This article was downloaded by: [New York University]

On: 09 December 2014, At: 15:44

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Women's History Review

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rwhr20

A Historical Account of Community

Mobilization in Public Education in
Early Twentieth-Century African
America: introducing Miss Virginia
Estelle Randolph, master-teacher and
community mobilizer
Colita Nichols Fairfax
Published online: 08 Jul 2013.

To cite this article: Colita Nichols Fairfax (2014) A Historical Account of Community Mobilization
in Public Education in Early Twentieth-Century African America: introducing Miss Virginia Estelle
Randolph, master-teacher and community mobilizer, Women's History Review, 23:1, 1-17, DOI:
10.1080/09612025.2013.811991

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09612025.2013.811991

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
 Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014
 Women’s History Review, 2014
Vol. 23, No. 1, 1 –17, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09612025.2013.811991

A Historical Account of Community

Mobilization in Public Education in
Early Twentieth-Century African
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

America: introducing Miss Virginia

Estelle Randolph, master-teacher and
community mobilizer
Colita Nichols Fairfax

Miss Virginia Randolph was a historic pioneer in teaching and community mobilizing
for African American children and community in early twentieth-century Henrico
County, Virginia. She created a viable educational and vocational training institution
called the Old Mountain Road School, and used her skills to galvanize support from
white and African American communities, a major feat that many African-American
female teachers and organizers performed everyday in segregation. Her model of
coupling public education with community mobilization is still relevant today,
given national concerns about the futility of public education’s success and failure
rates with African American children.

Theoretical Foundation
The practice of community development and mobilization is consistently located in
the most dynamic chapters of African-American history.1 Community development

Colita Nichols Fairfax is an Associate Professor in The Ethelyn R. Strong School of Social Work at
Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia. Her research interests include African American social
history and policy, and community development and mobilization. Correspondence to: Colita
Nichols Fairfax, Norfolk State University, The Ethelyn R. Strong School of Social Work, 700 Park
Avenue, Brown Memorial Hall, B140, Norfolk, Virginia, 23504. Email: cnfairfax@nsu.edu

# 2013 Taylor & Francis

 2 C. Nichols Fairfax

achieves collective problem solving, self-help and empowerment;2 community

mobilization galvanizes human and natural resources to engage in effective collab-
orations for successful outcomes,3 personal and community transformation. Three
institutions developed by African Americans emerging from enslavement were mar-
riages, churches and schools. Women centered their work to bridge the gap between
the needs and resources, mobilizing for institutional transformation.
The community mobilization efforts of Miss Virginia Estelle Randolph will be
examined as a social history and an intellectual biography.4 By describing her life
contributions as a master-teacher, this author offers this historical narrative of
public education development within a particular African American community.
‘Historically, African Americans were denied access to mainstream support and
[educational] systems, and developed a network of self-help within segregated
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

communities’.5 This narrative in American history attempts to fill ‘the disparate

perspectives [in order to] present a complete view of the history of African Amer-
ican teaching’.6 Chronicling Randolph’s life shows how some African American
communities mobilized to ‘implement a collective vision of how to educate
African American children in a Jim Crow society’.7
‘African American women developed creative solutions to the social problems
confronting the African American community’.8 While Siddle Walker explores
the more complex, interdependent portraits of African American teachers,
which was heavily influenced by context,9 this paper showcases the organizational
mobilization skills of Virginia Randolph, which surpassed classroom instruction.
The legacy of Miss Virginia Estelle Randolph’s teaching and mobilization efforts
made public education a source of community pride and presence in early to
middle twentieth century African America in Henrico County. As an African
American woman at the turn of the century, Randolph not only used mobilization
as a means to achieve educational goals, by galvanizing the community, she colla-
borated with white male leaders for their endorsement of educating African-
American children in Henrico. Booker T. Washington’s pedagogy of structuring
a school’s curriculum around the projects of daily life at Tuskegee Normal and
Industrial Institute parallel’s Randolph’s work in Henrico Country. As we shall
see, Miss Rudolph’s work can be compared to the contributions of Washington
to the building of interracial coalitions.10
As one of the leading educators of his time, Booker T. Washington is largely
credited with valuing industrial education as a practical teaching method for
newly freed persons. As Donald Generals noted in this study, Washington, a
product of the Hampton Institute, united scientific, industrial and agricultural
education of African-Americans at Tuskegee Institute (of which he founded),
and both schools are historically African-American colleges. Many teachers,
including Randolph utilized this model for their schools, which appealed to the
White establishment. In the state of Virginia, Hampton Institute was a leading
college in training African-American teachers. Virginia Randolph became
known as the Dean of Teachers, and was as influential in the state of Virginia,
as Booker T. Washington was nationally. This article will show how influential
Randolph was as a master-teacher and community mobilizer.
 Women’s History Review 3

