The (E-4-P) condenses by aldolase reaction with DHAP to form sedoheptulose diphosphate (SDP), and this is converted by a second energy-liberating step to sedoheptulose-7-phosphate (S-7-P) and Pi by a phosphatase reaction. ¢ As far as can be determined, the same phosphatase works on FDP and SDP. « The S-7-P undergoes a transketolase reaction in which the two top carbons are removed as TPP-glycoaldehyde leaving the pentose ribose -5 phosphate (R-5-P). * This is converted to ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru-5-P) by phosphopentose isomerase. * The TPP-glycoaldehyde derived from F-6-P and F-7-P in the transketolase reaction is transferred to PGA forming xylulose-5- phosphate (Xu-5-P) which is converted to-Ru-5-P by a phosphopentose epimerase. * The R-5-P is converted to Ru-5-P by an isomerase and is phosphorylated by phosphoribulokinase, ATP being the donor, to produce ribulose biphosphate (RUBP) and ADP (a second "priming" reaction that prepares the pentose for carboxylation). Pg-15Outline of Dark reactions: (1) 6 Ribulose-I-5-biphosphate+6C02+6H20 (RuBP) 12 3- Phosphoglyceric add (3PGA) (2) 12 3-phosphoglyceric add +12 ATP (3PGA) > 12 1-3- Diphosphoglyceric add + 12 ADP 121 -3-Diphosphoglyceric add+12 NADPH —> 12 Phosphoglyceraldehyde +12 NADP + 12Pi (PGAL) (3) 5 Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) > 5 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) 3 PGAL+3 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) — 3 Fructose 1-6 diphosphate 3 Fructose-I-6-diphosphate + 3H20 — 3 Fructose-6-phosphate + 3Pi (4) 2 Fructose-6-phosphate + 2 PGAL = 2 Xylulose-5-phosphate + 2 Erythrose-4-phosphate (5) 2 Erythrose-4-phosphate + 2 DHAP — 2 Sedoheptulose-1-7 diphosphate 2 Sedoheptulose-1-7-diphosphate +2H20 — 2 Sedoheptulose-7- phosphate + 2Pi (6) 2 Sedoheptulose-7-phosphate + 2PGAL — 2 Ribose-5-phosphate + 2 xylulose-5-Phosphate 2 Ribose-5-phosphate — 2 Ribulose-5-phosphate 4 Xylulose-5-phosphate — 4 Ribulose-5-phosphate (Ribose monophosphate) (RuMP) 6 Ribulose-5-phosphate + 6 ATP — 6 Ribulose-1-5-biphosphate + 6 ADP fl The carbon fixation reactions may be summarized as follows: 12NADPH + 18ATP + 6CO2 — C6H1206 + 12NADP+ +18ADP +18Pi+ 6H20Pg-17 12NADP* reaction Fructose- iphosphate ISedoheptulose- ,7-diphosphate Fructose- 6-phosphate Ribulose- 5-diphosphate 2molecules Hexose i.e., Glucose 1 moleculesFactow affecting Photosy hess The rate of photosynthesis is very important in determining the yield of the plants including crop plants.An understanding of the factors that affects photosynthesis is necessary. Photosynthesis is under the influence of both External and Internal (plant)factors. The External factors include the availability of sunlight,temperature,CO2 concentration and water.Though several factors interact and simultaneously affect photosynthesis at any point the rate is determined by the factors available at sub-optimal levels. The plant factors include the number,size,age and orientation of leaves,mesophyll cells and chloroplasts,internal CO2 concentration and amount of chlorophyll. The plant factors are dependent on the genetic predisposition and growth of the plant or the Internal factors. Blackmann’s law of limiting factors Blackmann (1905) proposed the law of limiting factors according to which when process is conditioned to its rapidity by a number of factors, the rate of process is limiting by the pace of the slowest factor.Blackmann's law of limiting factor is modification of Leibig's law of minimum which states that rate of process controlled by several factors is only as rapid as the slowest factor permits. Theory od three cardinal pointswas given by Sach's in 1860.According to this concept,there is minimum, optimum and maximum for each factor.For eavery factor.there is a minimum value when no photosynthesis occurs,an optimum value showing highest rate and a maximum value,above which photosynthesis fails to take place. Pg-18Pg-19 HIGHER LIGHT INTENSITY MEDIUM LIGHT INTENSITY LOW LIGHT INTENSITY RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS ——_> co, CONCENTRATION ———_——_> The law can be explained best by the following illustration : Light intensity provided to a leaf is just permit it to utilize 5 mg of CO2.At'A’ in Fig. no photosynthesis occurs due to non-availability of CO2. If concentration is increased from 0 to 1 mg,rate of photosynthesis will increase from ‘A’ to ‘B'. Now even if the CO2 concentration is further increased to 5 mg rate becomes constant.Further increase from 'B' to 'D' is possible only when light intensity is increased, which is at this time working as limiting factor. Because the factor which is quantitatively smaller may not be limiting one, while a factor which is relatively less than the amount actually required will act as limiting factor. That is why modification in name have been suggested e.g., relatively limiting factor, most significant factor etc.