Nolan 1999

Journal of Organizational Behavior Management
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An Objective Review of the Journal of

Organizational Behavior Management
Timothy V. Nolan , Kimberly A. Jarema & John Austin PhD
To cite this article: Timothy V. Nolan , Kimberly A. Jarema & John Austin PhD (1999) An
Objective Review of the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management , Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management, 19:3, 83-114, DOI: 10.1300/J075v19n03_09
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Download by: [George Mason University] Date: 09 June 2016, At: 15:51
An Objective Review
of the Journal of Organizational
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:51 09 June 2016
Behavior Management: 1987-1997

Timothy V. Nolan
Kimberly A. Jarema
John Austin
ABSTRACT. This article presents an objective review and analysis of

every article published in the Journal of Organizational Behavior Man-
agement (JOBM) between 1987 and 1997. The purpose of this review
was to replicate and extend the research conducted by Balcazar, Shup-
ert, Daniels, Mawhinney, and Hopkins (1989) by providing an objec-
tive review and analysis of the second decade of JOBM publications. In
doing so, we analyzed several noteworthy trends and patterns occurring
within the second decade of the Journal and compared them with the
first decade, where applicable. Additionally, we discussed the extent to
which the Journal has continued to meet its objectives, and we offered
recommendations for future JOBM publications. In general, we found
evidence that the Journal has continued to grow in meaningful ways,
and we report data that indicate it continues, to some extent, to meet its
original objectives. Author affiliation remains largely in academe, al-
though there is evidence that more collaboration is occurring with non-
academic authors. The variety of topics addressed by JOBM research-
ers continues to grow, and the frequency of work simulation studies has
increased as well. We also identified areas where future JOBM research
could be improved. In particular, more studies should include informa-
tion on the reliability and social validity of the independent and depen-
dent variables, cost/benefit analyses, and follow-up data. [Article copies
available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service:
1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: getinfo@haworthpressinc.com <Website:
http://www.haworthpressinc.com>]
Timothy V. Nolan, Kimberly A. Jarema, and John Austin are affiliated with
Western Michigan University.
Address correspondence to John Austin, PhD, Department of Psychology, West-
ern Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008.
Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, Vol. 19(3) 1999
E 1999 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 83
84 JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT
KEYWORDS. Objective literature review, Journal of Organizational

Behavior Management
Balcazar, Shupert, Daniels, Mawhinney, and Hopkins (1989) con-

ducted an objective review and analysis of the first ten years of the
Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM). The au-
thors provided a brief history of JOBM, chronicling the succession of
editors beginning with Aubrey Daniels (1977) and ending with the
current editor, Thomas C. Mawhinney, who began his editorship in
1985. Balcazar et al. (1989) also identified the three original objec-
tives of the Journal. First, the Journal would stimulate research on
organizational problems and the results of this research would be
useful in addressing organizational concerns. Second, JOBM would
disseminate knowledge about behavioral approaches to solving orga-
nizational problems. Finally, the Journal would serve as a resource for
clients of behavioral consulting companies that would help them learn
more about the application of behavioral technology in the workplace.
The purpose of the review by Balcazar et al. (1989) was to provide
an objective assessment of the first ten years of JOBM, and determine
to what extent the Journal was meeting its stated objectives. In this
regard, the authors reviewed every article published in JOBM between
1977 (volume 1, number 1) and 1986 (volume 8, number 2), catego-
rizing each article as either research, discussion, or book review. Addi-
tionally, the research articles were scored along multiple variables
(e.g., subjects studied, research designs used). Based upon their re-
view, the authors concluded that, ‘‘JOBM is prospering and maintain-
ing a high degree of fidelity to its stated objectives while innovating
and broadening its scope’’ (p. 36). The authors also concluded that the
most apparent weakness in the Journal at that time was its lack of
research featuring large-scale interventions addressing the cultural
foundations of organizations.
The purpose of the current paper was to replicate and extend the
review conducted by Balcazar et al. (1989) by providing an objective
review and analysis of the second ‘‘decade’’ of JOBM publications
(1987-1997). In doing so, we analyzed noteworthy trends and patterns
occurring within the second decade of the Journal and compared them
with the first decade, where applicable. Additionally, we considered
Critical Review and Discussion 85
the extent to which the Journal has continued to meet its objectives,
and offered recommendations for future JOBM publications.
METHOD
Procedure
Every article published in JOBM between 1987 (volume 9, number 1)
and 1997 (volume 17, number 2) was reviewed by two of the authors.
These two raters independently evaluated each article and reported on
several different variables (described below). For each of the catego-
ries, if there were any disagreements the raters read the article togeth-
er, discussed the discrepancy, and arrived at a unanimous decision.
One aim of the current paper was to compare the most recent data
from JOBM with those collected by Balcazar et al. (1989). However,
the raw data from the latter review were not available, so we individu-
ally estimated and agreed upon the data values from the graphs pub-
lished by Balcazar et al. (1989). Furthermore, although we examined
the same variables as Balcazar et al. (1989) we further divided into
sub-categories several of these variables for more detailed analyses.
Dependent Variables
Total Number of Pages
Figure 1 represents the total number of pages and the number of
issues published each year from 1977 through 1997. Data were ob-
tained by summing only the pages in each issue that were part of
articles. Tables of contents, editors’ comments, and advertisements
were excluded from this category. As in Balcazar et al. (1989), the year of
publication for each issue was taken as recorded on the cover of that issue.
The number of pages printed each year varied considerably over the
20-year period. It appears that, on the average, there were more pages
published per year during the first decade (approximate1 mean = 259,
approximate range: 67-450) than during the second (mean = 205,
range: 0-437). During the second decade, the number of pages pub-
lished per year peaked in 1992 and was the lowest in 1994.
Types of Articles Published
Figure 2 represents the different types of articles published each
year between 1977 and 1997. Articles were categorized as research,
FIGURE 1. The total number of pages printed each year in the Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM) as well as the number of issues
published, between 1977 and 1997. The number in parentheses on top of each
bar represents the number of issues printed that year.
500 (3)
(3)
450 (2)
400 (3)
Number of Pages
350 (2) (4) (3)

