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Understanding how consumers view

green hotels: how a hotel's green image
can influence behavioural intentions
a b c d
Jin-Soo Lee , Li-Tzang (Jane) Hsu , Heesup Han & Yunhi Kim
a
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong
b
College of Business Administration, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, Kansas, United States
c
Department of Tourism Management, College of Business
Administration, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
d
Division of Tourism Studies, Kyungnam University, Masan,
Republic of Korea
Version of record first published: 06 May 2010.

To cite this article: Jin-Soo Lee , Li-Tzang (Jane) Hsu , Heesup Han & Yunhi Kim (2010):
Understanding how consumers view green hotels: how a hotel's green image can influence
behavioural intentions, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18:7, 901-914

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 Journal of Sustainable Tourism
Vol. 18, No. 7, September 2010, 901–914

Understanding how consumers view green hotels: how a hotel’s green

image can influence behavioural intentions
Jin-Soo Leea , Li-Tzang (Jane) Hsub , Heesup Hanc∗ and Yunhi Kimd
a
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong
Kong; b College of Business Administration, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United
States; c Department of Tourism Management, College of Business Administration, Dong-A
University, Busan, Republic of Korea; d Division of Tourism Studies, Kyungnam University, Masan,
Republic of Korea
(Received 18 April 2009; final version received 11 March 2010)
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As the public is increasingly concerned about environmental issues, green management

is rapidly becoming a strategic tool that can enhance a hotel’s competitive advantage.
This study explores how to develop the image and branding of a green hotel using the
concepts of cognitive, affective and overall images. The study, based on a survey of 416
hotel users, also investigates how a green hotel image can affect behavioural intentions
(i.e. intention to revisit, intention to offer positive recommendations to others and
willingness to pay a premium). The findings confirm that cognitive image components
(namely value and quality attributes) can exert a positive influence on a green hotel’s
affective and overall images. The affective image is also found to positively affect
a green hotel’s overall image. A green hotel’s overall image, in turn, can contribute
to more favourable behavioural intentions. Quality attributes were found to be more
powerful than value attributes. The importance of the concept of selfish altruism and
obtaining a feeling of wellbeing from a purchase were shown to be very strong. A range
of theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Keywords: cognitive image; affective image; overall image; behavioural intentions;
green hotels

Introduction
Wildlife and ecosystems are in jeopardy. Global warming is melting polar ice and raising
sea temperatures. Today, the media are increasingly direct in informing the public about
the effects of global warming. A growing number of people are concerned about green
management that is defined as “the processes and practices introduced by an organisation
for reducing, eliminating and ideally preventing negative environmental effects arising from
its undertakings” (Cooper, 1998, p. 112).
The emergence of green consumers began in the 1990s – the so-called green decade
– when environmentalism first began to mushroom worldwide (Kirkpatrick, 1990). Con-
sumers are becoming increasingly concerned about environmental issues, such as global
warming, ozone depletion and habitat destruction. Many individuals now realise that their
purchasing decisions directly influence the environment.
The most convincing indicator of consumer activation with regard to green management
is the growing number of people who are willing to purchase environmentally friendly
products. This environmental concern has translated into a movement for green management

∗
Corresponding author. Email: heesup.han@gmail.com
ISSN 0966-9582 print / ISSN 1747-7646 online
C 2010 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/09669581003777747
http://www.informaworld.com
 902 J.-S. Lee et al.