It is vital that personal narratives be researched and written, to make sense of the
modalities and strategies that were used by marginalized groups to voice their
dissent and negotiate a space for themselves within their societies at various his-
torical junctures. Community mobilization was a modality used by many African
Americans in various professions to create change. Reconstructing ideas about
community mobilization efforts gives the reader insights into the value of edu-
cational institutions as a progressive movement furthering the cause of freedom
and independence in middle twentieth century America. This article has three
goals: (1) to chronicle Virginia Randolph’s life as a Jeanes teacher;11 (2) to
discuss her role in the establishment of the school as a major community insti-
tution; and (3) to highlight her skill and approach as a community mobilizer.
The role of teacher has historically held a pre-eminent place in the African
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

American community.12 Teachers helped to create schools, which became

primary institutions in the life of the community. People ‘of African descent
have been creating their own educational institutions in America for over 200
years’.13 Without governmental support, communities developed their own
schools for group advancement. Education was a mechanism used to regulate
the agency of communities, so the role of teachers continued its African tradition
of community-conscience and group definition. Education became the social
institution by which African-Americans advanced. ‘The people in the forefront
of the struggle for education played a critical role in defining, articulating, and
advancing the aspirations of the race’. Since public policy prohibited educating
enslaved African-Americans, ‘mass illiteracy among the freedman made teachers
a natural source of race leadership, and the organization of schools helped
African-Americans define themselves as communities’.14
During post-enslavement, the tradition of master-teachers continued, as the
roles and responsibilities of teachers in the African-American community were
equal to the leadership roles of ministers, as educated leaders. Teachers, like min-
isters, were expected to play moral roles. As Fultz explains, ‘statements of their
moral role affirmed the individual achievements of African-American teachers
in forging their own dynamic “character,” the shining social and educational
ideal among African-American educators at the turn of the [twentieth]
century’.15 If schoolteachers were moral and ethical representatives, this allowed
African-American women to represent themselves within the larger political
context. ‘The respect accorded teachers reflected the high value that African-
Americans placed upon education’.16 The development of institutions mobilized
communities to empower themselves to reach their full potential, and to tackle
other threatening problems such as employment, housing, political and social
hostilities. According to Gerda Lerner, ‘The founding and support of educational
institutions had been a continuous activity in the African-American community
since the days of slavery’.17
As moral and ethical educators African-American women, like African-American
men, have made an impact on social and racial issues in the realm of African-Amer-
ican education.18 Although teaching has been assigned a gendered context in Amer-
ican society, African-American women used this role to advance concerns of race.
 4 C. Nichols Fairfax

Teaching was not limited to instructional methods, as Jackson notes, ‘the role of
teacher functions as a mediation between gender spheres, straddling the threshold
of domestic and public roles’.19 One teacher, Mrs Margaret Murray Washington,
for example, has been described as a teacher, ‘an enabler, mobilizer, change agent
and advocate’,20 suggesting political implications beyond the teaching role, where,
‘the duties and obligations embedded in African-American schoolteachers illumi-
nates the wider political implications of African-American women assuming the
role as teacher’.21 Communities saw educational issues as community welfare
issues of survival and sustenance. African-American women were often at the fore-
front of mobilization.22 Many teachers practiced the principles of early African-
American social welfare pioneers of self-help, mutual aid, race pride, racial uplift,
and social debt responsibility. Educator Martha Owens found that these principles
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

were incorporated in classroom instruction, where teachers ‘closely coupled racial