(2)
300
250 (4) (1) (2)
(2)
200 (2) (1) (2)
(1) (1)
150
(1) (1)
100 (1)
50
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
discussion/review, or book review. For an article to be classified as

research it must have contained, at minimum, empirical data and a
description of the methodology for collecting and analyzing the data.
Articles deemed discussion/review were those containing only opin-
ions, theoretical expositions, or literature reviews. Book reviews were
identified as any papers written as a critical summary of a book or
film.
Fewer articles were published per year during the second decade
(mean = 12, range: 4-25) than during the first (approximate mean = 20,
approximate range: 7-38). Research articles seemed to remain the
most frequently published each year, although both research and dis-
cussion/review papers declined sharply between 1993-95.
Author Affiliation
Figure 3 represents first author affiliation for articles published

from 1977 through 1997. These data were based on the information
provided about the authors in the footnote included on each title page.
On several occasions, more than one affiliation was given for the first
author (e.g., university and consulting firm). In these situations, the
first affiliation listed for that author was recorded. Affiliations were
categorized as academic, agency, company, and other. An author was
FIGURE 2. The total number of different types of articles published each year
between 1977 and 1997. Articles were categorized as research, discussion/re-
view, and book review.
20
Research
Discussion/Review
18
Book Review
16
14
12
Number of Articles
10
0
1987
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
considered to be affiliated with academia if she/he reported affiliation

with a college or university; an agency if an institution, government
office, or non-profit service organization was listed; a company if a
private corporation, firm, or business was reported. The classification
of ‘‘other’’ was given to those first authors whose affiliation did not fit
into the above categories, or when no affiliation or reprint address was
listed on the title page (i.e., when affiliation could not be determined).
The percentage of first authors affiliated with an academic institu-
tion began increasing in 1978, continued to increase throughout the first
decade (approximate mean = 59%, approximate range: 39%-82%), and
remained the most common affiliation throughout the second decade
(mean = 79%, range: 50%-100%). During the second decade, addi-
tional data were collected on the proportion of all authors (i.e., beyond
first author) for each article that were affiliated with academia as well
FIGURE 3. The percentage of first authors affiliated with a company, agency

or academia each year between 1977 and 1997. The ‘‘other’’ category repre-
sents situations in which the affiliation of the first author could not be identified.
If more than one affiliation was listed for the first author, the first one mentioned
was recorded.
100
Academic
Agency
90 Company
Other
80
70
Percentage of Authors
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
as the number of authors contributing from outside of the United

States (see Figure 4). Both of these sub-categories were included to
provide a more detailed analysis of JOBM authorship. In particular,
this measure of residence addressed the extent to which the Journal
has or has not become an exclusively academic publication; and it also
addressed the extent to which JOBM is involving authors and readers
outside of the United States. These data were included in an effort to
further assess the extent to which JOBM is meeting its original objec-
tives as noted earlier.
Although the percentage of first authors affiliated with academic
institutions remained steady since 1987, the proportion of total authors
FIGURE 4. Total author affiliation between 1987 and 1997. The percentage of
all authors each year that were affiliated with an academic institution, and the
percentage of total authors each year publishing from outside of the United
States.
100
Academically Affiliated
Outside of U.S.
90
80
70
60
Percentage of Authors
50
40
30
20
10
0
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
affiliated with an academic institution decreased during this decade.

Furthermore, the proportion of authors contributing from outside the
United States appears to have increased, albeit sporadically.
Applied versus Theoretical
Figure 5 represents the percentage of research articles that were

considered applied (addressing a problem) or theoretical (aimed at
answering a theoretical question) between 1987 and 1997. During the
first decade nearly all studies published were applied (approximate
mean = 95%, approximate range: 86%-100%); however, in the second
decade the percentage of theory-oriented studies increased dramatical-
ly (mean of applied studies = 44%, range of applied studies: 0%-80%).
FIGURE 5. Applied versus theory-oriented studies between 1977 and 1997.

The percentage of studies each year that were applied in nature (oriented
towards solving a practical problem) and the percentage of studies each year
that were theory-oriented (oriented towards answering a theoretical question).
100 Applied
Theory-Oriented
90
80
70
60
Percentage of Studies
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
This increase in theory-oriented studies is largely attributable to the

increased frequency of laboratory work simulations (see Figure 6).
Field Research versus Work Simulation Research
Figure 6 represents the percentage of studies occurring in a labora-

tory setting (approximate mean = 15%, approximate range: 0%-50%)
versus those occurring in actual work settings (approximate mean =
85%, approximate range: 50%-100%), between 1977 and 1997. Stud-
ies were identified as either field or work simulation based upon the
authors’ characterization in either the abstract or the methods section
of each article. Typically, authors identified their studies as either
applied or simulated, or field versus laboratory early in the methods
section. Since the Journal’s inception, the majority of studies have
FIGURE 6. Field versus simulated studies between 1977 and 1997. The per-
centage of studies each year that were conducted in an actual work setting and
the percentage of studies each year conducted in a simulated or laboratory
setting.
100 Field
Simulation
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
been conducted in applied work settings–especially in the first decade.