in the hotel industry that aims to mitigate the environmental effects of excessive non-
durable goods consumption, energy use, water wastage and the release of pollutants into
air, water and soil (Italian National Agency for the Protection of the Environment and for
Technical Services, 2002). The concept of a green hotel is well articulated by the Green
Hotels Association (2008), which states that “Green Hotels are environmentally friendly
properties whose managers are eager to institute programs that save water, save energy and
reduce solid waste – while saving money – to help protect our one and only earth!” This
statement includes key green management practices in the hotel industry, such as saving
energy and water, managing waste and educating guests about the environment (Kotler,
Bowen, & Makens, 1999; Middleton & Hawkins, 1998).
When green management was first introduced, the major reasons for a hotel to “go green”
centred on complying with government regulations and saving money by reducing waste
and energy usage. However, since a growing number of customers are now demanding green
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hotels, green management has become directly associated with product quality, employee
morale (Enz & Siguaw, 1999), customer satisfaction and demand (Manaktola & Jauhari,
2007), the willingness to pay a premium for green products (Laroche, Bergeron, & Barbaro-
Forleo, 2001) and corporate image (Mensah, 2004; Penny, 2007). According to a study by
the International Hotels Environment Initiative and Accor, 90% of hotel guests would
prefer to stay in a hotel that cares about the environment (Mensah, 2004). Also, J.D. Power
and Associates’ 2007 North America Hotel Guest Satisfaction Study indicates that 75% of
hotel guests would be willing to take part in their hotel’s environmentally friendly initiatives
(Butler, 2008). Penny (2007) also conducted a survey that examined the attitude of hotel
managers in Macau towards green management. He found that 65% of respondents believe
that good green management can contribute to a hotel’s image and competitiveness. Green
management has consequently become an important part of both strategic and operational
planning. It has now become standard, rather than being just a temporary side interest, as it
was in the 1970s (Butler, 2008).
The increased attention being focused on green management has stimulated interest
in research regarding corporate social responsibility, green hotels, green consumerism and
socially conscious consumers in the areas of business, hospitality and tourism. Despite the
significant effect of image on product/service value (MacInnis & Price, 1987), customer
satisfaction and loyalty (Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998), to date, no research efforts have
focused on examining the image of a green hotel from the perspective of hotel guests.
This study addresses this omission. The first objective was to explore the development of
a green hotel image using the concept of cognitive, affective and overall images. Second,
the study aimed to investigate how a green hotel image affects behavioural intentions –
(1) intention to revisit, (2) intention to offer positive recommendations and (3) willingness
to pay a premium. Previous research shows conflicting findings in terms of consumer
behavioural intentions. According to Coddington (1990), at the beginning of the 1990s, 83%
of Americans claimed that they had changed their behaviour to preserve the environment,
and 67% claimed that they would be likely to pay 5%–10% more for green products. But
despite the increasing concern for the environment, green products were found to struggle
with a low market share (Wong, Turner, & Stoneman, 1996). According to UK surveys, the
number of green consumers has grown only slightly, and their willingness to purchase green
products has also declined (Mintel, 1991, 1995). It is therefore worth re-examining such a
paradox by investigating the effect of green hotel images on the behavioural intentions of
guests. Finally, this study suggests the theoretical implications of the findings, while also
offering managerial suggestions on how to effectively cultivate the strong corporate image
of a green hotel brand.
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 903

Literature review
Image formation
The frequently cited definition of an image is a conceptualisation that reflects the set of
beliefs, ideas and impressions that a public has of a product, service, destination, person,
firm or brand (Kotler, Haider, & Rein, 1993). Assael (1984) similarly conceptualised image
as the global perception that the public develops on the basis of information that is acquired
and processed over time. Various images (corporate, destination, product and brand images)
have been widely discussed in the literature. For example, a brand requires a unique,
favourable image to convey a strong sense of branding (Keller, 1993), which implies that a
positive image is essential to brand power (Govers, 2003). Image also strongly influences
a consumer’s decision-making process and behaviour by offering mental shortcuts when
processing purchase data (Kotler & Gertner, 2002). Image has therefore been seen as a
major research area in the literature of hospitality and tourism, as well as in business more
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generally.
Substantial research (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Beerli & Martin, 2004; Lin,
Morais, Kerstetter, & Hou, 2007) has been devoted to the theory of image formation.
Researchers have concluded that image is shaped through three sequential phases: cogni-
tive, affective and overall images. These formation stages are linked to the idea of image
as an attitudinal concept (Doyle & Fenwick, 1974; James, Durand, & Dreves, 1976) that
comprises cognition (beliefs), affect (feeling) and conation (behavioural intention). Ac-
cording to Bagozzi (1978) and Breckler (1984), cognition represents consumers’ beliefs
and knowledge about the object, whereas affect refers to their emotional response (feeling,
mood) towards the object. Conation is the term given to behavioural intentions and verbal
statements as a function of cognition and affect.
In line with the sub-dimensions of attitude, many previous studies support the notion
that consumer thought development proceeds through cognitive and affective images before
reaching the overall image. Dichter (1985) and Mazursky and Jacoby (1986) similarly
argued that image is an overall phenomenon/impression formed by an individual as a result
of cognitive and affective evaluations of an object’s attributes. While a cognitive image (CI)
relates to consumers’ beliefs about an object (such as a green hotel) based on an evaluation of
its known attributes, affective image (AI) centres on individuals’ feelings towards an object.
This perspective is consistent with the two main dimensions of corporate image, namely
the functional and the emotional. The functional dimension is measured by evaluating the
tangible attributes of a firm, whereas the emotional/psychological dimension is related to
feelings towards a firm (Barich & Kotler, 1991). A similar view has been put forward as a
means of assessing store image; this perspective includes both functional (e.g. merchandise,
salespersons, value for money) and psychological elements (e.g. dull/exciting, dislike/like)
(Golden, Albaum, & Zimmer, 1987). In addition, tourism research generally postulates
that a destination’s image can be assessed using cognitive, affective and overall image.
For example, Baloglu and McCleary (1999) used three cognitive dimensions – quality of
experience, attractions and value/environment – to describe the CI of a destination. Beerli
and Martin (2004) also adopted factors related to destination attributes in examining CI.
Both studies adopted affective bipolar scales (e.g. arousing/sleepy, pleasant/unpleasant), as
proposed by Russel and Snodgrass (1987).
The majority of research to date (e.g. Gartner, 1993; Stern & Krakover, 1993) has
posited that CI is an antecedent of AI that is triggered by a set of knowledge and beliefs
regarding an object. Such a causal relationship has been confirmed by seminal work in the
social sciences (Weiner, 1986) that suggested ways in which cognitive knowledge can lead
 904 J.-S. Lee et al.

