3.8.1.2 Alpha Beta Gamma Rad

Colonel Frank Seely School
3.8.1.2 Alpha Beta Gamma Rad
Q1.(a) Which ionizing radiation produces the greatest number of ion pairs per mm in air? Tick
(✓) the correct answer.

α particles
β particles
γ rays
X−rays
(1)
(b) (i) Complete the table showing the typical maximum range in air for α and β
particles.

Type of radiation Typical range in air / m
α
β
(2)
(ii) γ rays have a range of at least 1 km in air.

However, a γ ray detector placed 0.5 m from a γ ray source detects a
noticeably smaller count-rate as it is moved a few centimetres further away
from the source.
Explain this observation.
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(1)
(c) Following an accident, a room is contaminated with dust containing americium which
is an α−emitter.
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Explain the most hazardous aspect of the presence of this dust to an unprotected
human entering the room.
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(2)
(Total 6 marks)
Q2. (a) In a radioactivity experiment, background radiation is taken into account when
taking corrected count rate readings in a laboratory. One source of background
radiation is the rocks on which the laboratory is built. Give two other sources of
background radiation.
source 1 .........................................................................................................
source 2 .........................................................................................................
(1)
(b) A γ ray detector with a cross-sectional area of 1.5 × 10–3 m2 when facing the source
is placed 0.18 m from the source.
A corrected count rate of 0.62 counts s–1 is recorded.
(i) Assume the source emits γ rays uniformly in all directions.

Show that the ratio
is about 4 × 10–3.

(2)
(ii) The γ ray detector detects 1 in 400 of the γ photons incident on the facing
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surface of the detector.
Calculate the activity of the source. State an appropriate unit.
answer = ................................... unit ...........................................

(3)
(c) Calculate the corrected count rate when the detector is moved 0.10 m further from
the source.
answer = .......................... counts s–1

(3)
(Total 9 marks)
Q3. (a) Bi can decay into Pb by a β followed by an α decay, or by an α followed

–
by a β decay. One or more of the following elements is involved in these decays:

–
Write out decay equations showing each stage in both of these decays.

First decay path Second decay path
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(6)
(b) (i) Describe how you would perform an experiment that demonstrates that
gamma radiation obeys an inverse square law.
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(ii) Explain why gamma radiation obeys an inverse square law but alpha and beta
radiation do not.
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(9)
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(Total 15 marks)
Q4. (a) Calculate the radius of the U nucleus.
r = 1.3 × 10 m
0
–15
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(2)
(b) At a distance of 30 mm from a point source of rays the corrected count rate is C.
Calculate the distance from the source at which the corrected count rate is 0.10 C,
assuming that there is no absorption.
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(2)
(c) The activity of a source of  particles falls to 85% of its initial value in 52 s.
Calculate the decay constant of the source.
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(3)
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(d) Explain why the isotope of technetium, Tc , is often chosen as a suitable source of
99
m
radiation for use in medical diagnosis.
You may be awarded additional marks to those shown in brackets for the quality of
written communication in your answer.
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(3)
(Total 10 marks)
Q5.(a) State which type of radiation, α, β or γ,
(i) produces the greatest number of ion pairs per mm in air,
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(ii) could be used to test for cracks in metal pipes.
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(2)
(b) Specific radioisotope sources are chosen for tracing the passage of particular
substances through the human body.
(i) Why is a γ emitting source commonly used?
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(ii) State why the source should not have a very short half-life.
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(iii) State why the source should not have a very long half-life.
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(3)
(c) A detector, placed 0.20 m from a sealed γ ray source, receives a mean count rate of
2550 counts per minute. The experimental arrangement is shown in the diagram
below. The mean background radiation is measured as 50 counts per minute.
Calculate the least distance between the source and the detector if the count rate is
not to exceed 6000 counts per minute.
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(5)
(Total 10 marks)
Q6. A radioactive nucleus decays with the emission of an alpha particle and a gamma-ray
photon.
(a) Describe the changes that occur in the proton number and the nucleon number of
the nucleus.
proton number ...............................................................................................
nucleon number .............................................................................................

(2)
(b) Comment on the relative penetrating powers of the two types of ionizing radiation.
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(1)
(c) Gamma rays from a point source are travelling towards a detector. The distance
from the source to the detector is changed from 1.0 m to 3.0 m.
Calculate
intensity of radiation at 3.0 m
intensity of radiation at 1.0 m
answer .......................................
(2)
(Total 5 marks)
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Q7. (a) (i) Alpha and beta emissions are known as ionising radiations. State and
explain why such radiations can be described as ionising.
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(2)
(ii) Explain why beta particles have a greater range in air than alpha particles.
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(2)
(b) The figure below shows the variation with time of the number of Radon ( Ra) atoms 220
in a radioactive sample.
(i) Use the graph to show that the half-life of the decay is approximately 53 s.
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Show your reasoning clearly.
(3)
(ii) The probability of decay (decay constant) for Ra is 1.3 × 10 s . Use data
220 –2 –1
from the graph to find the activity of the sample at a time t = 72 s.
activity .....................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)
Q8. A freshly prepared radioactive source that emits negatively charged beta particles (β ) –
has an activity of 120 Bq and a half-life of 12 h.
(a) (i) State the effect on the proton number Z and the nucleon number A when a β –
particle is emitted.
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(2)
(ii) Sketch, on the axes below, a graph that shows how the activity varies during
the two days after the source was prepared.
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(3)
(b) (i) The total energy released in each decay is 5.5 × 10 J. –13
Calculate the initial energy produced each second by the source.
initial energy ..................................... J

(1)
(ii) Figure 1 shows the energy spectrum for the beta particles emitted in the
decay.
It shows that different energy beta particles are possible.
Figure 1
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Explain why all the beta particles that are emitted do not have 5.5 × 10 J of –13
energy.
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(3)
(c) The probability of one of the radioactive atoms decaying each second is
1.6 × 10 . –5
How many radioactive atoms are present when the activity is 120 Bq?
number of radioactive atoms ...................................