However, during the second decade the percentage of studies includ-
ing simulated research steadily increased, reaching a peak of 50% in
1995 before declining over the last two years.
Kind of Problem
Figure 7 displays the percentage of studies including problems that

were either motivational or training in nature. Data were collected by
examining the study to determine the basic nature of the problem being
addressed. Balcazar et al. (1989) used Mager and Pipe’s (1970) distinc-
tion of performance problems as being characterized by either motiva-
tional deficits or skill deficits. The same distinction was made in the
current review, with skill deficit problems characterized by instructing
and prompting, or training interventions. Motivation-based studies were
FIGURE 7. Motivation versus training between 1997 and 1997. The percent-
ages of studies each year that involved motivational deficits and the percent-
ages of studies each year that involved skill deficits.
100
Motivation
90 Training
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Year 1997
those where consequences (e.g., feedback, praise, monetary rewards,

non-monetary rewards) were used. Many of the studies reported data on
problems involving both motivational and skill deficits. Therefore, the
sum of percentages for a given year may total more than 100%.
Throughout the 20-year history of the Journal, motivational ap-
proaches have remained most prevalent (approximate mean = 82%,
approximate range: 24%-100%). However, the percentage of studies
addressing skill-deficit problems increased during the second decade
(mean = 57%, range: 14%-100%), reaching 100% in both 1987 and
1995. Additionally, the percentage of studies addressing both motiva-
tion and skill-deficit problems increased during the most recent decade.
Problems Addressed
Figure 8 shows the frequency of each of several kinds of problems

addressed by JOBM researchers over the last decade. As Balcazar et
al. (1989) reported at the end of the first decade, the popularity of
addressing particular kinds of problems appeared to fluctuate, and a
similar statement can be made of the most recent decade. Among the
most common problems addressed are those involving combinations of

productivity and quality (n = 13), class/customer satisfaction (n = 7),
and safety/health (n = 7). Several studies (n = 8) were considered
‘‘other’’ because none of the categories listed were appropriate. Some
of these studies addressed problems such as incentive choice, theft
reduction, and self efficacy.
Organization Ownership
Data were collected on the percentage of studies each year that were
conducted in publicly versus privately owned organizations. A site
was identified as publicly owned if the study occurred at a state-owned
agency, school, or institution. A site was considered privately owned if
it was a for-profit business, service, or private institution (e.g., hospital
or school).
Figure 9 shows the percentage of studies from 1977-1997 con-
ducted in privately (approximate mean = 60%, approximate range:
FIGURE 8. Type of problems addressed each year in JOBM between 1987 and
1997. Problems were classified into thirteen different categories--accuracy,
class/satisfaction, novelty, rate, timeliness, sales/volume, productivity and
quality, labor, material, management, safety/health, training and development,
and other.
14
12
10
8
Frequency
0
Accuracy Customer Novelty Rate Timeliness Sales/ Productivity & Labor Material Management Safety/HealthTraining & Other
Satisfaction Volume Quality Development
Type of Problem
20%-100%) or publicly (approximate mean = 42%, approximate

range: 0%-80%) owned locations. Balcazar et al. (1989) report that
research in private sites largely dominated the first decade. This trend
has generally persisted throughout the second decade.

Participants
Figure 10 represents the percentages of different types of partici-

pants (management, non-management, executive, and other) in JOBM
research from 1977 through 1997. Management participants included
those individuals in any position of recognized authority over other
individuals (e.g., supervisors, managers). Non-management partici-
pants included those individuals who were supervised or managed and
were not themselves in any position of formal authority over other
individuals. Executive participants consisted of individuals at the top
level of management of an organization, who were not themselves
FIGURE 9. Public versus private between 1977 and 1997. The percentage of
studies each year conducted in publicly owned settings and those conducted
in privately owned settings.
100
Public
90 Private
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
FIGURE 10. Different types of participants used in JOBM publications each

year between 1977 and 1997. Participants were categorized as managers,
non-management, executive, and other. The ‘‘other’’ category included partici-
pants that did not fit into the above categories and consisted mainly of students
from 1987-1997.
Managers
100 Non-Management
Executive
90 Other
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
responsible to any management personnel. The ‘‘other’’ category was

reserved for participants that did not fit into any of these categories.
Many of the studies reported data on more than one category of partic-
ipants; therefore, percentages for each year may total more than 100%.
Balcazar et al. (1989) used a different taxonomy (line workers,
middle managers, top managers, and other) with which the current
taxonomy closely corresponds. This adjustment in classification was
made in an effort to more fully encompass the wide variety of partici-
pants in JOBM studies. For instance, the term line-worker seems to
connote factory work, and therefore, does not apply to service personnel.
Participants in non-management positions have been frequently
studied in JOBM over the last 20 years. However, there has been a
dramatic increase in the ‘‘other’’ category since 1982, which is pri-
marily due to the increased use of students as participants. During the