Word-of-
0.24* Affective mouth
(3.10) 0.84*
image 0.41* (26.69)
0.62* (7.32)
Value (7.70) 0.18*
(2.57)
0.55*
0.32* Overall (12.39) Willingness to
(4.39) image pay a premium
Quality
attributes 0.79*
(16.69)

Revisit
t-value in a parenthesis intention
*Standardized value
Fit: χ2 (1,322.83), df (314), RMSEA (0.08)
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CFI (0.93), NNFI (0.92)

Figure 1. Structural model testing. All paths are significant at α level of 0.01.

to affective responses. Dichter (1985) and Mazursky and Jacoby (1986) contended that an
overall image is impacted by the combination of CI and AI. In this manner, CI and AI can
directly contribute to an overall image. Building on this theoretical viewpoint, subsequent
studies (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Beerli & Martin, 2004; Lin et al., 2007) suggested
that a CI affects the overall image directly as well as indirectly via the AI. Similarly, the AI
directly influences the overall image. This study also adopts the aforementioned theoretical
foundation of image formation, positing the following in the conceptual model (see Figure
1):

(1) H1: CI positively impacts a green hotel’s AI.

(2) H2: CI positively impacts a green hotel’s overall image.
(3) H3: AI positively impacts a green hotel’s overall image.

Behavioural intentions
Behavioural intentions are considered to be a critical factor in explaining customer be-
haviours in that an individual’s strong intention to perform a certain behaviour is likely to
result in its performance (Ajzen, 1991). The concept of behavioural intentions is grounded
in the theory of planned behaviour by Ajzen (1991), who posited that intention is deter-
mined by attitude towards behaviour, subjective norms and perceived control. In a study
on green marketing, Kalafatis, Pollard, East and Tsogas (1999) examined antecedents to
consumers’ intentions towards environmentally friendly products using the model of the
theory of planned behaviour. They found the validity of the theory in explaining inten-
tions in the green marketing domain. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) insisted that most indi-
viduals’ behaviours are predictably based on his/her intentions. In this regard, numerous
researchers in various settings have examined the formation of behavioural intentions to
better comprehend customers’ purchasing behaviours (Han, Hsu, & Sheu, 2010; Han &
Ryu, 2006). While the definitions of behavioural intentions vary across the previous litera-
ture, researchers generally agree that behavioural intentions are one’s readiness/likelihood
to conduct a specific behaviour (e.g. Ajzen, 1991, 2009; Han & Ryu, 2006; Oliver, 1997).
Specifically, Oliver (1997) described behavioural intentions as “a stated likelihood to
engage in a behavio[u]r” (p. 28). In a hospitality context, Han and Ryu (2006) defined
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 905

behavioural intentions as an affirmed likelihood to perform a purchasing behaviour. Ajzen

