Physics 111 Lecture 02

Motion in One Dimension

SJ 8th Ed.: Ch. 2.1 – 2.8
• Introduction to motion & kinematics,
definitions
• Position and Displacement
• Average velocity, average speed
• Instantaneous velocity and speed
• Acceleration
• Motion diagrams
• Constant acceleration - a special case
• Kinematic equations
• Free fall
• Another look at constant acceleration
(kinematic equations derived using
calculus).

2.1 Position, Velocity, and Speed

2.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
2.3 A particle under Constant Velocity
2.4 Acceleration
2.5 Motion Diagrams
2.6 A particle under Constant Acceleration
2.7 Free Fall
2.8 Kinematic Equations Derived
from Calculus
Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Motion - Kinematics
Mechanics describes motion resulting from interactions between
masses (matter) and forces.
• “Kinematics”: very little physics
describes motion but ignores the causes
• “Dynamics” invokes “forces” that cause motion
Kinematic motion concepts:
• Position x(t) & displacement ∆x
• Rates of change
• Velocity v(t) & speed
• Acceleration a(t)

Abstractions – modeling assumptions:

• Point objects called “particles” – infinitesimally

small, no shape, no spin, no distortion, …
• 1 dimensional world
• Motion variables position, displacement, velocity &
acceleration only along + & - x- axis Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Position
Position: an object’s location
measured relative to a chosen
reference point (the origin of a
coordinate system).
The road sign in the diagram is
used as the origin.
The position is the displacement
from the origin.

The position-time graph shows the

location of the particle (car) at every
time in some range.
Points between measurements are
interpolated guesses.
The function x(t) generating the curve
is continuous and smooth
(differentiable).
Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
Displacement & Position
r
x(t) ≡ position as function of time Usually we want to find this.
r r r r
Positions x f ≡ x(t f ) xi ≡ x ( ti )
Displacement is a particle’s change in position (a vector)
during some time interval t − t ≡ ∆t A scalar
f i
r r r r r
∆ x ≡ x f − xi = x ( t f ) − x ( t i )
Language: ∆ “delta” means difference
Often it shrinks to infinitesimal size i.e: ∆x
dx
0

origin xi ∆x xf

x(ti)
x(tf)

[x(t)] and [∆
∆x] = length, SI units are meters

Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012

 The Difference between Distance Covered and Displacement
A basketball player starts in
the center, runs back and forth
to the baskets a couple of times
(See graph of x(t)).

L = length of the court

∆x = displacement
d = distance covered
(always positive)
b d
∆ x b ,a ≡ x b − x a = L / 2 db,a = L / 2
3
∆x c,a ≡ x c − x a = −L / 2 dc,a = 2 L
f 5
dd,a = L
x(t) a ∆x d,a ≡ x d − x a = L / 2 2
t
7
∆x e,a ≡ x e − x a = −L / 2 de,a = L
2

c e ∆ x f ,a ≡ x f − x a = 0 df ,a = 4 L

Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012

Average Velocity (a Vector)
The average velocity of a particle during some time interval is the
displacement divided by the time interval for the displacement to
occur – the average rate of change of position during the interval
r r r
r ∆ x x f − xi The x indicates motion along the x-
vavg ≡ =
∆t t f − ti axis
Dimensions of velocity &/or speed are length / time [L/T]
SI units are m/s

Example:
t a = 4.6 s. x a = 6.00 m b
tb = 9.4 s. x b = 13.00 m
x(t) ∆xba
13.00 − 6.00 a
v avg = = 1.46 m/s c
9.4 − 4.6
∆tba
On position vs time graph:
t

vavg ≡ slope of line
What would vavg be between
segment from t to t a,c or b,c?
i f Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
Average Speed (a Scalar, Positive Quantity)
The average speed of a particle during some time interval is the
total distance traveled divided by the length of the time interval.
∆d total dis tan ce cov ered Dimensions: L/T.
savg ≡ =
∆t t f − ti SI units: m/s
• Drive 50 km east at 50 km/hr for 1 hour ∆x = +50 km
Example • Stop for 1 hour ∆x = 0 km
• Drive 50 km west for 2 hours at 25 km/hr ∆x = −50 km
x1 x2