history and pride in education, which was a common thread found in the efforts
of African-American women teachers.’23
Miss Virginia Estelle Randolph, community mobilizer and social worker
pioneer, was the embodiment of this skill as a master-teacher. Miss Randolph’s
life as an Anna Jeanes teacher and supervisor was intertwined with the develop-
ment of the Old Mountain Road School (OMRS) in Henrico County, in 1892.
Henrico County surrounds the city of Richmond, and it is in this county that
the OMRS would become the first and only county-wide school for children of
African-descent. Randolph’s methods of accommodation made her a clever acti-
vist in the face of white-dominated resources, and thus able to defend and
enlarge the OMRS in 1892.
Her pioneering legacy compares with that of celebrated teachers such as Char-
lotte Hawkins Brown, Fanny Jackson Coppin, Lucy Laney, and Margaret Murray
Washington. ‘By taking the initiative to establish schools despite white opposition,
risking their own safety in the name of education, many African-American school-
teachers demonstrated their commitment to African-American progress and
defined themselves as community activists’.24 The state of Virginia has benefited
from African-American women who created institutions and movements of edu-
cation and uplift of communities. Women such as Ida Barbour, Lucy Goode
Brooks, Nannie Burroughs, Janie Porter Barrett, Maggie Lena Walker and others
sacrificed their lives as community activists during the post-enslavement period.25

Miss Randolph
The daughter of liberated people, Miss Randolph was ostensibly born in Rich-
mond, Virginia on 8 June 1874.26 New research has uncovered that she was
born in 1870.27 She was born at 817 W. Marshall Street, in the historic neighbor-
hoods of George Washington Carver and Jackson Ward.28 Her parents, Nelson
Randolph and Sarah Elizabeth Carter Randolph, had four children. The slave
master who owned Sarah Carter was a professor at Richmond College
(renamed the University of Richmond).29 Randolph’s parents were active
members of Moore Street Baptist Church. Her father died young, leaving her
 Women’s History Review 5

mother to raise the family alone. Sarah Randolph worked as a domestic for white
families. Virginia Randolph received her early education at the Bacon School and,
as a child, she began to knit, sew and crochet, using these skills to earn money to
help her mother.30 She finished at the Richmond Colored (Armstrong) Normal
School in 1890.
At the age of 16, she received her first teaching job in Goochland County, Vir-
ginia, remaining for three years before moving to Henrico County.31 One of her
former students, Warner Jones described Randolph as a short, dark-skinned
woman who wore her hair in a bun, and was always neat (personal interview
with Warner Jones, 31 July 2004).32 Her pedagogy included home economics,
manual labor techniques, basket making, pine needle and cone work, canning,
and agriculture, all skills she thought young African-Americans would need to
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

improve their lot in the world of the early 1900s.33 As an adult, Randolph
resided at 813 Moore Street, in Jackson Ward,34 and was active with the Queen
Esther Elks Temple, a Masonic Lodge chapter.35 Randolph continued her
church affiliation in the Carver community until her death. She was always
addressed as ‘Miss Virginia Randolph,’ by all who knew her, as a sign of respect
(personal interview with Warner Jones, 31 July 2004).36
Randolph galvanized support from the community to expand the capability of
the school, to make the OMRS relevant, by appealing to how African-Americans
understood their reality. She visited families, learned their trades and skills, lis-
tened to their opinions and concerns, talked about the relationship between intel-
lectual skills and trade skills.37 Her efforts to mobilize community support gained
the attention of Mr Jackson Davis, the white Henrico County Superintendent.
Wanting to improve the one-room schools that African American communities
had already built, Davis recognized that the Jeanes Fund was a conduit to achiev-
ing development efforts for those schools. Ironically, Booker T. Washington sat on
the Jeanes Board, at the request of Anna Jeanes. Randolph was influenced by Mr
Washington, and he was apprised of her techniques as teacher and supervisor.
The Jeanes funding was the only funding available to African-Americans of
Henrico County: ‘Davis’ application was approved and the county received a grant
for a salary of $40 a month for 9 months’.38 The Superintendent expressed support
and confidence about this ‘Henrico Plan’ and in the abilities of Miss Randolph.
The Henrico Plan emulated the documented success of Miss Randolph, which was
similar to the basic educational goals of the Jeanes Plan. Davis stated that Miss
Rudolph ‘would direct the work in a way that would build on the principle of self-
help and that in doing so, she would make use of whatever material she might have
at hand’.39 Davis wrote the following to the board of the Anna T. Jeanes Foundation:
I have secured Miss Virginia E. Randolph (colored) as the industrial teacher for
the Negro school in the county, and her work in this field began today. I think
we are fortunate in securing her. . .She possesses common sense and tact in an
unusual degree and has the confidence of all who know her40
Davis did not mention her intelligence or educational skills, highlighting
common sense and tact, all traits of someone congenial enough to work with
 6 C. Nichols Fairfax