second decade, an average of 60% of participants in the ‘‘other’’
category were college-level students, while 21% of all participants in
JOBM studies were students.
Behavior versus Products of Behavior
Although no graphs are provided for this category, data were ana-
lyzed with respect to whether researchers in JOBM studies measured
behavior or products of behavior. The distinction was made based
upon whether or not researchers reported having directly observed
behavior or examined the permanent products of behavior. Over the
last two decades, the results with respect to this category have been
highly variable. The percentage of studies measuring products of
behavior increased slightly between the first decade (approximate
mean = 66%, approximate range: 39%-100%) and the second decade
(mean = 75%, range: 56%-100%), while the percentage of studies
directly measuring behavior decreased slightly between the first decade
(approximate mean = 46%, approximate range: 0%-72%) and the sec-
ond decade (mean = 41%, range: 0%-78%).
Are Phenomena of Interest Observed?
Balcazar et al. (1989) noted that a great deal of organizational

behavior research failed to observe the behavioral phenomena of inter-
est. As a non-example, Balcazar et al. (1989) described a study in
which the interactions between supervisors and workers were de-
scribed in the introduction, while the dependent measures for the study
were responses on a survey regarding supervisor-worker interactions.
For researchers in the above example to have observed the phenomena
of interest, they would have needed to report some observable mea-
sures of supervisor-employee interactions. In the first ten years, Balca-
zar et al. (1989) found that the majority of JOBM literature reported
data on the phenomena of interest. In the current review, a total of only
3% of the studies published failed to report data on the phenomena of
interest as described in the introduction of the study. For the study to
be considered as examining the phenomena of interest, the researchers
must have described, in the methods section, how they observed the
subject-matter of interest.
Reliability of the Dependent and Independent Variables

Figure 11 displays the percentage of studies published between

1977 and 1997 that reported the reliability of the dependent and inde-
pendent variables. Ensuring that data are being collected and recorded
properly and that observers agree is a critical part of applied behavior-
al research (Poling, Methot, & LeSage, 1995). The percentage of
studies reporting some form of inter-rater reliability or inter-observer
agreement appeared to be somewhat more variable during the first
decade than during the second. Throughout the most recent decade, an
average of approximately 50% (range: 0%-80%) of all empirical
studies reported some provision for ensuring the reliability of the depen-
dent measures, with low points occurring in 1987 (0%) and 1996 (30%).
FIGURE 11. Percentage of studies each reporting reliability of data for both the
dependent and independent variables between 1977 and 1997.
100 Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
A study was considered to have reported on the reliability of the

independent variable if the authors described any provisions taken to
ensure that the intervention was being implemented as described.
Throughout the second decade, no data were reported on reliability of

the independent variable in four out of the ten years. Furthermore,
only 24% (range: 0%-50%) of all studies published in the second
decade reported any reliability data for the independent variable.
Types of Independent Variables
Figure 12 displays the percentage of different independent variables
used during the past 20 years. Included were counts of feedback,
praise, goal setting, monetary rewards, non-monetary rewards, train-
ing, antecedents, punishment, and systems redesign. The current list of
measures includes four categories (monetary rewards, antecedents,
punishment, and systems redesign) not included in the Balcazar et al.
(1989) review.
Feedback remained the most commonly used independent variable
throughout the first and second decades (65% and 71%, respectively).
All of the other variables listed remained fairly consistent, with the
exception of training, which more than doubled in frequency between
the first decade (23%) and the second decade (56%).
Between-Group versus Within-Subject Designs
The use of within-subject designs continued to dominate JOBM
literature. Figure 13 shows the percentage of studies using either a be-
tween-group (approximate mean = 22%, approximate range: 0%-100%)
or within-subject (approximate mean = 79%, approximate range:
0%-100%) design. On only two occasions in 20 years of publication has
the percentage of studies using between-group designs equaled or
surpassed the percentage of studies using within-group designs (1987
and 1994).
Type of Within-Subject Designs Used
Figure 14 shows the overall percentage of within-subject designs

used in the past decade. Balcazar et al. (1989) collected data on four
types of designs: AB, ABA, ABAB (or more), and multiple baseline.
Due to the variety of within-subject designs appearing in the second
decade, we expanded this category to include designs such as ABC,
FIGURE 12. Different types of independent variables used between 1977 and
1997. Independent variables were categorized as feedback, praise, goal-set-
ting, monetary rewards, non-monetary rewards, training, antecedents, punish-
ment, and systems re-design. Black bars represent data from 1977-1986 while
the gray bars represent data collected between 1987 and 1997.
100
Totals for 1977-1986
Totals for 1987-1997
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Feedback Praise Goal-Setting Monetary Non- Training Antecedents Punishment Systems
Rewards Monetary Re-Design
Rewards
changing criterion, and multi-element. In addition, the category