Average Speed:
∆dtot = + 50 km + 50 km = 100 km ∆t tot = 4 hours
∆dtot 100 km
s avg, tot = = = 25 km/hr
∆t tot 4 hours

Average Velocity:
∆x tot = (x 2 − x1 ) + (x1 − x 2 ) = 50 − 50 = 0 ∆t tot = 4 hours
∆x tot
v avg, tot = = 0
∆t tot Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
“Instantaneous” means “at some given time instant”
vinst is vavg over an infinitesimal interval ∆t
0
tangent line
Limiting process:
∆x0 • The chord’s slope is the average velocity.
chord • Let ∆t
0, enclosing t for the red dot.
• The chords become successively
better approximations to the tangent
at the time of interest..
∆t0

t

The instantaneous velocity is the rate of change of position at the
time of interest; i.e. the slope of the tangent line on an x(t) graph
∆x dx
vinst ≡ v ≡ Lim vavg = Lim ≡
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt
The limit defines the time derivative of the position function
The instantaneous speed is the magnitude
of the instantaneous velocity sinst ≡ |v|
Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Finding instantaneous velocity when the position
is known as a function of time
Approximate Method: Calculate the average velocity over a
“sufficiently short” interval (squeeze its duration)

Calculus Method: Find the derivative of the position function,

d n n − 1 producing the velocity as a function of time.
[kt ] = knt Evaluate v(t) at time t.
dt

Example 1: Find v(t) where: x(t) = x 0 + k (t - t 0 )

Solution: dx dx 0 d d dt
v(t) = = + [kt] − [kt 0 ] = k
dt dt dt dt dt
∴ v(t) = k Constant

Example 2: Find v(t = 3.5 s) where: x(t) = 7.8 + 9.2 t − 2.1 t 3 m

d
Solution: v(t) = x(t) = 9.2 − (2.1 )(3) t 2 = − 6.3t 2 + 9.2
dt
v(t = 3.5) = − 6.3(3.5) 2 + 9.2 = 68 m/s

Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012

Motion with constant velocity (Special Case)

Slope of position vs. time graph is constant

Equation for v(t) is a straight line slope = velocity (constant)

- x0 is the y-intercept = initial coordinate

- Average and instantaneous velocities are ∆x
x(t)
equal
∆x x(t) - x 0
v = v avg = =
∆t t−0 x0
x(t) = x 0 + v t ∆t
t
velocity = constant

Graph of velocity versus time

v(t)
- v(t) = constant v0 for any time
- Displacement = x – x0
distance covered = v 0 t v0

The displacement is the area between

the time axis and the curve on a t
∆t
velocity versus time graph. Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Average and Instantaneous Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
Instantaneous acceleration a(t) is the slope of a velocity-time graph v(t)
tangent line Average ∆v
aavg =
Acceleration: ∆t
Dimensions: [a] = L / T2
∆v
chord Units: m/s2, ft/s2
Vector: in 1 D can be just + or -
Limiting process:
∆t The chord represents average
t

acceleration. Let ∆t
0.

∆v dv d2 x
ainst ≡ a ≡ Lim a avg = Lim = =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆ t dt dt 2
Instantaneous acceleration is the time
r derivative
r of the velocity function
“deceleration” means slowing down: a o v is negative

!*? c !*?
What acceleration b
does each segment v(t) a d e
a,…e represent?
!*?
Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
!*?
 Motion Diagrams
Nothing quantitative – just an aid to visualize what’s happening
- Snapshots at later and later equally spaced times

Constant
velocity.
Acceleration
is zero

Acceleration
constant and
along initial
velocity

Acceleration
constant and
opposite to
initial velocity

An object speeds up when v and a are in the same direction.