(1)
(d) A scientist undertaking an investigation places the freshly prepared source close to
a Geiger-Müller tube as shown in Figure 2 and records a count rate of 50 counts
per second.
Figure 2
State and explain two reasons why the measured count rate is lower than the
activity of the source.
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(2)
(Total 12 marks)
Q9. Iodine-123 is a radioisotope used medically as a tracer to monitor thyroid and kidney
functions. The decay of an iodine-123 nucleus produces a gamma ray which, when
emitted from inside the body of a patient, can be detected externally.
(a) Why are gamma rays the most suitable type of nuclear radiation for this application?
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(2)
(b) In a laboratory experiment on a sample of iodine-123 the following data were

collected.

time/h 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
count-rate
512 410 338 279 217 191 143 119 91
/counts s–1
Why was it unnecessary to correct these values for background radiation?
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(2)
(c) On the axes provided in the diagram below, complete the graph of count-rate
against time.
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(2)
(d) Use your graph to find an accurate value for the half-life of iodine-123.
Show clearly the method you use.
Half-life ..............................
(3)
(e) Give two reasons why radioisotopes with short half-lives are particularly suitable for
use as a medical tracer.
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(2)
(Total 11 marks)
Q10. Thallium (Tl) decays to a stable form of lead (Pb) with the emission of a β particle. –
Complete the equation below for this decay.
(Total 3 marks)
Q11. A student has access to a radioactive source that decays by emitting alpha, beta and
gamma radiation. The student wishes to investigate whether the count rate due to the
gamma radiation varies with distance from the source according to an inverse square law
and sets up the source and detector as shown in Figure 1.
(a) State and explain how the student can ensure that only gamma radiation is detected
during the investigation.
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(2)
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(b) The corrected count rate due to gamma radiation is 64 counts per second at a
distance of 50 mm from the source. Assuming that an inverse square law is obeyed
calculate the expected corrected count rate at a distance of 80 mm from the source.
Count rate at 80 mm ..............................................

(2)
(c) Using the data from part (b) sketch, on the axes in Figure 2, the graph the student
would expect if an inverse square law were obeyed. The corrected count rate at 50
mm has been plotted already.
Figure 2
(2)
(Total 6 marks)
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Q12.A radium-288 nuclide ( ) is radioactive and decays by the emission of a β– particle to

form an isotope of actinium (Ac).
(a) Complete the equation for this decay.

(3)
(b) β– decay is the result of a neutron within a nucleus decaying into a proton. Describe
the change in the quark sub-structure that occurs during the decay.
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(1)
(Total 4 marks)
Q13.Potassium-42 decays with a half-life of 12 hours. When potassium-42 decays it emits β–

particles and gamma rays. One freshly prepared source has an activity of 3.0 × 107 Bq.
(a) To determine the dose received by a scientist working with the source the number of
gamma ray photons incident on each cm2 of the body has to be known.
One in every five of the decaying nuclei produces a gamma ray photon. A scientist
is initially working 1.50 m from the fresh source with no shielding. Show that at this
time approximately 21 gamma ray photons per second are incident on each cm2 of
the scientist's body.
(2)
(b) The scientist returns 6 hours later and works at the same distance from the source.
(i) Calculate the new number of gamma ray photons incident per second on each
cm2 of the scientist's body.
(3)
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(ii) At what distance from the source could the scientist now work and receive the
original dose of 21 photons per second per cm2 .
(2)
(c) Explain why it is not necessary to consider the beta particle emission when
determining the dose of radiation the scientist receives.
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(2)
(Total 9 marks)
Q14.(a) (i) Explain what is meant by background radiation.
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(2)
(ii) Name a source of background radiation.
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(1)
(b) State the meaning of each of the terms in the equation A = λN
A .....................................................................................................................
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λ ......................................................................................................................
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N .....................................................................................................................
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(3)
(Total 6 marks)
Page 18
Q15.The graph below shows how the nucleon number A changes with proton number Z for the
decay series that starts with uranium-238. The half-lives of each decay are also shown.
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(a) How many alpha particles and beta particles are emitted when a uranium-238
nucleus decays to radon-222 (222Rn)?
Number of alpha particles ..............................................................................
Number of beta particles.................................................................................

(2)
(b) How many neutrons are there in a nucleus of polonium-210 (210Po)?
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(1)
(c) Identify the stable isotope that results from this decay chain.
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(1)
(d) 214 g of bismuth-214 (214 Bi) contains 6.0 × 1023 atoms. A sample containing only
bismuth-214 has an initial mass of 0.60 g.
(i) After what period of time will the mass of bismuth-214 present in the sample
be 0.15 g?
(2)
(ii) Determine the number of bismuth-214 atoms present after this time.