(1991, 2009) asserted that one’s intentions are indicators of one’s readiness to carry out a
certain behaviour (Ajzen, 1991, 2009).
An individual’s intention can be either favourable or unfavourable. According to
Zeithaml, Berry and Parasuraman (1996), such favourable/unfavourable behavioural
intentions correspond to the following: (1) the intention to offer positive/negative recom-
mendations, (2) the willingness/unwillingness to pay a premium price and (3) the intention
to repurchase/switch. These elements have also been used to capture attitudinal loyalty,
since they reflect a certain emotional commitment to a product or a brand (Yi & La, 2004).
Manrai, Manrai, Lascu, and Ryans (1997) conducted a study to investigate how green-claim
strength (a car that emits less pollution) can impact a company’s image (Toyota) and how an
improved company image can, in turn, enhance the customers’ likelihood to purchase the
car. This research supports the notion of the positive correlation between an overall green im-
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age and behavioural intention, since it would seem that a positive CI (green-claim strength)
can enhance overall image (company image), which, in turn, triggers promising behavioural
intentions (likelihood of making a purchase). This research employed the aforementioned
three elements of behavioural intentions to explore how an overall image that was formed
through CI and AI contributes to the creation of favourable behavioural intentions. Building
on the theoretical effect of an image on behavioural intentions, this study postulates the
following:

(1) H4: a green hotel’s overall image positively affects word-of-mouth (WOM).
(2) H5: a green hotel’s overall image positively affects the willingness to pay a premium
(WPP).
(3) H6: a green hotel’s overall image positively affects revisitation intention (RVI).

Methodology
Data collection
To collect data, the authors conducted an online survey. Using a comprehensive descrip-
tion of a green hotel, this study sampled hotel customers in the US, who claimed to have
previously stayed at one or more green hotels. A well-known and recognised marketing
research firm electronically distributed questionnaires to 3000 US hotel patrons who were
randomly selected from the company’s database. The company provided a small incentive
for respondents’ participation. Researchers using the company’s online survey system pay
the per-completed-response fee. The opening instruction of the survey included detailed
information about what a green hotel is and its eco-friendly practices (e.g. energy conser-
vation, recycling, donation of usable items and pollution remediation). Survey participants
were asked to carefully read this information. After this step, a screening question was
asked in order to select qualified participants who had had a previous experience of staying
at a green hotel. Initially, 479 responded to the survey, representing the initial response
rate of 15.97%. However, because of incomplete and unusable responses, the valid data set
featured only 416 individuals (a valid response rate of 13.87%). The low response rate is
believed to be attributable to there being relatively few guests who had knowingly experi-
enced hotels with green practices. That is not surprising given the small number of green
hotels and a tendency for some hotel companies not to market their green improvements.
The respondents were mostly Caucasian (80%), followed by Hispanic (8.4%) and
African American (7.7%). Most held at least a college degree (88%). The gender ratio
 906 J.-S. Lee et al.

of the respondents was 48% male to 52% female. Of all the respondents, 35% reported
household incomes between $40,000 and $69,999, while 33% indicated $70,000 or greater.
Furthermore, 51% stated that they generally stay at a hotel 2 to 5 times a year, and 18%
reported 6 to 10 stays a year.

Measured parameters
Churchill (1979) recommended a procedure for developing better measures. He suggested
conducting a literature review, focusing on the group interview and/or on an in-depth
interview, pre-testing and testing validity and reliability. Consistent with the guidelines
proposed by Churchill (1979), a survey instrument was designed to measure all of the
constructs in the conceptual model. First, initial measures were derived from an extensive
review of the literature. Measures of CI were based on literature from the fields of business,
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tourism and hospitality (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Beerli & Martin, 2004; Golden
et al., 1987; Lin et al., 2007), whereas concepts for the AI relied on the aforementioned
bipolar scales proposed by Russel and Snodgrass (1987). Overall image (OI) was measured
in terms of the framework proposed by Baloglu and McCleary (1999) and Beerli and
Martin (2004). Measures for behavioural intention drew on methodologies reported in the
business literature (e.g. Boulding, Kalra, Staelin, & Zeithaml, 1993; Cronin & Taylor, 1992;
Zeithaml et al., 1996).
Before finalising the survey, the study also conducted a series of three in-depth inter-
views and a focus group with 10 participants in order to review and comment on measures
from an industry perspective and to reaffirm the validity of the chosen parameters. Both
hoteliers and academics participated in interviews and in the aforementioned focus group.
Finally, the study conducted a pre-test in order to ensure construct reliability and validity
(including content, convergent and discriminant validity). As a result of this process, a pool
of 29 measures served as the final survey instrument. The measurement items used in this
study are presented in the Appendix which can be found in the online version of this paper.
Following the survey data collection effort, the study used exploratory factor analysis
(EFA) to check the dimensions associated with a cognitive green image. This step was
necessary since the CI showed multiple dimensions in several previous studies (e.g. Baloglu
& McCleary, 1999; Beerli & Martin, 2004). An eigenvalue of 1.0 was adopted to identify
those factors that have a loading of at least 0.40. The appropriateness of EFA was confirmed
by the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (0.95) and by Bartlett’s
test of sphericity ( p < 0.001). As shown in Table 1, two dimensions exhibited eigenvalues
of above 1.0 with 75.36% of the total variance explained. These dimensions were as follows:
(1) value attributes (eigenvalue: 3.35; variance explained: 32.32%) and (2) quality attributes
(eigenvalue: 4.73; variance explained: 43.04%). Consequently, value and quality attributes
represent a green hotel’s CI in this study. Furthermore, as a result of overlapping with
another dimension, or as a consequence of having a factor loading of less than 0.40 in the
EFA, the study had to eliminate two items as follows:

r A green hotel provides me with reliable benefits and services.

r Staying at a green hotel reduces my expenses.

Ultimately, the study used 27 items (see Table 3) for the data analysis. With the exception
of overall green image [very negative (1) to very positive (7)] and affective green image
(bipolar scales), all of the items were measured on seven-point Likert-type scale, using
anchors of 1 meaning “strongly disagree” and 7 meaning “strongly agree”.
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 907

Table 1. Results of EFA for cognitive green image.

Factor Variance explained

Factors loading Eigenvalue (%)
Factor 1: value (VA) 3.55 32.32
VA 1: a green hotel offers good value for money. 0.79
VA 2: the price charged by green hotels is 0.86
reasonable
VA 3: a green hotel offers good quality/benefits. 0.80
Factor 2: quality attributes (QA) 4.73 43.04
QA 1: a green hotel has hygienic and attractive 0.75
dining areas
QA 2: restaurant(s) in a green hotel offer fresh 0.86
and healthful food
QA 3: a green hotel offers healthy amenities and 0.84
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products
QA 4: a green hotel offers healthy “green” guest 0.83
bedrooms
QA 5: staying at a green hotel is safe. 0.54
QA 6: services at a green hotel meet my needs 0.57
and expectations
QA 7: the facilities and atmosphere of a green 0.62
hotel are preferable
QA 8: overall, the rooms and accommodations at 0.72
a green hotel are clean and comfortable

Note: Total variance explained (75.36), KMO measure of sampling adequacy (0.95).
Bartlett’s test of sphericity ( p < 0.001).

Results
The testing of reliability, the measurement model and validity
Cronbach’s alpha was used to estimate the reliability of multi-item scales. Results for each
construct appear in Table 2: value attributes (0.92), quality attributes (0.96), AI (0.92), OI
(0.95), WOM (0.96), WPP (0.97) and RVI (0.89). All of the alpha coefficients exceeded

Table 2. Correlations (squared correlation), reliability, AVE and mean.

VA QA AI OI WOM WPP RVI

VA 1.00
QT 0.84 (0.70) 1.00
AI 0.73 (0.53) 0.79 (0.62) 1.00
OI 0.74 (0.54) 0.80 (0.64) 0.77 (0.59) 1.00
WOM 0.74 (0.54) 0.75 (0.56) 0.74 (0.54) 0.84 (0.70) 1.00
WPP 0.56 (0.31) 0.52 (0.27) 0.52 (0.27) 0.52 (0.27) 0.60 (0.36) 1.00
RVI 0.65 (0.42) 0.66 (0.43) 0.63 (0.39) 0.75 (0.56) 0.76 (0.57) 0.53 (0.28) 1.00
Reliability 0.92 0.96 0.92 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.89
Average 0.80 0.78 .74 0.93 0.90 0.83 0.75
Mean 5.20 5.60 5.36 5.69 5.11 4.04 5.32
Standard 1.28 1.18 1.20 1.29 1.56 1.72 1.32
deviation

Note: VA, value; QA, quality attributes; AI, affective image; OI, overall image; WOM, word-of-mouth; WPP,
willingness to pay a premium; RVI, revisit intention. All are significant at 0.01.
 908 J.-S. Lee et al.