It slows down when v and a are in opposite directions.
Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Kinematic Equations –Constant Acceleration
• Can be used for one dimensional motion of any particle
under constant acceleration.
• Applicable to: gravity, constant forces, equilibrium
but not circular motion, variable forces
• A small set of tractable formulas for constant acceleration
The most useful ones [see also table 2.1]:

v f = v0 + a t 2.13 NOTE:
1 t0 = 0
x f − x 0 = v0 t + a t 2 2.16
2 t = tf

v 2f = v 20 + 2a(x f − x 0 ) 2.17 Justifications

follow
1
x f − x0 = (v f + v 0 )t 2.15
2
For the particular case a = 0
v f = v0 Constant velocity

x f − x 0 = v0 t Distance grows linearly with time

Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Kinematics Formulas via Velocity-time Graph
Constant acceleration Equation 2.13:
a is constant, so
v(t) is a straight line
v(t) graph vf v0 is the slope-intercept
Slope = a v f = v0 + a t
Or, rearrange the definition:
v(t) at v - v0
a = a avg ≡ f
t
Or, differentiate Eq. 2.16
Area ΙΙ = ½ at2 Equation 2.16:
v0
The displacement d(t) is the area
between v(t) and the time axis on
Area Ι = v0t v0 a velocity vs. time graph
d(t) = x f − x 0 = Area Ι + Area ΙΙ
1
t x f − x 0 = v0t + a t 2
2
Equations 2.13 and 2.16 can Or, integrate Eq. 2.13
generate the others on preceding slide:
EquationCopyright
for a R.parabola
Janow – Spring 2012
 Kinematics Formulas Discussion, Continued
Constant acceleration
Equation 2.15:
The displacement d(t) is the average velocity multiplied by the time
1
d(t) ≡ x f − x 0 ≡ v avg t = [v f + v 0 ] t
2
Equation 2.17:
Solve Eq 2.13 for the time:
v f − v0
v f = v0 + a t t =
a
Eliminate time t in Eq 2.16 and simplify: 2
v − v 
1 2 v f − v0 1 f 0
x f − x 0 = v0 t + a t x f − x 0 = v0 + a
2 a 2  a 
 
v0v f v0 2 1 v f 2 1 v0 2 v0v f
x f − x0 = − + + −
a a 2 a 2 a a
2 a [x f − x 0 ] = − v 0 2 + v f 2
xf – x0 = displacement
∴ v 2f = v 20 + 2a(x f − x 0 ) often denoted d(t) or ∆x
Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Reading Graphs of Position, Velocity, and Acceleration vs. Time

Graph of x(t) versus time

•The slope of the curve is the velocity
•The curved line indicates the velocity is changing
•Therefore, acceleration is non-zero
• If a is constant, the curve is a parabola
• The area under the curve is meaningless

Graph of v(t) versus time

•The slope gives the acceleration
•The straight line indicates a constant acceleration
•This might be the derivative of the curve above
• The area under the curve is the displacement,
which can be negative where v(t) is negative

Graph of a(t) versus time

•The zero slope indicates a constant acceleration

• The area under the curve is the change in
velocity during the time interval: ∆v = at

Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012

 More Graphs of Position, Velocity, and Acceleration versus Time

Graph of x(t) versus time

• The slope of the curve is the velocity
• The velocity is changing from a to b and c to d
• Acceleration is non-zero in those intervals
• From b to c velocity is constant

Graph of v(t) versus time

• The slope gives the acceleration
• All line segments are straight, indicating constant
accelerations
• From t = 1 to 3 s, acceleration is positive.
• From t = 8 to 9 s, acceleration is negative.
• Acceleration = 0 elsewhere
• The displacement is the area under the curve
( two triangles + a rectangle)
Graph of a(t) versus time
• The zero slope indicates constant accelerations
• The areas under the curve represent velocity
changes: Positive from t = 1 to 3 s and
negative from t = 8 to 9 s.
• Velocity is always positive, so these intervals
mean speeding up and slowing down respectively Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
Kinematics Example:
Your car’s brakes give it a constant acceleration of 5 m/s2 opposite to the
direction of motion. What is the stopping distance from a speed of 15 m/s?
car x a = - 5 m/s/s
v0 = + 15 m/s
v0
a

The acceleration is constant so kinematics applies.

Select:
v 2f = v 20 + 2ad d = stopping distance (find it)
No time variables
Set vf = 0 (the car stops)
Solve: 2 - v 20 - (15)2 m2 s2
0 = v 0 + 2ad d= =
2a 2(−5) 2
s m
d = + 22.5 m

What changes if v0 = 30 m/s instead?