(1)
(iii) Calculate the activity of the bismuth-214 in the sample after this time.
(4)
(iv) Explain how the total activity of the sample will be different from the value
calculated in (iii).
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(2)
(v) The bismuth-214 decays into polonium-214. Explain why you would find very
little polonium-214 if you were to analyse the sample.
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(2)
(Total 15 marks)
Q16.An isotope of technetium is a gamma emitter used by doctors as a tracer in the human
body. It is injected into the patient’s blood stream. Scanners outside the body measure the
gamma activity, enabling the blood flow to be monitored.
(a) The graph shows the variation of activity with time, t, for a sample of the isotope.
(i) Use data from the graph to determine the half-life of the technetium isotope.
(3)
(ii) The decay constant of the technetium isotope is 3.2 × 10−5 s−1. Use data from
the graph and the equation A = λN to calculate the number of nuclei of the
radioactive technetium isotope present at time t = 0.
(2)
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(b) (i) State why an alpha emitter would not be suitable in this application.
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(1)
(ii) State why the half-life of the technetium isotope makes it suitable for this
application.
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(1)
(c) State and explain how the presence of the technetium isotope may do some
damage to the patient.
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(2)
(Total 9 marks)
Q17. is an isotope of uranium which decays through a decay chain to the isotope of lead,
, which is stable. During the sequence of decays, both alpha particles and beta
particles are emitted.
(a) (i) represents an alpha particle.
State the values of:
A ....................................................................
Z ....................................................................
(1)
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(ii) represents a beta particle.
State the values of:
A ....................................................................
Z ....................................................................
(1)
(iii) State and explain how many alpha particles are emitted during the decay chain
between .
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(2)
(iv) State and explain how many beta particles are emitted during the decay chain
between and .
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(2)
(b) The decay of uranium can be used to measure the age of rocks. A rock, which
contained N0 atoms of when it was formed, will contain NU atoms of the isotope
at a later time t.
(i) The relationship between N0, NU and t is:
N =Ne
U 0
–λt
State the meaning of the decay constant, λ.
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(1)
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(ii) Because the half-life of is much longer than that of any other member of
the decay chain, it may be assumed that the number of atoms of
present at time t is equal to the number of atoms which have decayed.
Show that the ratio of the number of lead atoms (NP) to the number of uranium
atoms at time t is given by:
= eλt – 1
(2)
(iii) The half-life of is 4.5 × 109 year. Calculate the age of a rock sample
which contains 4.2 parts per million of and 0.62 parts per million of
.
(4)
(iv) The above analysis assumes that the rock contained no lead when it was
formed. State and explain the effect on the estimated age if the rock had
contained lead when it was formed.
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(2)
(v) State reasons why the measurement of the amount of uranium in a rock

sample would be inaccurate when performed by a radiation counting
technique.
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(2)
(Total 17 marks)
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Q18.The diagram below shows an arrangement used to maintain a constant thickness of sheet
paper or steel as it is being rolled. A radioactive source and detector are used to monitor
the thickness.
(a) Explain briefly how this arrangement works.
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(3)
(b) Alpha, beta or gamma sources could be selected for use in such an arrangement.
State which source should be selected in each case and explain briefly why the
others would not be suitable.
Paper:
Source selected .............................................................................................
Reasons why the others are unsuitable ........................................................
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Steel:
Source selected .............................................................................................
Reasons why the others are unsuitable ........................................................
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(4)
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(c) Cobalt-60 is commonly used as a source in such applications. This has a half-life of
5.3 years. When fresh the source contains 5.0 × 1020 radioactive atoms.
For it to be useful the source has to have an activity of at least 1.5 × 1012 Bq.
(i) What is meant by an activity of 1 Bq?
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(1)
(ii) Draw a graph showing the number of radioactive atoms in the source over a
period of 3 half-lives. Include suitable scales on the axes.

(2)
(iii) Determine the decay constant of cobalt-60 in s–1.

(2)
(iv) After what time will it be necessary to replace the source?

(3)
(Total 15 marks)
Q19.The radioisotope iodine-131 ( ) is used in medicine to treat over-active thyroid glands. It

decays into an isotope of xenon (Xe) by β– emission with a half-life of 8.1 days. The xenon
subsequently emits a γ ray.
(a) Explain what is meant by:
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(i) isotope;
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(2)
(ii) half-life.
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(1)
(b) Write down the equation which represents the nuclear reaction.
(3)
(c) Calculate the time (in days) for a sample of iodine to decay to 1% of its initial
activity.
(4)
(d) State and explain which decay product can be detected outside the body during
treatment.
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(2)
(Total 12 marks)
Q20.The actinium series of radioactive decays starts with an isotope of uranium, nucleon
(mass) number 235, proton (atomic) number 92.
Which line in the table shows the nucleon number and proton number of the isotope after
the emission of 5 α particles and 2 β– particles?

Nucleon number proton number
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A 213 82
B 215 80
C 215 84
D 227 87
(Total 1 mark)
Q21.An alpha particle moves at one-tenth the velocity of a beta particle. They both move
through the same uniform magnetic field at right angles to their motion.
The magnitude of the ratio is
A
B
C
D
(Total 1 mark)
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M1.(a) A α particles
[auto mark question]
1

(b) (i) type of Typical range
radiation in air / m
α 0.04
β 0.40
Allow students to use their own distance units in the table

α allow 0.03 0.07 m
β allow 0.20 3.0 m.
If a range is given in the table use the larger value.
A specific number is required e.g. not just a few cm.
2
(ii) reference to the inverse square law of (γ radiation)

or
reference to lowering of the solid angle (subtended by the detector as it
moves away)
or
radiation is spread out (over a larger surface area as the detector is
moved away)
(owtte)
Ignore any references to other types of radiation.
Any contradiction loses the mark. For example, follows
inverse square law so intensity falls exponentially.
1
(c) dust may be ingested / taken into the body / breathed in

First mark for ingestion not just on the body
causing (molecules in human tissue / cells) to be made cancerous / killed /

damaged by ionisation
Second mark for idea of damage from ionisation
2
[6]
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M2. (a) any 2 from:
the sun, cosmic rays, radon (in atmosphere), nuclear fallout (from previous
weapon testing), any radioactive leak (may be given by name of incident) nuclear
waste, carbon-14
1
(b) (i) (ratio of area of detector to surface area of sphere)
ratio =
0.0037 (0.00368)
2
(ii) activity = 0.62/(0.00368 × 1/400) give first mark if either factor is used.
67000 Bq accept s or decay/photons/disintegrations s but not

-1 -1
counts s (67400 Bq)