the cut-off of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978), suggesting a high level of internal consistency for each
construct.
Table 2 also indicates that the average variance extracted for each construct was greater
than the squared correlation coefficients for the corresponding inter-constructs. This, in
turn, confirmed the discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Convergent validity
was supported by the fact that all of the average variances extracted exceeded 0.5 (Fornell
& Larcker, 1981). Additionally, the results from the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in
Table 3 lent further support for the convergent validity of the measures, since the estimated
loadings for all of the indicators were significant at p < 0.000 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).
The measurement model was also found to fit the data well, according to the goodness-of-
fit indices (χ 2 = 1,139.03, df = 302, RMSEA = 0.08, CFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.93) from
CFA.
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The testing of the structural model and hypotheses

According to the goodness-of-fit indices (χ 2 = 1,322.88, df = 314, RMSEA = 0.08, CFI =
0.93, NNFI = 0.92) from the structural model as shown in Figure 1, it is concluded that
the measurement model fits the data well. By testing the relationships between CI and AI,
both value (γ11 = 0.24, t = 3.10) and quality attributes (γ12 = 0.62, t = 7.70) were found
positively to impact AI, supporting H1. Value (γ21 = 0.18, t = 2.57) and quality attributes
(γ22 = 0.32, t = 4.39) were also found to positively affect overall image, supporting H2.
Furthermore, the positive relationship (β21 = 0.41, t = 7.32) between the AI and the overall
image was confirmed, leading us to accept H3.
As hypothesised, a hotel’s overall image positively influenced all of the constructs under
the behavioural intention category – WOM (β32 = 0.84, t = 26.69), WPP (β42 = 0.55, t =
12.39) and RVI (β52 = 0.79, t = 16.69) – supporting H4, H5 and H6. Furthermore, the
partial mediating effect of AI on the relationship between cognitive and overall images was
found, as suggested by a significant indirect effect (value-OI βIE = 0.10, t = 2.85; quality
attributes-OI βIE = 0.25, t = 5.30) (Holland, 1988; Sobel, 1990). The explained variances
by the endogenous constructs were 71% for AI, 76% for OI, 71% for WOM, 30% for WPP
and 63% for RVI.
With respect to a structural model, all of the hypotheses were supported. A cognitive
green image (value and quality attributes) positively influenced a green hotel’s affective and
overall images. Affective image also enhanced a green hotel’s overall image. A green hotel’s
overall image, in turn, contributed to (1) the intention to make positive recommendations to
others, (2) the willingness to pay a premium price and (3) the intention to revisit the hotel
in the future.

Implications and conclusion

Theoretical implications
The development of a green hotel image corroborates previous empirical studies of image
formation. From the viewpoint of theoretical implications, one of the unique theoretical
findings is that quality attributes serve as a stronger CI dimension than value in influencing
a green hotel’s affective and overall images. This shows that guests evaluate a green hotel’s
affective and overall images more on the basis of quality attributes than on the basis of value.
It is presumed that the evaluation of detailed quality attributes influences image assessment
more strongly than the broad evaluation of value by the trade-off between benefit/quality
and price/sacrifice.
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 909

Table 3. Results of confirmatory factor analysis.