the white establishment. Her mission was to ‘improve their schools and commu-
nities and to develop the industrial arts’.41
At the end of the first year, Miss Rudolph wrote a brief report about the amount
of industrial work that had been executed, and the improvement that had been
possible.42 Several thousand copies were printed and mailed to county superinten-
dents throughout the South43 and used as a template for industrial teachers for
African-American children. She explained her own philosophy about an edu-
cational community:
My first step was to organize School Improvement Leagues. . .that the grounds
must be beautified. . .to make an attractive school. Each scholar is expected to
pay the sum of five cents per month and from time to time, give entertainments
to strengthen the treasury, they must have a tendency to elevate the community
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

morally and educationally.44

Randolph would conduct the first Arbor Day in the state of Virginia on 30
March 1908, by planting twelve sycamore trees, representing the twelve disciples.45
In 1908, her appointment as a Henrico County ‘Jeanes’ teacher was a landmark
and eighteen county one-room schools initially fell under Randolph’s supervi-
sion.46 Although previous accounts document Miss Randolph as the first Jeanes
teacher, the first was Mrs M.L. Sorrell of Iberville Parish, Louisiana.47 However,
Dr Dillard, director of the Jeanes and Slater Funds, later spoke of Superintendent
Davis and Miss Virginia E. Randolph as ‘the inventors of the real Jeanes plan’.48 An
example of her ingenuity was documented in school reports:
In 1918 there were 18 Industrial Colored Schools in the county, staffed by
30 teachers under Miss Randolph’s supervision. During that year, there
were 514 girls enrolled in the schools, who preserved 8,258 quarts of fruits
and vegetables produced from 49 gardens. Adult classes were also offered,
and 75 women were enrolled: they preserved 5,147 quarts estimated in
value at $2,681. The pupils were encouraged to join canning, poultry, and
farming clubs. To defray the expenses of the clubs and the supplies for the
different ‘industrial’ courses, Miss Randolph established the Industrial
Exchange on Broad Street in Richmond to sell the products of the canning
and poultry clubs.49

Additionally, Randolph fed the palatability of the community with the assistance
of The League of Willing Workers,50 a patron organization created by Randolph
for parental involvement.
Miss Rudolph’s impeccable enrollment records and methods in mobilizing the
community and sustainability of OHMS led to it being renamed the Virginia Ran-
dolph Training School (VRTS) in 1915. Her methods documented the uniqueness
of an industrial school and community engagement. When the school became
overcrowded, she worked to solicit funds and volunteer work through her
Patrons Improvement League within the African-American community and, in
1915, the new school had an additional four rooms. Although high school
courses were added, industrial courses continued to be greatly emphasized.51 It
continued to be paid for by private monies and in-kind donations predominantly
 Women’s History Review 7

from the African-American community, while the county provided five high
schools for White students.52
Community efforts began to create an educational campus at the VRTS. To
provide a residence for some of the pupils, the Anna T. Jeanes Memorial Dormi-
tory was added in 1923. The two-room school building was destroyed by fire in
1929, but during that same year a nine-classroom brick building was built with a
seating capacity of 160. The building cost $33,000 and also had an auditorium
that would seat 360 and boasted a central heating plant.53 This campus was an
impressive testimony to the African-American community’s capability to create
an educational institution for generations of African-American students in
Henrico County. African-American pupils traveled long distances from all
areas in the county to attend VRTS. Randolph ensured the purchase of school
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