-1
(c) (use of the inverse square law)
or calculating k = 0.020 from I = k/x

2
0.26 counts s
-1
(allow 0.24-0.26)
3
[9]
M3. (a) number correct for alpha (1)
number correct for beta (1)
alpha decay first goes via Tl (1)
numbers correct for Tl (208, 81) (1)
beta decay first goes via Po (1)
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numbers correct for Po (212, 84) (1)
6
(b) (i) use of GM tube + counter/rate-meter (1)

measurement of count rate (1)
at range of distances + suitable ruler or tape measure (1)
specifies suitable range (1)
determines background & corrects (1)
safety precaution given (1)
graph of count rate or corrected count rate against 1/d (1)
2
max 6
(ii) gamma not absorbed (1)

spreads uniformly from a point
source/spherically symmetrically (1)
area over which it spreads is proportional
to radius squared (1)
alpha and beta are absorbed in addition to spreading out (1)
max 3
[15]
M4. (a) R (= r A ) = 1.3 × 10 × (238) (1)

0
1/3 –5 1/3
= 8.0(6) × 10 m (1)
–15
(b) (use of inverse square law e.g. gives)
10 = (1)
x = 0.095 m (1)
(0.0949 m)
2
(c) (use of A = A exp(–λt gives) 0.85 = 1.0 exp (–λ52) (1)

o
(1)
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= 3.1(3) × 10 s (1)
–3 –1
(d) it only emits γ rays (1)

relevant properties of γ radiation e.g. may be detected outside
the body/weak ioniser and causes little damage (1)
it has a short enough half-life and will not remain active
in the body after use (1)
it has a long enough half-life to remain active during diagnosis (1)
the substance has a toxicity that can be tolerated by the body (1)
it may be prepared on site (1)
any three (1)(1)(1)

3
[10]
M5.(a) (i) α (radiation) (1)
(ii) γ (radiation) (1)

2
(b) (i) the radiation needs to pass through the body (to be detected) (1)
(ii) (otherwise) the activity of the source becomes too weak

(during measurements) (1)
(iii) the decaying source may remain in the body for a long time
and could cause damage (1)
[or the activity of the source will be low unless a large
quantity is used (T ∝ 1 / λ)]
1/2
(c) corrected count rate at 0.2 m (= 2550 - 50) = 2500 (c min ) (1) -1
corrected count rate at least distance (= 6000 - 50) = 5950 (c min ) (1) -1
use of I = (or in the form ) (1)
(allow C.E. for using uncorrected count rate)
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gives least distance = 0.20 × (1)
least distance = 0.13 m (1)

5
[10]
M6. (a) (proton) down 2/–2
B1
(nucleon) down 4/–4
B1
2
(b) gamma greater, must express comparison,

don’t allow simple list
B1
1
(c) use of inverse-square law
C1
A1
2
[5]
M7. (a) (i) remove electrons from atoms
B1
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by colliding with them/knocking into them
B1
2
(ii) fewer collisions per metre
B1
because beta particles are smaller/less ionising

(accept smaller charge) not less mass
B1
so lose energy over a larger distance
B1
max 2
(b) (i) one correct construction shown on graph (52 s – 53 s)
M1
at least one other determination visible on graph
M1
averaging process shown
A1
3
(ii) N = 1.08 to 1.1 × 10 (condone errors in powers of 10)

21
B1
A = λN
C1
1.4(3) × 10 Bq (allow decays/second) allow ecf

19
for minor error in N
A1
or
attempt to find gradient at 72 s
correct extraction from a tangent of graph
1.3 to 1.5 × 10 Bq (allow decays / second)
19
3
[10]
Page 34

M8. (a) (i) Z increases by 1
B1
A remains the same
B1
2
(ii) Correct curvature starting at 120 Bq
B1
60 (or 0.5 × their start value) at 12 h days later
B1
30 (or half their value at 12 h)

and continuing to fall thereafter approximately
exponentially
B1
3
(b) (i) 6.6 × 10 J (s ) (120 × 5.5 × 10 )

–11 –1 –13
B1
1
(ii) another particle is emitted in each decay (not gamma

radiation)
or
the nucleus recoils
B1
anti-neutrino emitted (this would get first and second

mark 2 marks)
B1
the other particle/neutrino/antineutrino/nucleus takes

some/varying amounts of the energy
B1
3
Page 35
(c) 7.5 × 10 6
B1
1
(d) Particles are emitted in all directions/particles do not

all go to detector
B1
Detector only detects some of the particles that enter

it/mention of dead time or recovery time
(not detector does not detect all the particles - this adds
nothing)
B1
Some particles are absorbed by the window
B1
max 2
[12]
M9. (a) Gamma rays are very penetrating/alpha/beta rays would

not be detected
B1
(outside body)
Gamma rays are less ionising/less hazardous
(to patients)/ alpha/beta are more ionising/more hazardous
B1
2
(b) Background radiation/count is much smaller/negligible
B1
Random fluctuations in the readings greater than background
B1
2
(c) Accurate plotting check all four points ( ½ square)
M1
Page 36
reasonably smooth curve with even point scatter
A1
2
(d) two or more half-lives averaged
B1
Half-life calculated from best fit line
C1
Half-life = 13 1 hour
A1
3
allow ecf from inaccurate plotting, but straight line = P.E.
(e) High activity (so only a small sample needed)
B1
Decays quickly
B1
Less risk to patient/other people
B1
(Short half-life ok because) medical test doesn‘t last long
B1
Any two from four

2
[11]
M10. Anti-neutrino indicated appropriately
B1
Page 37
Beta 0, and –1
B1
Tl 81 Pb 208
B1
[3]
M11. (a) place a sheet of aluminium/metal between source and

detector
Sheet thickness stated 2 to 10 mm thick or several/a
few mm thick plus
M1
only gamma radiation can pass through such a sheet

or alpha and beta will be absorbed/stopped by the sheet
A1
2
(b) count rate 1/r or evidence of C /C = r /r