Factors Factor loading t-value

Factor 1: value (VA)
VA 1: a green hotel offers good value for money 0.91 28.54
VA 2: the price charged by green hotels is reasonable 0.89 NA
VA 3: a green hotel offers good quality/benefits 0.88 26.70
Factor 2: quality attributes (QA)
QA 1: a green hotel has hygienic and attractive dining areas 0.91 34.12
QA 2: restaurant(s) in a green hotel offer fresh and healthful food 0.89 31.17
QA 3: a green hotel offers healthy amenities and products 0.92 NA
QA 4: a green hotel offers healthy “green” guest bedrooms 0.87 29.46
QA 5: staying at a green hotel is safe 0.79 23.12
QA 6: services at a green hotel meet my needs and expectations 0.84 26.64
QA 7: the facilities and atmosphere of a green hotel are preferable 0.89 31.28
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QA 8: overall, the rooms and accommodations at a green hotel are clean 0.91 33.76
and comfortable.
Factor 3: affective image (AI)
Staying at a green hotel will be
AI 1: arousing/sleepy 0.72 17.99
AI 2: pleasant/unpleasant 0.92 27.86
AI 3: exciting/gloomy 0.87 NA
AI 4: relaxing/distressing 0.91 27.61
Factor 4: overall image (OI)
Very negative (1)/ very positive (7)
OI 1: overall image of staying in green hotels is . . . 0.95 NA
OI 2: overall image I have regarding green hotels is . . . 0.97 49.32
OI 3: overall, I consider that green hotels have a favourable image such 0.98 51.48
that I would consider staying there
Factor 5: word-of-mouth (WOM)
WOM 1: I encourage my friends and relatives to stay at a green hotel 0.97 NA
when traveling
WOM 2: if someone is looking for good hotel dining facilities, I 0.98 64.62
generally advise him/her to stay at a green hotel
WOM 3: I say positive things about an environmentally-friendly hotel 0.89 36.33
Factor 6: willingness to pay a premium (WPP)
WPP 1: it is acceptable to pay a premium to stay at a hotel that engages 0.91 NA
in green practices
WPP 2: I am willing to pay more to stay at a green hotel 0.94 42.51
WPP 3: I am willing to spend extra in order to stay at an 0.91 40.14
environmentally friendly hotel
Factor 7: revisit intention (RVI)
RVI: 1 I am willing to stay at a green hotel when travelling 0.76 NA
RVI 2: I plan to stay at a green hotel when travelling 0.88 19.39
RVI 3: I will make an effort to stay at a green hotel when travelling 0.94 20.76

Note: Parameter fixed at 1.0 for the purposes of maximum-likelihood estimation; t-values were not obtained for
parameters that were fixed at 1.0 for identification purposes. All factor loadings were considered significant at
p < 0.000.

AI was found to influence overall image, while overall image was also affected by CI.
This shows a partial mediating effect of AI, as suggested by a significant indirect effect
from CI to overall image via AI. This finding implies that guests’ feelings and emotions
are involved as much as cognition in determining an overall green hotel image, as they
are increasingly concerned that their future generation’s life would be in danger because of
climate change.
 910 J.-S. Lee et al.

Furthermore, a green hotel’s overall image, which involves both CI and AI, favourably
enhances behavioural intentions, including WPP, WOM and RVI. A unique finding indi-
cated that an overall image induced WPP far less strongly than WOM and RVI. Additionally,
WOM (5.11) and RVI (5.32) were associated with significantly higher mean scores than
WPP (4.04). This finding would come from green consumer behaviour intentions distin-
guished by “selfish altruism”. Miller (2003) illustrated this concept by describing how
green consumers are most likely to purchase products that are of benefit to them as well
as to the rest of the world, rather than just to the rest of world. Organic food is a good
example to illustrate selfish altruism as a major motive for green consumerism. The sales
revenue of organic food has been rapidly growing, since consumers perceive that this
product group directly benefits them by offering nutritional and health advantages. In the
context of a green hotel, findings showed that green hotel guests were willing to spread
positive recommendations and WOM and revisit the green hotel, whereas they indicated a
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relatively lower willingness to pay more for a green hotel. This implies that guests tend less
to commit to a monetary sacrifice for the green hotel, although they pay growing attention
to environmental issues, since they believe paying extra would not provide an immediate
benefit for them. Therefore, the finding that a green hotel’s overall image is less power-
fully associated with WPM, as compared with WOM and RVI, can be attributed to selfish
altruism.

Practical implications
The overall findings suggested that a green hotel image gave rise to favourable behavioural
intentions by hotel guests. This is well anticipated by the report that, for example, 83% of
English holidaymakers would choose a hotel with a green award, and the American public
is likely to pay 6% more for green travel products and services (Green Hotelier, 2003).
Then, how can hoteliers ensure that a green image is embedded holistically in a hotel and
enjoys guest satisfaction and loyalty? The answer would lie in a green positioning strategy,
since positioning calls for the creation of an image (Lewis, 1990).
Hartmann, Ibanez and Sainz (2005) contended that an effective green positioning
strategy draws on both functional (cognitive) attributes and emotional (affective) benefits.
This is consistent with the finding by this study that an overall green image should be built
on cognitive and affective green images. In the context of a hotel, a functional attributes-
based green positioning strategy is developed by communicating attributes and benefits of
green products/services. For instance, Hilton International actively promotes the concept of
a hotel that has been renovated to become a green hotel. The group recently introduced its
so-called eco-room; 97% of its materials are recyclable. The materials include pure cotton
and wool, a minimal use of chrome and metal, and wood for all furniture and floors (Green
Hotelier, 2005). The room is also equipped with energy- and water-efficient technologies.
Many guests prefer to stay in such eco-rooms, which are associated with a green image on
account of the natural design and pleasing aesthetics, and with improved air quality that is
particularly advantageous to allergy sufferers (Green Hotelier, 2005).
However, a functional positioning strategy alone cannot guarantee the success of green
positioning; because functional positioning can be easily copied by competitors, hotels
would not be differentiated from their competitors (Aaker, 1996). The major motive for
guests to select a green hotel is to achieve the sense that their purchase decision contributes
to saving the planet and leaving a green environment for their children. These emotional
benefits can be classified as follows: (1) a feeling of wellbeing inspired by an altruistic
behaviour (Ritov & Kahnemann, 1977), (2) auto-expression benefits associated with the
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 911