‘‘ABAB (or more)’’ which Balcazar et al. (1989) used appears as
‘‘Reversal Variations’’ in the current review. As in the Balcazar et al.
(1989) review, during the second decade multiple baseline designs
continued to be the most frequently used (38%) within-subject design,
with reversal variations the second most common (17%), followed
closely by ABA designs (15%). Compared with the first decade, it
appears that researchers in the second decade began employing a
wider variety of within-subject methodology.
FIGURE 13. Percentage of studies each year using between-groups experi-

mental designs and those using within-groups designs between 1977 and
1997.
100
Between Group
Within Group
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
Cost/Benefit Analysis
Data were collected on the percentage of studies reporting any type

of cost/benefit analysis. In general, there was almost no difference
between the first (approximate mean = 33%, approximate range:
10%-52%) and second (mean = 38%, range: 0%-100%) decades with
respect to the percentage of studies reporting cost/benefit data. On
average, 36% of the studies throughout the history of the Journal
reported cost/benefit data. In 1987 the one study published reported
cost/benefit data, whereas during 1994 and 1995 no studies reported
cost/benefit information.
FIGURE 14. The percentage of studies each year that employed particular
within-subject research designs between 1987 and 1997. Designs were cate-
gorized as AB, ABA, ABAB, reversal variations (ABAB or more), multiple base-
line, ABC, changing criterion, multi-element, and repeated measures.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
AB ABA ABAB Reversal Multiple ABC Changing Multi- Repeated
Variations Baseline Criterion Element Measures
Design
Social Validity of Independent and Dependent Variables
Figure 15 represents the percentage of studies reporting social va-

lidity data over the past two decades. Studies were examined to deter-
mine whether any attempts were made to collect participant opinions
regarding the nature of the intervention or the results obtained. In
general, the tendency to report social validity data remained low over
the past two decades, with peaks occurring near the end of each de-
cade (1984-85 and 1994-96). During the most recent decade, social
validity data appeared in approximately 25% (range: 0%-100%) of the
studies published (with the exception of the peaks in 1994-96). Addi-
tionally, it is worth noting that during the entire twenty year period it
has generally been more common to report the social validity of the
independent variable (approximate mean = 37%, approximate range:
0%-100%) than the dependent variable (approximate mean = 24%,
approximate range: 0%-75%).
FIGURE 15. The percentage of studies reporting social validity data for both
the independent and dependent variables each year between 1977 and 1997.
100
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1997
1996
Year
Program Continuation
For the most part, very few studies indicate the continuation of the
intervention following completion of the study. Overall, 13% (range:
0%-50%) of all applied studies in the second decade reported any
continuation data, compared to approximately 15% (approximate
range: 0%-43%) during the first decade.
Follow-Up Measures
Figure 16 displays the percentage of studies over the past two

decades that collected follow-up data. By far, a larger percentage
(approximate mean = 31%, approximate range: 15%-65%) of studies
in the first decade provided follow-up data than (mean = 20%, range:
FIGURE 16. Percentage of studies each year between 1977 and 1997 report-
ing follow-up data.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1997
Year 1996
0%-57%) in the second decade. During the second decade, no studies

reported follow-up data in 1987, 1989, 1994, and 1995.
Statistical Analyses
Data were collected on the percentage of studies that analyzed their
data using statistical analyses during the second decade of JOBM (see
Table 1). For this period, a total of 41 separate statistical analyses were
performed, and 37% of the studies conducted at least one type of
statistical procedure during data analysis. The most common statistical
test used during the second decade was the Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA). Statistical data were not reported in the Balcazar et al.
(1989) review and therefore could not be compared to the data from
the second decade.
DISCUSSION
In their review of the first decade of JOBM publications, Balcazar et
al. (1989) found strong evidence of the growth and prosperity of the
TABLE 1. Statistical analysis used in the Journal of Organizational Behavior

Management between 1987 and 1997.
Type of Test 1987 1988 1989 1990 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Univariate 4 5 1 1 4 3 1 1 2 0
Multivariate 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Multiple 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
Comparison
Correlational 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 1 2 0
Journal, while citing areas in which the quality of publications could

be improved. As evidence of the Journal’s growth, the authors called
attention to the number of pages printed per year, the diversity of
articles published, and increases in work simulation research. The
authors also noted that the Journal would be improved if more re-
searchers included cost/benefit analyses as well as social validation
data. Finally, the authors recommended that future organizational be-
havior management (OBM) researchers investigate large-scale inter-
ventions that address the cultural foundations of organizations.
Data collected over the last twenty years support the notion that
JOBM has continued to grow and prosper, particularly with regard to
author affiliation. At first glance, it appears that JOBM has become
increasingly reliant upon the contributions of authors affiliated with
academic institutions. Although it may not be unusual for a scholarly
journal to be comprised largely of the work of academicians, one of
the stated goals of JOBM is to produce research and commentary of
value to both researchers and practitioners alike. Therefore, one could
argue that the predominance of first-authors affiliated with universities
indicates that the Journal serves only academics and not practitioners.
However, data presented in the current review suggest that whereas
first authors largely continue to be university affiliates, the proportion
of total authors (second, third, etc.) affiliated with academic institu-
tions has decreased throughout the decade (see Figure 4). One inter-
pretation of these data is that authors associated with universities and
individuals employed by private-sector entities are collaborating more
frequently. Papers published by several authors (Sulzer-Azaroff, Loaf-
man, Merante, & Hlavacek, 1990; Fleming, Oliver, & Bolton, 1996;
Kortick & O’Brien, 1996; Methot, Williams, Cummings, & Bradshaw,
1996) are examples of what could be an emerging collaboration be-

tween (OBM) researchers and practitioners–an eminently promising
development.
Further evidence of JOBM’s growth is the recent increase in theory-