2
1 2 2
2
1
2
C1
25 counts per second (allow cps or s ) –1
(Bq is a up)
A1
2
(c) their value calculated in (b) plotted correctly and reasonable

attempt to draw correct curvature
C1
Correct point (25 cps) plotted with correct curvature

(mark quality: must not flatten out or rise at end of their
line for large distances)
A1
2
[6]
Page 38

M12.(a) Ac
B1
β
B1
suitable anti - neutrino indication (anti - neutrino not required)

B1
(b) Down quark changes to up quark

B1
[4]
M13.(a) number of gamma ray photons per sec = (= 6.0 × 106)

B1
correct use of 4πr2; substitution of data
= 21.2
NB they may determine number per m2 and divide by 10 000

B1
(b) (i) decay constant = 0.69 / 12 = 0.0575 h–1 or 1.6 × 10–5

(or time =.5 half life)
Cl
dose = 21e–(6×0.0575)
dose = 21 / 20.5
Cl
or new (gamma) activity = 6 × 106 e–(6×0.0575)

or new (total) activity = 3 × 107 e–(6×0.0575)
Cl
Page 39
15 (gamma rays per cm2 per second) Condone 14.8 – 14.9
(no up)
Al
(ii) clear attempt to apply inverse square law

Cl
1.3 (1.26) m
Al
(c) beta particles are more heavily ionising than gamma radiation
or
loses energy rapidly by ionising the air / matter
Bl
beta particle range / penetration (in air) is low

or
beta particle range
is about 30 cm
or
is less than 1.5 m
or
is much lower than gamma radiation
NB: mention of not able to penetrate skin or clothing is talk out
Bl
[9]
M14.(a) (i) mention of radioactivity / decay / nuclear radiation

B1
ever present / independent of source being in proximity / always there /
cannot be eliminated
B1
(2)
(ii) radon / rocks / cosmic rays / nuclear fallout / medicine / space / sun

B1
(1)
(b) A – activity / rate of decay

B1
λ – decay constant / probability of decay
B1
N – number of nuclei (radioactive atoms) present
Page 40
not number of isotopes / atoms / particles
B1
[6]
M15.(a) number of alpha particles = 4

B1
number of beta particles = 2

B1
(2)
(b) 126
B1
(1)
(c) Pb-206
B1
(1)
(d) (i) number of half lives = 2
or half life = 20 minutes

C1
40 minutes
A1
(2)
(ii) 4.2 × 1020
B1
(1)
(iii) decay constant = 0.69 / half life (allow e.c.f. from (i))
or = N0e–λt1 / 2
C1
5.75 × 10–4 s–1 or 5.78 × 10–4 s–1 or 0.0345 min–1

(allow if calculation is done in (ii))
C1
Page 41
A = λN
C1
2.4 (2.42) × 1017 Bq (or decays per s)
or 1.5 (1.45) × 1019 decays per minute

A1
(4)
(iv) the (daughter) products are also decaying [or are radioactive]

M1
activity will be greater

A1
(2)
(v) any 2 of:
polonium-214 has a half life of 1.6 × 10–4 s

B1
decays almost as soon as it is formed or decays very quickly

B1
only some of the bismuth-214 decays via polonium-214

B1
max 2
[15]
M16.(a) (i) correct construction method seen on graph

or quotes appropriate values from the graph
C1
2.0 × 104 s to 2.4 × 104 s allow 1 or2 s.f.
A1
repeats and averages
B1
(3)
(ii) A = 3.7 or 3.8 × 1016 (Bq) at t = 0

C1
1.2 × 1021
A1
(2)
(b) (i) alpha will not penetrate the body or risk to patient from ionisations
Page 42
B1
(1)
(ii) long enough half life to make measurements / short enough half life so
does not remain long in body
B1
(1)
(c) causes ionisations / damage

B1
to cell / cell nucleus / body tissue / DNA
B1
(2)
[9]
M17.(a) (i) A = 4; Z = 2
B1
(1)
(ii) A = 0; Z = –1
B1
(1)
(iii) 8 alphas c.a.o.
B1
explanation consistent with their (i) / correct equations including values
of A and Z
B1
(2)
(iv) 6 betas e.c.f.
B1
explanation consistent with their (i) and (ii) / correct equations including
values of A and Z
B1
(2)
(b) (i) probability of a nucleus decaying per unit time or

ratio of activity to number of nuclei (of that type) present or
with terms defined or
Page 43
with terms defined

B1
(1)
(ii) NP = N0 – N0e–λt / Nu = (Nu + Np) e–λt / Np = No – Nu

B1
correct manipulation
B1
(2)
(iii) NP / NU = 0.62 / 4.2

C1
λ = (ln2) / 4.5 × 109
or
0.69 / 4.5 × 109
C1
correct manipulation of logs
C1
9.0 × 108 y / 8.96 × 108 y
A1
look for alternative approach based on No = 4.82 and then
use of N = Noe–λt
(4)
(iv) age will be overestimated

B1
not all of the Pb is the result of uranium decay or words to that effect
B1
(2)
(v) change of count rate for U will be small as half life is large

B1
comment about background count (rate) or background radiation
B1
absorption in sample
B1
presence of other radioactive nuclides / daughter nuclei
B1
max 2
[17]
M18.(a) thicker material absorbs more particles

B1
Page 44
count rate (number detected) falls if material is thicker
B1
fall in count rate produces change to adjust process to produce thinner

material / restore to original thickness
allow 1 mark for

‘change in thickness changes count rate and rollers adjust to compensate’
B1
(3)
(b) use a beta source