socially conscious consumption of green products/services (Belz & Dyllik, 1996) and (3)
a feeling associated with nature, such as loving nature and having an emotional fondness
for nature (Kals, Schumacher, & Montada, 1999). Therefore, an emotional-benefit-based
positioning strategy is also needed to complement functional positioning. To implement
emotional-benefit-based green positioning, advertising should be affective enough to induce
the public to believe that it makes a difference in improving the environment by patronising
a green hotel. A common approach has been an appeal from a sick baby in a social
marketing context, since the “sick baby appeal” can easily impact the public’s emotions
towards the significance of the issue and the seriousness of public help (Obermiller, 1995).
Hence, consumers are persuaded to act on their concerns when advertising is associated
with emotional benefits and the appeals of nature.
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Conclusion
Today, we are living in a society where firms are judged on their business ethics, social
accountability and socio-economic awareness as well as financial outcomes. As public
understanding grows about global warming and climate change, the public, including
stakeholders, employees and customers, expects hotels to act on their understanding. This
global trend guides hotels to move in a green direction. As this research suggested, a
green hotel image becomes a powerful operational tool in attracting and retaining more
guests. Incorporating (functional and emotional) green positioning into hotel operations is
prerequisite for the creation of a green hotel image. The successful creation of a green image
would not be feasible if emotional and functional benefits of green products and services
were not effectively communicated (Pickett, Kangun, & Grove, 1995). Consequently, a
hotel with a sound green image can achieve cost reduction from the use of energy and
water, appeal to investors, attract and retain highly motivated employees and cultivate guest
loyalty, thereby securing top market share and position (Green Hotelier, 2007).
Because of the low response rate, the findings may be exposed to the threat of
non-response errors. Dillman (2000) pointed out that non-response error occurs when
people who participate in a survey are different from those who do not, thereby posing
a threat to the external validity of a study. To reduce the threat of non-response error, a
minimum response rate of 50% should be achieved (Fowler, 2001). Therefore, controlling
for non-response error requires acceptable survey protocols designed to achieve higher
response rates. This study recommends Dillman’s (2000) four-time contact email survey:
a pre-notice, the questionnaire, a thank-you/reminder and a replacement questionnaire.
This study focused on behavioural intentions as a means of investigating to what extent
a green image affects a guest’s choice of hotel. Although behavioural intentions have been
widely used as an attitudinal loyalty indicator in the marketing and hospitality literature,
this methodology does not correspond to behavioural loyalty. This should be considered a
limitation of the research because behavioural loyalty is an important metric that reflects
the number of times a guest may visit the same hotel in a particular category, as compared
with the total number of stays in the whole category (Carpenter & Lehmann, 1985). This
limitation is linked to the fact that actual green product sales revenues are less than those
generally reported by consumers, and the chance of consumers paying a premium for green
products tends to be lower than one would expect (Rex & Baumann, 2006). This study would
recommend that a future study should focus on actual behavioural measures to rigorously
examine the impact of green hotel choices on consumer behaviours. Such a study should
also examine the potential antecedents to behavioural loyalty towards a green hotel.
 912 J.-S. Lee et al.

Acknowledgement
This study was supported by research funds from Dong-A University.

Notes on contributors
Jin-Soo Lee is an Assistant Professor in the School of Hotel and Tourism Management at Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong.
Li-Tzang (Jane) Hsu is an Adjunct Professor in the College of Business Administration at Kansas
State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
Heesup Han is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism Management, College of Business
Administration, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea.
Yunhi Kim is an Instructor in the Division of Tourism Studies, Kyungnam University, Masan, Korea.
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