So now we're going to start a new piece of the course.

And it's on stress transformations.

And what we're going to look at is,
imagine you have-- I brought my little wooden pieces-- imagine
we have a little block like this,
and it's got some stress state.
So we're just going to look at plane stress.
So all the stresses are going to be in this one plane.
So imagine I'm like squeezing it here, or pulling it
here, or shearing it somehow like this, or some combination
of those things.
You can imagine if I had some plane at some angle,
there'd be some equivalent stress state on that plane.
And that's what we want to work out,
is what's that equivalent stress state.
Because in some situations, you want
to know not just what the sort of applied
stresses there are-- you know, whatever they are,
this way, or this way on-- you want
to know what's the maximum normal stress.
And that might be at some weird angle here.
And you want to know what's the maximum shear stress,
and that could be at some weird angle.
You know if you have a crack in your material,
like say there was a crack at some weird angle like this,
in fracture mechanics, what you're really interested in
is stresses either normal to the cracked face
or shearing the crack face.
And so you would want to know what's
the normal stress to the crack face,
or what's the shear stress on the crack face.
So if the crack's at some weird angle,
you need to be able to figure out these equivalent stresses.
So that's what we're going to do next.
And just to let you know, just in terms
of the videos and stuff, so last year when
we did this piece of the course, I was out of town.
I was at a meeting.
And another colleague did the lectures for me.
And we recorded those.
And if you're looking at the MITx lectures,
Simona Socrate's lectures are on there.
She uses a different sign convention from me.
So if you look at those videos, you
might find it a little confusing eventually.
The first part's the same as me, but then there's
a part where she uses something different.
So we're re-recording.
And that's why the video person's here.
Craig's here today.
And so he says we can get the videos up
within three to five days, so you could watch these videos
if you want.
But if you watch Simona's, the first part--
up until we get to something called Mohr's circle,
she does the same as me.
But when she does the Mohr's circle,
she does it a little differently from me.
So one of the things about this part of the course
is, the first piece of it is very equationy.
So there's sort of long, icky equations,
which nobody remembers.
I don't remember them.
But the thing is, once we get all the equations,
there's a little manipulation you can do.
And once you do this manipulation,
there's a nice beautiful graphical technique.
And the graphical technique basically
works all the equations out for you.
And that's called Mohr's circles.
So the actual equations, Simona Socrate and I do the same way.
But she does the Mohr's circle a little bit different from me.
So don't panic if it seems like there's a lot of equations,
because that's just kind of setting it up.
And once we get the Mohr's circle, the whole thing,
it kind of explains itself once you get to the Mohr's circles.
So, stress transformations.

Let me find my piece of chalk.

Here we go.

So sometimes we want to find a stress state

at an orientation different from the given applied stresses.

So, for example, one example might

be, you've got some material like this.
And say it had a tensile stress on it like that.
Say there was a crack at some angle,
like not 90 degrees there.
You might want to know what the normal and the shear
stresses are on the crack face.
So I'll just say this is a crack.

And depending on what the orientation of that crack,

is you might imagine as I change the angle of the crack,
we're going to get a different stress state.
So the stresses vary with the orientation of the crack.

So in general, we're going to look just this situation

of plane stress.
So plane stress just means all the stresses are in one plane.
So I'm going to take the x y plane,
and that means every stress that has a zed
component is going to be 0.
And you can generalize this to a 3D stress state,
but let's just do it for plane stress right now.
So we'll say in general we're going to consider plane stress.
So all the stresses are in one plane
and I'm going to pick the x y plane.

So sigma zed is zero.

Sigma x zed is zero.
And sigma y zed is equal to zero as well.
So the kind of basic set up is we
have, say an element like this, and say
I define this as an x-axis and that's a y-axis like that.
And I have some general stress state in that plane.
So say there's a sigma x, there a sigma y, there's a tau x y.

Often people use tau for shear as well as sigma.

So I'm going to use tau for this.

So imagine I had some element at some other orientation

like that.
So the question is, what's the stress state on this element
that's rotated some amount?

So are we good with the kind of set up that we're trying to do?
So then if I redraw the rotated element--
I need to define a few more things here
on the rotated element.
So there's my element there.
So that's my y-axis.
That's my x-axis.
I have a rotated set of coordinates as well.
I'm going to call that the x 1 axis.

And I'm going to call that the y 1 axis.

And then we're going to have some stress

state relative to those axes.
So there's going to be a normal stress to the x 1
axis, at least the face that's normal to the x 1 axis.
That's going to be sigma x 1.
There's going to be a stress that
acts in the direction normal to the y face.
I'm going to call that sigma y 1.
And then we're going to have a shear stress like that.

And that's tau x 1 y 1.

And this angle here, I'm going to call theta.
And I'm going to take theta to be positive counter-clockwise.

And I'm going to call counter-clockwise CCW so that I

don't have to keep writing out counter-clockwise all the time.
So that's theta and then we've defined the x 1
and the y 1 axes set as being rotated by theta with respect
to the original axis.

So what we want to do here is develop

a set of equations which give us this stress state in terms
of this stress state in theta.
So I want to get an equation through sigma
x 1 at some function-- I'll call it f 1 of sigma x, sigma y, tau
x y, and theta.
So the idea in these problems is you're given one stress state
and you're asked to find the equivalent stress state
on an element that's rotated by some angle theta.
So we're going to find that.
There's going to be some other function for sigma y 1.