M0
alphas would be absorbed by paper

A1
gammas would not be affected

A1
use a gamma source

M0
beta would be absorbed completely

A1
alphas would be absorbed completely
allow beta if candidate includes statement about the steel sheet being thin
A1
(4)
(c) (i) 1 disintegration / decay / particle emitted per second (per unit time)
not one count per second
B1
(1)
(ii) correct curvature starting at 5 × 1020;

time scale inserted up to 15 (unit not necessary)
or labelled T1/2, 2T1/2, 3T1/2
M1
sensible scales (not multiples of 3);

correct number of atoms at each half-life;
reasonable curve and unit for time
A1
(2)
(iii) half-life = 0.69 / decay constant

C1
Page 45
4.1 – 4.2 × 10–9 (s–1)
A1
(2)
(iv) A = (–)λN
C1
number of R / A atoms when activity is 1.5 × 1012 Bq = 3.6 × 1020

C1
correct time read from graph

A1
(2.5 y / 920 days / 8.0 × 107s)
or
determines original activity or final number of atoms
2.1 × 1012 Bq or 3.6 × 1020
allow ecf from (iii)
C1
N = N e or A = A e
0
–λt
0
–λt
C1
940 d or 2.6 y (answer depends on where rounding off has been done)
A1
(3)
[15]
M19.(a) (i) nuclides or atoms of same element or same proton / atomic number

not just ‘same element’
different mass / nucleon number or numbers of neutrons
B1
B1
(2)
(ii) time taken for half the sample or half the number of nuclei
(not just ‘atoms’) to decay or activity to fall to half initial value
B1
(1)
(b)
B1
B1
Page 46
B1
(3)
(c) A / A0 = 0.01 or A = 1 and A0 = 100

C1
λ = 0.69 / 8.1 or or 0.086 (0.0856)
attempt to take logs

C1
54 days (53.8)
A1
(for between 6 and 7 half-lives, 50% → 25% → 12.5%)
C1
(4)
(d) γ radiation detected

M1
β cannot penetrate tissue or γ can penetrate tissue
–
A1
(2)
[12]
M20.C
[1]
M21.B
[1]
Page 47

E1.Most students understood the questions about the range and dangers of ionising radiations
but many failed to gain marks over the details. Part (a) was done well by a majority of
students but in part (b)(i) there was a great deal of uncertainty about the range of alpha
and beta particles. It was common to see alpha particles having ranges over 10 cm.
However, almost all students did put the range of beta particles larger than alpha
particles. Part (b)(ii) was done very well with a majority of students referring to the inverse
square relationship between intensity and distance. A few did contradict themselves by
quoting the inverse square relationship but then they talked about the intensity falling off
exponentially. The other successful students discussed the spreading of the rays. Part (c)
was again done well. Most realised that the dust had the potential to be ingested usually
by breathing it in. Some students did struggle with the mark on the dangers of the ionising
radiation. Some gave details of the damage that may be caused but failed to say that the
damage is caused by the ionisation. Others did not explicitly say humans might be
harmed or damaged, they simply said ionisation could occur in the body.
E2. A majority of students could not give two clear specific sources of background
radiation. The answers given in response to question part (a) were all too often of a
general nature and too vague to be worthy of a mark. For example, ‘power stations’ or ‘the
air’. The answers needed to be clearer statements like, ‘radioactive material leaked from a
power station, or radon gas in the atmosphere. As only one mark was being awarded only
one detailed source gained the mark provided the second point was in some way
appropriate even if poorly stated. Part (b)(i) was a very good discriminator. More able
students realised that a comparison of areas was required to answer the question. Part (b)
(ii) was also a good discriminator. Only the top 20% of students used the detection
efficiency factor as well as the fraction of gamma rays hitting the detector to obtain the
correct answer. Most used only the 1/400 detection efficiency. Students were more
successful in choosing the correct unit. Part (c) was interesting in that students either
attempted the question successfully or they left this section blank.
E5.The question on nuclear instability performed well on the whole and many candidates gained
high marks. Most of the answers to part (a) had the á radiation correct, but the answer to
part (ii) seemed to be guesswork between β radiation and γ radiation.
In part (b) most candidates scored at least one mark and the majority, two marks, but very
few were awarded all three. The main problem seemed to be part (i) which asked why a ã
source was used. A large number of answers to this were disregarded when candidates
referred to the source and not to the radiation being able to pass through the body. In
Page 48
general the answers to parts (ii) and (iii) were sensible and overall the majority of
candidates seemed to have good understanding of this part of the course.
The calculation in part (c) provided an accessible five marks, but many candidates
forfeited two marks by not taking into account the mean background radiation. A
surprising number corrected one count only, usually the 2550 count, but failed to apply a
correction to the other count rate. The majority of candidates applied the inverse square
law correctly, even if sometimes the calculation became long winded, but it usually ended
with the correct answer. The examiners were concerned for those candidates who thought
that the constant k in the equation was the Boltzmann constant, and also for those
candidates who used the corrected count rate as I and the uncorrected count rate as Io.
Both these fundamental errors indicated complete misunderstanding of the equation.
E6. (a) Another simple question for which many gained full marks.
(b) Candidates were asked for the relative penetrating powers of alpha and gamma
radiation. Far too many produced standard lists of materials that alpha and gamma
can penetrate without giving a summary statement. A significant minority interpreted
the question as requiring a comparison between alpha-particle and beta-particle
penetration.
(c) Roughly 50% of the candidates scored full marks on this question where the normal
rules of significant penalty errors were eased (allowing an answer of -). However,
answers of 9 were common even from those acknowledging the correct use of the
inverse-square law. They did not appear to be able to cope with the arithmetic
manipulations required.
E7. (a) (i) This part was done reasonably well. Some candidates distracted
themselves with ideas about positive and negative ions or with the idea that
the alpha particles were themselves ions.
(ii) Most of the candidates knew that beta particles were less ionising or that they
suffered fewer collisions. They found it more difficult to express ideas relating
to the number of collisions per millimetre of travel or the consequent notion
that alpha particles lost all of their kinetic energy over a smaller distance than
beta particles
Page 49
(b) (i) Many candidates could use the graph to find the half life. Some made
mistakes over the interpretation of the scales and others did not show their
constructions clearly enough for credit. Fewer candidates thought it worth
finding more than one determination from the graph and then averaging their
answers.
(ii) This was done quite well but significant figure errors and unit penalties were
common and a surprising number of candidates made powers often mistakes.
E8. (a) (i) In this straight-forward question it was surprising how many candidates
thought that the proton number would decrease. Most appreciated that the
nucleon number remained the same.
(ii) This was usually done well. Common errors were to show the starting activity
of 120 Bq at 12 h or to show an activity of 140 Bq at time = 0. Failure to
complete the graph for the 48 h period and very poor line drawing also cost
some the third mark.
(b) (i) That the energy per second would be the activity x the energy per decay was
understood by relatively few candidates. The number of seconds in an hour or
a day appeared in the working of many candidates.
(ii) Although there were many excellent answers the fact that another particle
(antineutrino) was the reason for the different energies was not as well known
as one would have hoped. Many concentrated only on the recoil of the
nucleus. Others wrote about the energy of emission becoming weaker as the
source decayed, the randomness of radioactive decay or the source becoming
charged.
(c) This was usually completed successfully.
Page 50
(d) There were many good answers. Many candidates appreciated that particles were
emitted in all directions so that only a proportion of those emitted would reach the
detector. A misconception in some answers was that if the source had been
shielded then all the particles would have gone in the same direction (being
reflected by the shielding). Other points about the effect of absorption by the window
to the tube and the limitations of the tube in detecting particles that arrive at the
same time, or within a certain time, were also appreciated by many.
E9. This question gave nearly every candidate the opportunity to gain some marks and a
pleasing number scored very well indeed.
Part (a) returned at least one mark to most candidates, but part (b) was answered poorly.
The examiners were hoping to be told that a typical background count-rate was much
smaller than the figures given in the table and negligible compared to the random
fluctuations apparent in these data.
A surprising number of candidates were unable to plot all four points accurately in part (c),
and some did not even attempt to do so. The better candidates averaged two or more
half-life readings taken from their line of best fit in part (d), although some then lost a mark
for an incorrect unit.
Most candidates provided at least one appropriate reason in answer to part (e).
E10. There remains a widespread inability to balance this beta-emission equation