oriented and work simulation research. For the majority of the first
decade, nearly all of the studies published in JOBM were applied
studies carried out in work settings. However, Balcazar et al. (1989)
noted that studies reporting work simulation research began to in-
crease near the end of that ten year period. Furthermore, recent data
reflect the continuation of this trend. Throughout the second decade,
several authors (Cole & Hopkins, 1995; Frisch & Dickinson, 1990;
Lorenzi, 1988; Mason & Redmon, 1992; Mawhinney, Dickinson, &
Taylor, 1989; Stoneman & Dickinson, 1989) have published work
simulation studies and research addressing theoretical questions. This
emergence of work simulation research is evidence of the continued
development of a scientific approach to behavior in organizations, as
opposed to simply demonstrating that the technology indeed works
(for a more in-depth discussion of the distinctions among basic, work
simulation, and applied research see Poling, Dickinson, Austin, &
Normand, in press). Although JOBM was founded primarily upon
applications of behavior analysis to solving work-related problems,
the exposition and testing of theories through basic and work simula-
tion research is unquestionably part of the development of an effective
technology.
A related point supporting JOBM’s continued growth is the variety
of methodologies employed by researchers. Balcazar et al. (1989)
reported that research designs used by OBM researchers were almost
exclusively within-subject designs limited to four categories: AB,
ABA, ABAB (or more), and multiple baseline. However, although the
review of the second decade has revealed a continued preference for
within-subject designs, the variety of designs employed has increased.
For example, Sulzer-Azaroff et al. (1990) employed a combination
multiple-baseline/changing criterion design in addressing occupation-
al safety in an industrial setting. Mason and Redmon (1992) used a
multi-element design in their study of signal detection and feedback,
and Henry and Redmon (1990) combined a multiple baseline and
reversal design in their use of performance feedback in implementing
a statistical process control (SPC) program. The addition of designs
such as these provide future researchers with excellent examples of
relatively unique methodological approaches to OBM research. While

such designs are certainly not unusual in the behavior-analytic litera-
ture as a whole, their inclusion is somewhat novel in JOBM research
and is yet another sign of the growth of the Journal.

One commonality between the first and second decades of publica-
tions is the variety of problems addressed. Quality, for example, re-
mains a common concern for practitioners and researchers alike, and
several authors have addressed particular dimensions of quality. Prob-
lems with quality due to accuracy have been addressed by a number of
different researchers (e.g., Godby & White, 1992; Kortick & O’Brien,
1996; Lafleur & Hyten, 1995; Mason & Redmon, 1992; Nordstrom,
Hall, Lorenzi, & Deluadri, 1988). Several other authors (e.g., Brown
& Sulzer-Azaroff, 1994; Goltz, Citera, Jensen, Favero, & Komaki,
1989; Welsh, Bernstein, & Luthans, 1992; Welsh, Johnson, Miller,
Merrill, & Altus, 1989) contributed research on problems of customer
satisfaction; whereas Smith, Kaminski, and Wylie (1990) investigated
quality in terms of novelty (i.e., organizational innovation).
Much like the research of the first decade, second decade JOBM
researchers devoted considerable attention to problems of productiv-
ity. Some authors (Hantula, Stillman, & Waranch, 1990; Hawkins,
Burgio, Langford, & Engel, 1992; Lorenzi, 1988; McNally & Aberna-
thy, 1989; Nordstrom et al., 1988) sought ways to improve the rate of
performance; whereas others (Calpin, Edelstein, & Redmon, 1988;
Evans, Kienast, & Mitchell, 1988; Johnson & Masotti, 1990; Martin-
ko, White, & Hassell, 1989) addressed issues of total output (i.e., sales
volume).
Not surprisingly, combinations of productivity and quality seem to
have been the most common problem addressed during both decades of
JOBM. Several authors (Allison, Silverstein, & Galante, 1992; Fox &
Sulzer-Azaroff, 1989; Gilkalov, Baer, & Hannah, 1997; Welsh, Lu-
thans, & Sommer, 1993) investigated various ways to improve both
quality and productivity using OBM techniques. Another important
area upon which OBM researchers have concentrated concerned ways
to reduce cost in organizations. Many authors (Austin, Kessler, Ricco-
bono, & Bailey, 1996; Clayton, Mawhinney, Luke, & Cook, 1997;
Schnelle, Sowell, Traughber, & Hu, 1988; Wittkopp, Rowan, &
Poling, 1990) examined ways to reduce labor costs. Krigsman and
O’Brien (1987) and Hantula and Crowell (1994) described interven-
tions aimed at reducing material and management costs, respectively.
Other important studies were aimed at improving safety and health

in the workplace. Several articles (Austin et al., 1996; Fanslow, Le-
land, Craig, Hahn, Polonowita, & Teavae, 1988; Hantula, Stillman, &
Waranch, 1992) investigated ways to increase the incidence of safe