- (30)2 Stopping distance ~ v02

d' = = = 90 m
2(−5) Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Free Fall: Earth’s Acceleration Acting on Bodies
Objects in free fall respond to gravity alone (no air resistance, other forces)
Free fall starts with different sorts of initial conditions:
dropped (released from rest), thrown upward, or thrown downward.

• Causes constant downward acceleration ag

Earth’s gravity: • Is independent of mass
• is reasonably constant over some region of interest

ag ≡ g ≅ 9.8 m/s2 (~ 32.2 ft/s2 ) g is positive

2 ag is negative if + direction is up
Sometimes approximate g ≈ 10 m/s

For typical problems:

Name the axis “y” rather than “x”
Usually y-axis is positive up (not always) v0
Try to choose origin so that y0 = 0
Slope = - g
v(t) = v0 − g t For v0 up, y positive up
v(t)
1
y(t) = y 0 + v 0 t − g t 2 t
2
Both v and y
- infinity at t
infinity
Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
Free Fall Kinematics Example:
A pitcher tosses a baseball directly up with a speed of 12 m/s. y
a) How long (tmax)does it take to reach the maximum height?
b) What is the maximum height?
c) How long (t5) until it passes a point 5 m above release?
d) What is the velocity at y0 on the way down?
Constant a = - g Start at y0 = 0
Part a: At maximum height, v = 0 v0 = 12
Choose: v = v 0 + a t 0 = v0 − g tmax
∴ t max = v 0 / g = 12 / 9.8 t max = 1.2 s x
Part b: Apply… 2
v  2
1 2 v20 1 1 v20 1 12
ymax = y0 + v0 t max − g t max = 0 + - g 0  = =
2 g 2  g  2 g 2 9.8
∴ ymax = 7.3 m  
1 1
Part c: Set y = 5 m… y = v 0 t − g t 2 ⇒ 5 = 12t 5 − 9.8 t 25
2 2
2
Quadratic equation in t results: 4.9 t 5 − 12t 5 + 5 = 0
12 ± 144 - 4 × 4.9 × 5 t5 = 1.9 s (on way down)
Solution: t5 = =
9.8 { t5 = 0.53 s (on way up)

Part d: Apply v2f = v20 + 2a(y f − y0 ) Set yf = y0 : v 2f = v 20 ⇒ v f = 12 m/s

Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
 Calculus Derivation of Kinematic Formulas
Constant acceleration a Initial conditions t0 x0 v0 Final conditions tf xf vf
∆v
For constant ainst = a ainst = a avg ≡
∆t Extra
Goal: Derive Equations 2.13 and 2.16 by direct integration

2.13 Velocity change over a short time interval ∆t:

∆v ≡ a∆t dv ≡ a dt as ∆t
0
Integrate dv between the limits t0 to tf:
vf tf tf
∫v 0 dv ≡ v f - v0 = ∫t a dt = a ∫ dt = a[t f − t 0 ]
0 t0
∴ v f = v 0 + a [t f − t 0 ] v f = v0 + a t f for t 0 = 0

2.16 Displacement during ∆t:

∆x ≡ v avg ∆t dx ≡ v dt = vinst dt as ∆t
0
Integrate dx between the limits t0 to tf:
xf tf tf tf Note:
∫x dx ≡ x f - x 0 = ∫t v dt = ∫ v 0 dt + a ∫ t dt
0 0
t0 t0 B 1 2B
t dt = t
1 2 ∫A 2 A
∴ x f = x 0 + v 0 [t f − t 0 ] + a [t f − t0 ]
2
1
x f = x 0 + v0 t f + a t f 2 for t 0 = 0 Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012
2
Kinematic Equations from Calculus
What if acceleration is NOT constant? V(t) graph is not a straight line

•The area under the Extra

velocity-time graph
represents displacement
∆x = x f − x i
• Break graph into rectangles
of width ∆t each
• Each rectangle has area:
∆A(tn ) = v avg (tn ) × ∆tn
•Add up all the area
rectangles from ti to tf
tf
∆ x = ∑ ∆ A( t n )
ti
tf tf
•The limit of the sum is tf
∆x = Lim ∑ ∆A(tn ) = Lim ∑ v( t ) ∆ t = v(t)dt
a definite integral ∫t i
∆t n → 0 t ∆t → 0 t
i i

Copyright R. Janow – Spring 2012