correctly. Candidates do not know the correct values of proton and nucleon number for
the beta particle, they could not subsequently balance the equation correctly, and very few
indicated the neutrino fully, often omitting to indicate that it is an anti-neutrino in this case.
Few candidates scored three marks on this comparatively simple question.
Page 51
E11. (a) Most realised that a metal sheet between the source and detector was needed.
However, many did not give a satisfactory thickness for the metal and others did not
say clearly where it would be placed. Weaker candidates thought that taking a
background count rate and subtracting it was what was expected.
(b) Relatively few candidates were able to do this successfully and most showed no
appreciation of the application of the inverse square law to gamma radiation. Many
worked with differences or assumed inverse proportionality. Some of those who
obtained the correct value failed to include the unit.
(c) It was essential for candidates to show the correct general curvature in this part. For
full credit they needed to have applied the inverse square law successfully in (b) and
to have plotted the correct value on the graph. Many of those who understood the
inverse square law went on to calculate other points correctly when drawing their
graph.
E12.(a) The equation was completed well by a large proportion of the candidates but there
was a significant number who could make no valid attempt. The β– was usually
correct, but common errors were to quote together with an ambiguous symbol
for the antineutrino. Examiners required candidates to make it clear that the third
particle was an anti-neutrino.
(b) This was well answered by the majority who knew that a down quark changes to an
up quark when the neutron decays to a proton.
E13.Only the better candidates scored well on this and many of these obtained full or near full
marks. However, it was disappointing that this was generally a low scoring question.
(a) The need to identify the approach and then to extract the appropriate data from both
the stem and the question proved to be too demanding for most. Candidates needed
to appreciate that the gamma activity is 1 / 5 of the total activity and that the gamma
ray photons pass through an area of 4πr2. Many tried using the decay formula in this
part.
(b) (i) Candidates are required to be able to use the decay equations and here the
Page 52
decay formula could be applied here using the total activity or the gamma
activity or the value 21 given in (a), the last being the easiest approach. Many
thought that if the activity halves in 12 hours it will be reduced by a quarter in 6
hours. Errors made by those who used the correct approach usually involved
an incorrect decay constant or inability to do the arithmetic.
(ii) Candidates could gain credit if it was clear that they were applying the inverse
square law but this was far from evident in many scripts.
(c) The majority of candidates stated that beta particles have a short range but few
stated why this was the case. A significant proportion demonstrated unclear thinking
by saying that the beta particles would not pass through clothes or skin hence
talking themselves out of the mark. A worrying number thought that beta particles
were harmless since the skin prevents them entering the body. Of those who
mentioned ionisation a number thought that the beta particles themselves are
ionised.
E14.(a) (i) Although many candidates were able to suggest a sensible source for background radiation
few gave a full enough explanation, of what it is, to gain full credit
(ii) It was unclear in many cases whether or not candidates understood that the
source of background radiation was radioactive decay.
(b) Most candidates were able to define the symbols in the equation but too often,
having given a correct quantity, the candidate would then give an alternative
meaning for the symbol that was contradictory – inevitably this was penalised.
Unsurprisingly, many weak candidates took λ to mean wavelength.
E18.(a) There were many well explained answers to this part. However, the question exposed
many misunderstandings. Many candidates wrote that either the source or
radioactive particles passed through the material. Some thought that the material
itself was radioactive. Although many referred to less radiation reaching the
detector, it was disappointing how few referred to the radiation being ‘absorbed’.
(Did they think it was reflected?) Many candidates referred to radiation being
detected or not detected as thickness changed rather than that there being a
variation in count rate.
(b) (i) To gain credit in either part the correct source first had to be identified. There
were many who stated that alpha sources should be used for paper although
Page 53
the fact that alpha particles are absorbed by paper and travel only a short
distance in air should be well-known.
(ii) A beta source was stated by many to be suitable. This was allowed only if they
also stated that the steel would be thin. Many stated or implied in one or other
of the two parts that gamma radiation could pass through anything without any
change in intensity.
(c) (i) There was a surprising number of incorrect answers to this. Statements such
as ’1 Bq means that one radioactive atom is radiated from the source per
second’ or simply that ‘it is the activity of a source’ were not uncommon. Many
associate the value with the count rate of a detector rather than a property of
the source.
(ii) Poor graph drawing skills cost many candidates a mark here. To gain the first
mark the correct value at t = 0 had to be plotted and indicated at 5 × 1020 and
the curvature had to be correct though not accurate. For the second mark the
scale should have been sensible (e.g. not 5.3, 10.6 etc at the 2 cm grid
markings), and the values were expected to be reasonably accurate at times
equal to 1, 2 and 3 half lives.
(iii) Most candidates did this correctly. Common faults were giving the answer as
0.13 year−1 or as 0.13 s−1.
(iv) Whilst there were many correct answers, many were confused. A common
response was 1.5 × 10−2 = 5 × 1020 e−λt. These candidates did not appreciate
that they needed to find either the original activity or the final number of
radioactive atoms. There were also many instances where units were mixed.
Calculation of the number of atoms remaining when the activity is 1.2 × 1012 Bq
and reading the time from the graph was an expected, easy route to the
answer but this approach was rarely used.
Page 54
E19.(a) This was rather disappointingly answered with a number of inconsistencies. Isotope