work behaviors, whereas others (Kello, Geller, Rice, & Bryant, 1988;
Streff, Kalsher, & Geller, 1993) looked at using OBM to increase
health-related behaviors in the workplace.
Despite the many successes and advancements of recent research in
OBM, there are still areas where improvements should be sought.
Results from the current review reaffirm similar concerns reported by
Balcazar et al. (1989). Over the last twenty years, the number of
articles published each year has declined. Certainly this is a measure
of quantity rather than quality, however, if the quantity continues to
decrease the quality of the research will become moot. Several factors
(i.e., publisher’s size restrictions,2 the size of submitted articles) can
influence the number of pages produced each year which may affect
the size of particular issues, however, in many cases the differences in
quantity are quite significant. For example, no issues were produced in
1991 and approximately 100 pages were published in 1994 and 1995.
While the quality of research remained high in these years, they stand
in stark contrast to what are arguably banner-years for quantity in
JOBM (1983, 1986, 1990, and 1992). In addition, the average number
of articles published per volume decreased from approximately 9 dur-
ing the first decade to approximately 7 during the second decade. The
combination of fewer pages produced and fewer articles published
may be evidence of other trends as well. One reason for the trend may
be that OBM researchers are finding alternative publications for their
work (i.e., Performance Improvement Quarterly), which may be an
outstanding development for the field of OBM, but not for JOBM. If
JOBM is to be the premiere publication outlet for OBM practitioners
and researchers, it seems that a reasonable goal would be that its
submission rates remain high and steady. Another reason for the de-
creasing numbers in JOBM may be that, as we have informally ob-
served, many student graduates and some faculty of OBM have been
moving to the private sector and consulting to organizations rather
than focusing on academia and publishing.
Another area in which future publications could be improved is in
the domain of research methodology. In particular, whereas the current
decade was characterized by increased work simulation and theory-
driven research (which we find laudable), this increase was accompa-

nied by a reliance on undergraduate students as study participants.
Although researchers in OBM have not needed to discuss this issue in
the past, other psychologists have debated whether data from college
student participants are representative of those from the general popu-
lation (in the area of depression, see Coyne, 1994; in the area of
organizational behavior, see Slade & Gordon, 1988; Gordon, Slade, &
Schmitt, 1987). Although he argued that the external validity of be-
havioral research is not primarily a function of the population studied,
Oakes (1972) reported a study in which effects found using college
student participants could not be replicated using non-college student
participants. The author’s conclusion was that, irrespective of the pop-
ulation studied, behavioral science findings can be valid. However,
generalization is determined by the characteristics of the population to
which findings will be applied. For this reason, if application is a goal
of the research, the studied population should resemble the population
targeted for application as much as possible. OBM laboratory simula-
tions are primarily of the sort that will be applied to the general
population at some future time. This means that those conducting such
research should consider the population to which the results will be
generalized when planning and conducting the study.
Certainly there are two sides to this discussion, but the point is that
an increase in students as participants should not occur without some
dialogue regarding its benefits and drawbacks. Whereas recruiting
college-level students may be advantageous in terms of logistics, cost,
and availability for research sessions, a drawback includes the
constraints placed on the external validity of those JOBM studies
using students as participants.
As another issue, our analysis indicates that many studies fail to
include descriptions of how the reliability and integrity of dependent
and independent variables was measured. Including a short description
of inter-observer agreement and how the researchers verified that the
independent variable was implemented as intended provide important
information to the reader and allow future researchers to more closely
replicate interventions. Furthermore, descriptions of reliability proce-
dures can be relatively short, simple sections such as those included by
Fox and Sulzer-Azaroff (1989) and Wilk and Redmon (1990). Aside
from reliability information, a low percentage of studies reported cost/
benefit data, social validity of the dependent and independent vari-
ables, program continuation, and follow-up data. Many JOBM con-

tributors have provided outstanding examples of how to include such
information in publications. With regard to conducting cost/benefit
analyses, several authors (Johnson & Masotti, 1990; Sulzer-Azaroff et

al., 1990; Wilk & Redmon, 1990) have provided accounts. Smith et al.
(1990), Sulzer-Azaroff et al. (1990), and Austin et al. (1996) each
included measures of social validity. Fanslow et al. (1988) and Welsh
et al. (1989) reported program continuation, and others (Fanslow et
al., 1988; Methot et al., 1996; Nordstrom et al., 1988) serve as exam-
ples of reporting follow-up data. For the most part, including these
data represents extra effort on the part of the researcher. However, the
inclusion of such information adds considerably to the quality of the
research. Further, the benefits of including social validity, follow-up,
and program continuation data have been widely espoused by other
authors (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968; Kazdin, 1982).
In general, JOBM has grown over the last 20 years and has contin-
ued to address meaningful organizational concerns from a behavior-
analytic perspective. Whether or not the Journal has continued to meet
its original objectives is more difficult to assess based upon the data
gathered in this review as well as those reported by Balcazar et al.
(1989). In our opinion, the data suggest that the first objective,
‘‘JOBM features research that is useful in addressing organizational
problems,’’ has continued to be met, as the variety of problems being
addressed in research articles has expanded over the last 20 years.
However, the remaining objectives are not directly addressed by the
data collected in the current review (and neither were they, we feel, in
that of Balcazar et al., 1989).
The available data do not allow us to fully assess whether or not the
‘‘journal excels at disseminating knowledge about behavioral ap-
proaches to solving organizational problems,’’ or if it remains ‘‘a
resource for behavioral consulting companies and their clients in help-
ing the latter learn more about behavioral approaches to organizational
problems.’’ Our data do suggest that authors of JOBM publications are
becoming more diverse, perhaps suggesting that the techniques are
spreading in popularity across the world. The ‘‘dissemination ques-
tion’’ could be best addressed by examining trends in the number of
subscriptions to individuals and/or libraries and how these numbers
have changed over the years. Another measure of dissemination would
be sales of back volumes and/or special issues bound as books (e.g.,
see volume 11, issue 1, ‘‘Promoting Excellence Through Performance

Management’’). Looking at these data could give those in control of
the Journal information needed to problem solve and increase dissem-
ination, when appropriate.