And there's going to be some other function for tau x 1 y 1.

So we want to find those relationships.

And there's particular orientations
that we're more interested in.
So one of the things we're most interested in
is, for what orientation are the normal stresses maximum
or minimum, and for what orientation are the shear
stresses maximum or minimum.
And we want to know what are those maximum normal stresses,
minimum normal stresses, and what are
those maximum shear stresses.
So we want to get those relationships.

And we also want to find the maximum normal stress.

We want to find the minimum normal stress.

And those two stresses are called the principal stresses.

And then we want to find the maximum shear stress.

So in order to do this, what we're

going to do is look at an element that's kind
of like a wedge, like this.
I brought in my little piece of balsa wood wedge.
Sp these two faces here are going to represent
the original orientation.
And say there's some sigma x, and some sigma y,
and some tau x y on those two faces.
And then this plane here is going
to represent a plane that's rotated by some angle.
And if we just use equilibrium, and we balance forces,
we say that some of the forces in x direction equal 0,
some of the forces in the y direction equals 0,
we can figure out the stresses on this face
in terms of the stresses on those two faces.
So does that sound good?

So we're going to look at static equilibrium of a wedge.

And here's my wedge here.

Say like that.

And that's my x-axis there and my y-axis.
So relative to the original x and y-axis,
I've got a normal stress acting down there of sigma y
and a normal stress over here of sigma x.
And then there's shear stresses there
that I'm going to call tau x y.
So that's the original orientation.
It's like this orientation over here.
And then I've got this plane here
and I'm going to define another pair of axes
that I'm going to call x 1 and why 1 that are
rotated by some angle theta.
And on this face here I'm going to have
a stress, a normal stress sigma x 1,
and a shear stress tau x 1 y 1.
So are we good with setup?

And I know it seems to have a lot on it at the moment.

This little angle here is also theta.

And I'm going to say the area of the left hand face is A0.
And then I'm going to put the areas of the other stresses
in terms of A0 and the angle.
So the area of the bottom face then works out to A0 tan theta.
And the area of the inclined face is A0 over cos theta.

OK are we good?

So then what we do is we use equilibrium.

And we say the sum of the forces in the x direction are 0
and the sum of the forces in the y direction are 0
and there's-- oh yes?
[INAUDIBLE] tau x 1 y 1 [INAUDIBLE] one of them
the hypotenuse and the--
This guy?
Is there another one?
Oh, well yes.
So this is one face.
Because I'm just looking at a wedge.
But if there was the whole element,
there would be nothing down here.
So yeah there is a balancing guy out.
But I'm just kind of looking at that one face right now.
So we use our equations of static equilibrium.
We just sum the forces up .
There is a few pages of algebra and trig
which I'm going to skip.
But I have a little handout that I'll put on the Stellar site
and you can work through that if you want to.
But it's just kind of a lot of algebra and trig.

And if you work it all out, you get this series of equations.
You get the sigma x 1 is equal to sigma x plus sigma y
over 2 plus sigma x minus sigma y over 2 times cos of 2
theta plus tau x y times sin of 2 theta.
So you get an equation like that first one
I've shown, f 1 up there.
So you're getting sigma x 1, the stress on the inclined
plane in terms of the original stresses that you were given
and that orientation theta.
And then you can also get an equation for tau x 1 y 1.
And it's equal to minus sigma x minus sigma y over 2 times sin
of 2 theta plus tau x y times cos of 2 theta.
So same sort of idea, that's like the f 2 I
was talking about.

So these are the two stresses that are shown on the wedge
here.
And I'd still like to get the stress on the perpendicular
face up here, sigma y 1.
I haven't drawn it, but there's a sigma y 1 there.
And that I can get by just doing the same operation,
just using this equation here for sigma x 1,
but instead of having theta, have theta plus 90.
Because if I have theta plus 90, now I'm on that face
up there, instead of that face there.
I've just rotated another 90 degrees.
So sigma y 1 is obtained from the equation for sigma x 1
with theta equal to theta plus 90.
And if I do that, I get this equation.
Sigma y 1 is equal to sigma x plus sigma y
over 2 minus sigma x minus sigma y over 2 times cos 2 theta
and then minus tau x y times sin 2 theta that.
Now let me just make sure I have all that right because we're
going to want to use those.

I think that's good.

Minus, minus, minus, that's a plus.
It looks-- I think that's it, yeah.
So now if I gave you one stress state,
and I said, find me the stress state on an element
that's rotated 30 degrees or some number of degrees,
you can kind of just plug and chug kind of thing
to get the answer.
So there's a couple other things to note here,
and it's one other thing to note.
And one of the things to note, is
that the sum of the normal stresses
is constant regardless of what orientation you're at.
So we'll just say, note also it's sigma x 1 plus sigma y 1
is equal to sigma x plus sigma y.
So the sum of the normal stresses acting
on two perpendicular faces is constant and it's independent
of the orientation angle.

Where's my little rubber thing?

So you get these kind of messy equations.

And I'm going to do an example where
we figure out the equivalent stress state using
the messy equations.
But eventually we're going to get to this thing called
Mohr's circle, which is sort of a graphical way of putting
these equations down.
And once you see how the Mohr's circle works,
you don't really have to remember these equations.