was rarely used as a comparative term and candidates frequently referred to an
isotope as being ‘an element with the same proton number but different neutron
numbers’. Half-life was often referred to as being ‘the time for the number of atoms /
nuclides / molecules to be reduced to half’. None of these responses was given
credit. Candidates should be encouraged to talk in terms of decay of nuclei or the
activity of a sample of material.
(b) This part was done relatively well, although a minority of candidates was very
confused by the nomenclature used in the equation representing this nuclear
reaction.
(c) This part was well answered with the majority of candidates being able to calculate a
value for the decay constant and the majority of those candidates being able to use
their value in order to calculate a sensible time for the reduction of the activity.
Weaker candidates were awarded a compensation mark for estimating that the time
would be between six and seven half-lives.
(d) Although the majority of candidates recognised that the γ radiation would be
detected outside the body, few supported their assertion in an unambiguous
manner. Weaker candidates suggested numerous different ‘decay products’ ranging
from α and β particles to iodine and xenon.
Page 55

3.8.1.2 Alpha Beta Gamma Rad

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3.8.1.2 Alpha Beta Gamma Rad

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Colonel Frank Seely School

3.8.1.2 Alpha Beta Gamma Rad

(ii) γ rays have a range of at least 1 km in air.

Explain this observation.

(i) Assume the source emits γ rays uniformly in all directions.

answer = ................................... unit ...........................................

answer = .......................... counts s–1

Q3. (a) Bi can decay into Pb by a β followed by an α decay, or by an α followed

by a β decay. One or more of the following elements is involved in these decays:

Q4. (a) Calculate the radius of the U nucleus.

radiation for use in medical diagnosis.

Q5.(a) State which type of radiation, α, β or γ,

(i) produces the greatest number of ion pairs per mm in air,

(ii) could be used to test for cracks in metal pipes.

(i) Why is a γ emitting source commonly used?

proton number ...............................................................................................

nucleon number .............................................................................................

intensity of radiation at 3.0 m

intensity of radiation at 1.0 m

from the graph to find the activity of the sample at a time t = 72 s.

has an activity of 120 Bq and a half-life of 12 h.

Calculate the initial energy produced each second by the source.

initial energy ..................................... J

It shows that different energy beta particles are possible.

number of radioactive atoms ...................................

(b) In a laboratory experiment on a sample of iodine-123 the following data were

Why was it unnecessary to correct these values for background radiation?

Complete the equation below for this decay.

Count rate at 80 mm ..............................................

Q12.A radium-288 nuclide ( ) is radioactive and decays by the emission of a β– particle to

(a) Complete the equation for this decay.

Q13.Potassium-42 decays with a half-life of 12 hours. When potassium-42 decays it emits β–

Q14.(a) (i) Explain what is meant by background radiation.

(ii) Name a source of background radiation.

(b) State the meaning of each of the terms in the equation A = λN

Number of alpha particles ..............................................................................

Number of beta particles.................................................................................

(b) How many neutrons are there in a nucleus of polonium-210 (210Po)?

(ii) Determine the number of bismuth-214 atoms present after this time.

(a) (i) represents an alpha particle.

State the values of:

(ii) represents a beta particle.

State the values of:

(i) The relationship between N0, NU and t is:

State the meaning of the decay constant, λ.

(v) State reasons why the measurement of the amount of uranium in a rock

(a) Explain briefly how this arrangement works.

Source selected .............................................................................................

Reasons why the others are unsuitable ........................................................

Source selected .............................................................................................

Reasons why the others are unsuitable ........................................................

(i) What is meant by an activity of 1 Bq?

(iii) Determine the decay constant of cobalt-60 in s–1.

(iv) After what time will it be necessary to replace the source?

Q19.The radioisotope iodine-131 ( ) is used in medicine to treat over-active thyroid glands. It

(a) Explain what is meant by:

The magnitude of the ratio is

Allow students to use their own distance units in the table

(ii) reference to the inverse square law of (γ radiation)

(c) dust may be ingested / taken into the body / breathed in

causing (molecules in human tissue / cells) to be made cancerous / killed /

(b) (i) (ratio of area of detector to surface area of sphere)