The ‘‘usefulness of the Journal as a resource’’ question could be
addressed by examining how many managers actually receive,
read, and report to use techniques described in JOBM. Data shown
in Figure 3 provide some evidence that the Journal is not exclusive-
ly academic, which could suggest that managers are finding the
techniques to be useful. That is, if they are publishing papers dem-
onstrating the use of the techniques, then logically they are using
them at some point in time. Our informal observations indicate that
few managers have the abilities, interest, and support needed to
publish their work and to read other published work. This is per-
haps further evidenced by the publication of other less formal jour-
nals aimed at managers (i.e., Performance Management Maga-
zine). Another measure of usefulness could be the extent to which
students of behavior analysis (undergraduates, graduates, and/or
employees in training) find the Journal and its contents to be use-
ful. Again, if usefulness remains a goal of JOBM, these data will aid
in its improvement.
Perhaps we should more regularly revisit the goals and mission
of the Journal and have open discussion about whether they are
currently appropriate and if not, how exactly they should be
changed. For example, if the Journal was thought more appropriate
as a scholarly publication, then perhaps dissemination or useful-
ness to managers is not an issue at all. If that were the consensus we
reached from discussion of the issue, there would be options such
as developing a less scholarly but more useful publication as well
as the current Journal. Or, a portion of the current Journal space
could be devoted to descriptions of useful applications, training
tips, or some other-than-scholarly material. Furthermore, the per-
formance measures of the Journal’s success would change based on
the stated mission and its goals if the mission and goals were
changed. If scholarly contributions were deemed most important,
we would evaluate successes and failures differently than if useful-
ness and dissemination were primary goals. Given the original
stated objectives of the Journal, it is reasonable to conclude that the
first is being met. We have no real data regarding the second two
objectives. These data are not made public on a regular basis. This
could be evidence that they are not as important as they once were.
In any event, drawing conclusions before discussing these impor-
tant issues is ill advised.
NOTE
1. As we explained earlier, because the exact data from the Balcazar et al. (1989)
paper were not available, we estimated them from published graphs. We will use the
term ‘‘approximate’’ to refer to data that we estimated from the graphs published by
Balcazar et al. (1989).
2. It may be worth noting that it has been recently announced that JOBM will
move to publishing four issues each year, beginning in 1999, and this may affect both
pages and articles published per year.
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Journal of Organizational Behavior Management

ISSN: 0160-8061 (Print) 1540-8604 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/worg20

An Objective Review of the Journal of

Timothy V. Nolan , Kimberly A. Jarema & John Austin PhD

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Behavior Management: 1987-1997

ABSTRACT. This article presents an objective review and analysis of

KEYWORDS. Objective literature review, Journal of Organizational

Balcazar, Shupert, Daniels, Mawhinney, and Hopkins (1989) con-

bar represents the number of issues printed that year.

350 (2) (4) (3)

discussion/review, or book review. For an article to be classified as

Figure 3 represents first author affiliation for articles published

considered to be affiliated with academia if she/he reported affiliation

FIGURE 3. The percentage of first authors affiliated with a company, agency

as the number of authors contributing from outside of the United

affiliated with an academic institution decreased during this decade.

Applied versus Theoretical

Figure 5 represents the percentage of research articles that were

FIGURE 5. Applied versus theory-oriented studies between 1977 and 1997.

that were theory-oriented (oriented towards answering a theoretical question).

This increase in theory-oriented studies is largely attributable to the

Field Research versus Work Simulation Research

Figure 6 represents the percentage of studies occurring in a labora-

been conducted in applied work settings–especially in the first decade.

Figure 7 displays the percentage of studies including problems that

those where consequences (e.g., feedback, praise, monetary rewards,

Figure 8 shows the frequency of each of several kinds of problems

most common problems addressed are those involving combinations of

20%-100%) or publicly (approximate mean = 42%, approximate

has generally persisted throughout the second decade.

Figure 10 represents the percentages of different types of partici-

FIGURE 10. Different types of participants used in JOBM publications each

responsible to any management personnel. The ‘‘other’’ category was

marily due to the increased use of students as participants. During the

JOBM studies were students.

Behavior versus Products of Behavior

Are Phenomena of Interest Observed?

Balcazar et al. (1989) noted that a great deal of organizational

Reliability of the Dependent and Independent Variables

Figure 11 displays the percentage of studies published between

A study was considered to have reported on the reliability of the

Throughout the second decade, no data were reported on reliability of

Type of Within-Subject Designs Used

Figure 14 shows the overall percentage of within-subject designs

changing criterion, and multi-element. In addition, the category

FIGURE 13. Percentage of studies each year using between-groups experi-

Data were collected on the percentage of studies reporting any type

line, ABC, changing criterion, multi-element, and repeated measures.

Social Validity of Independent and Dependent Variables

Figure 15 represents the percentage of studies reporting social va-

Figure 16 displays the percentage of studies over the past two

0%-57%) in the second decade. During the second decade, no studies

TABLE 1. Statistical analysis used in the Journal of Organizational Behavior

Journal, while citing areas in which the quality of publications could

1996) are examples of what could be an emerging collaboration be-

Further evidence of JOBM’s growth is the recent increase in theory-