(A)External factors : (1) Ligh = In photosynthesis light is converted to chemical energy in the food formed. It can be studied under three headings: i.e. (i) Light intensity (ii) Light quality and (iii) Light duration. (i) Light intensity : Light intensity required to get the optimum value differs with different species. Usually with increase in light intensity, increase in rate is noticed. Clouds, fog, dust and atmospheric humidity reduce intensity. Submerged aquatic plants also gets less light intensity. At very high light intensity the cells exhibit photo-oxidation by the process of solarization and if continues for few hours, the photosynthetic apparatus is destroyed. Plants which are able to grow in shades are called as sciophytes while those growing in intense light are called heliophytes. It also affects the opening and closing of stomata thereby affecting the gaseous exchange. The value of light saturation at which further increase is not accompanied by an increase in CO2 uptake is called light saturation point. (ii) Light quality : Light between 400-700 nm wavelengths constitutes the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Blue and red light of the spectrum is said to be the best light for the photosynthesis. The green light has inhibitory effect. On the other hand, plants growing in deep water absorb green light. 9-20Pg-21 (ii) Light duration : Plants getting average light of 10-12 hours a day show higher rate of photosynthesis. Apple trees were found to carry on photosynthesis in continuous light for eighteen days (Bohning 1949). (2) Carbon Dioxide Concentration- ‘tc, species (high light) ‘tCgspecies (high light) Rate CO,Uptake ——» Cspecies (low light) OQ 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 CO,concentration (jl. ) > ¢ It is a major limiting factor influencing the rate of photosynthesis. « The concentration of CO2 is far very low in the atmosphere (between 0.03 % to 0.04%). THis level of carbon doxide is far below the requirement for optimum photosynthesis. « Increase in concentration up to 0.05% can cause an increase in the rate of photosynthesis but beyond this level, it becomes damaging over longer periods. * The C3 and C4 plants respond differently to CO2 concentration.At low light intensities neither type responds to high CO2 concentration. « Athigh intensities,both C3 and C4 plants show increase in the rate of photosynthesis. The C4 plants show saturation at about360 ppm,while C3 plants show saturation only beyond 450 ppm, thus, the current concentration of CO2 is limiting for C3 plants. ¢ As, C3 plants respond to higher CO2 concentration by showing increased rate of photosynthesis, leading to higher productivity, this has been used for the production of greenhouse crops like tomatoes and bell pepper. * These crops are allowed to grow in CO2 enriched atmosphere that leads to higher yields (CO2 fertilization effect ). (3) Temperature - * Photosynthesis can take place over a wide range of temperatures. «The light reactions are temperature sensetive but they are affected to a much lesser extent. * The dark reaction being enzymatic rae temperature controlled. « Again, the temperature optimum for photosynthesis of different plants also depends on the habitat that they adapted to Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates. * The C4 plants respond to higher temperature and they show higher rate of photosynthesis, while C3 plants have much lower temperature optimum. * Optimum temperature in C3 plant is 20-25 degree C and for C4 plant is 30-45 degree C. * Some algae in hot springs can undergo photosynthesis even at 75 degree C. (4) Water - ¢ Water is one of the raw materials utilized for the process of photosynthesis. * Photosynthetic process utilizes less than 1% of the water absorbed by a plant, hence it is rarely a limiting factor in Pg-22photosynthesis. « Water stress causes the stomata to close, hence reducing the C02 availability as gaseous could not occur. « Also, water stress makes leaves wilt, thus reducing the surface area of the leaves and the metabolic activity reduces as well. (5) Oxygen - * cess of 02 may become inhibitory for the process. « Enhanced supply of 02 increases the rate of respiration simultaneously decreasing the rate of photosynthesis by the common intermediate substances. * The concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is about 21% by Volume and it seldom fluctuates. « An increase in oxygen concentration decreases decreases photosynthesis and the phenomenon is called Warburg effect. * The explanation of this problem lies in the phenomenon of photorespiration. (6) Pollutants and Inhibitors - * The oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons present in smoke react to form peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and ozone. e PAN is known to inhibit Hill reaction.Diquat and Paraquate (Commonly called as Viologens) block the transfer of electrons between Q and PQ in PS-II. * Other inhibitors of photosynthesis are monounron or CMU (Chloropheny! dimethyl urea) diuron or DCMU (Dichlorophenyl dimethyl urea ), bromocil and atrazine etc. Which have the same mechanism of action as that of viologens. « At low light intensities potassium cyanide appears to have no inhibiting effect on photosynthesis. Pg-23(B)Internal factors : Photosynthesis is under the influence of several internal (plant) factors. The plant factors include the number,size,age and orientation of levaes, mesophyll cells and chloroplasts, internal CO2 concentration and the amount of chlorophyll. The plant or internal factors are dependent on the genetic predesposition and the growth of the plant. (1) Chlorophyll - * — Of the internal factors,chlorophyll is the most important because light energy is trapped by only this substance. Thereis no photosynthesis in the absence if chlorophyll. * The non-green parts of variegated leaves (e.g ; Crotons), therefore, do not have starch * Photosynthetic number of assimilation number shows a relationship between the chlorophyll and photosynthesis. It is the amount of carbon dioxide (in gms) assimilated by one gram of chlorophyll in an hour. * Emerson (1929) observed a direct relationship between the chlorophyll content of a leaf and the rate of photosynthesis. If all other factors are favourable, increased chlorophyll leads to an increase in photosynthesis. (2) Photosynthetic products - ¢ With the accumulation of the end products of photosynthesis in mesophyll cells, there is decrease in their photosynthesis rate because concentration of these products in the cells increases the rate of respiration. ¢ Accumulation of photosynthetic products, if not consumed or translocated results in stoppage of process gradually. Pg-24(3) Protoplasmic products - There is some unknown protoplasmic factor which affects the rate of photosynthesis.It takes some time to initiate the process in seedlings even if the chlorophyll has appeared. Same is true, if the plant is shifted to light from prolonged darkness. (4) Structure of leaves - Characters like structure, position and distribution od stomata, intercellualar spaces, vascular tissues have been noticed to affect the process directly. Pg-25Coulusion All living organisms require energy to carry out their different life activities. This energy directly or indirectly comes from the sun. The green plants are unique in the respect that they synthesize food in the presence of sunlight from simple .Substances like carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis is the only process of biological importance that can harvest this energy. Energy stored as chemical energy in food (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) by photosynthesis is released in living cells during the process of respiration and is utilized to generate heat or converted into energy rich compounds (e.g., ATP and NADP) Photosynthesis is a biochemical process (anabolic and endergonic) in which organic compounds (carbohydrates) are synthesised from the inorganic raw materials (H20 and CO2) in presence of light and pigments. O2 is evolved as a by-product.It is best approached as a three phase process: i. The absorption of light and retention of light energy. ii. The conversion of light energy into chemical potential. iii. The stabilization and storage of chemical potential. 90% of total photosynthesis is carried out by aquatic plants. First true and oxygenic photosynthesis started in cyanobacteria (Blue - green algae). P9-26The contents of this Project has been extracted from following sources: * NCERT textbook ¢ — https://www.nationalgeographic.org ¢ — https://www.britannica.com ¢ — https://en.m.wikipedia.org ¢ — https://www.biologyonline.com * — https://courses.lumenlearning.com | would most likely thank these sites without which this project would be incomplete Pg-27Certificate This is to certify that this "Biology Project (TERM-1)" on the topic "Photosynthesis: Light Reactions and Light Independent Reactions Factors affecting Photosynthesis" has been successfully completed by Saanvi Shee of Class-XI (B), of Bio-Science Stream, under the guidance of my Biology teacher Mrs.Ranita Chatterjee and our Principal Mrs. Keya Chakroborty during the Year 2021-2022 in particular fulfillment of the Practical Examination conducted by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). This is the certify that the above statement is correct. Signature of principal Signature of Teacher Pg-28