buses to transport students all over the county to her school.54 VRTS became
a Rosenwald School in 1929.55 A Rosenwald School was funded by the Julius
Rosenwald Fund, which constructed schools modeled after the buildings at
Tuskegee Institute, founded by Booker T. Washington. Miss Randolph’s cottage
and other buildings on her campus are recognized as a landmark in Henrico
County, Virginia.
Miss Randolph’s work became public knowledge as she was friends with well-
known African-American leaders of the early twentieth century in Virginia.
Early in 1915, Janie Porter Barrett’s Virginia Industrial School for Colored Girls
opened with assistance from the Richmond Council of Colored Women, headed
by Maggie Walker, the Russell Sage Foundation and the Virginia State Federation
of Colored Women’s Clubs headed by Barrett.56 In 1920, Miss Rudolph joined its
board, ‘Randolph’s appointment continued the established custom of having a
Negro woman on the board’.57 Miss Randolph’s reputation as an accomplished
educator and community leader received statewide approbation: Miss Rudolph
succeeded Walker as head of the Richmond Council of Colored Women.58 On
28 July 1926, she became a recipient of the Harmon Award for her pioneering
efforts of educating rural African-American children and with the Richmond
Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court in aiding children with their problems.59
The Harmon Award for Distinguished Achievements of Negroes was a very
important official recognition for leading African Americans during the early
twentieth century.60 This very significant philanthropic organization recognized
new artists, leaders and community mobilization efforts were equally important
to this period’s activity, and, therefore, the racial uplift and mobilization which
were exhibited consistently by Miss Randolph. Mrs Walker’s endorsement letter
illustrates how momentous her mobilization efforts were:
I have known Ms. Randolph for possibly thirty-five years. Our official relations
have been intimate and mutual in fraternal and community welfare interests.
Miss Randolph’s present position, Supervisor of Negro Rural Schools of Virgi-
nia, a most responsible worthwhile occupation, is practically of her own
making, based on her individual efforts for racial benefit uplift and cooperative
racial understanding. . . .. Miss Randolph made friends of some of Richmond’s
most influential white citizens, who have proven of inestimable value to
 8 C. Nichols Fairfax

education and the race relationship now so valued in this community, to state
and nation. Miss Randolph organized the first Club to function in the rural dis-
tricts, now grown into the worthwhile Leagues. She brought about that under-
standing, sympathetic, friendly feeling between the races in the rural districts,
from which large and beneficial results have sprung.61

Randolph documented her work as a Jeanes teacher in her report dated 13

March 1946. She apprised Dr Dillard of her successes of home visitations, dormi-
tory erections, and industrial training activities:
I told him. . . about my visits to the homes; the planning of the twelve trees and
naming them, and the industrial training, a Sunday school, the organization of
an agency to improve the school and [gain] additional land. . .Today, we have a
structure which houses approximately 450 children about 200 in the elementary
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

grades and 250 in the high school. The school has a staff of 21, including the
principal. The school owns 60 acres of land on which is located a main building
(14 classrooms, library and office); shop building for boys who are performing
general shop work; home economics cottage where the girls are taught home-
making; a dormitory that is the home for teachers, with a school cafeteria in
the basement. A cannery is also located on the school grounds. This serves
the residents of the County. Home visitation is also continued and regular tea-
chers’ meetings are held with 100% attendance.62

Randolph’s teaching was symbolic of industrial education, which taught stu-

dents agricultural and domestic skills, which were often gender based. Boys
were taught how to use tools, and girls were taught how to cook and clean,
amidst protest from parents. Some parents wanted their children to learn only aca-
demic skills,63 believing that their children were already adept with industrial
skills, and thus students also learned reading, writing and arithmetic. Randolph
mobilized resources in her community, by adding religion instruction with the
assistance from her Pastor of Moore Street Baptist Church, Dr Gordon
Hancock, and with Virginia Union University students, by organizing Sunday
school evening classes.64 Miss Randolph said: ‘I kept the Sunday school going
the year round for five years, and walked nearly every Sunday from Lakeside to
school and back, a distance of eight miles, during all kinds of weather’.65 The patri-
arch from the powerful Richmond-based Bryan family, donated an organ, Bibles,
hymn books, and money to help support the Sunday school, and the Caldwell-
Creighton Home Economics Cottage was added in 1939.66 This kind of support
from the Bryan family is an example of white approval of her industrial education
pedagogy, even though there were African-American parents who did not support
this type of curriculum.
As Jeanes supervisor, Randolph trained teachers to look for advice from the
community, interpret the needs and aspirations of the people in the community
and schools. She welcomed rural teachers into a network and offered curricula
enhancements by suggesting that teachers start classes in sewing and cooking,
assisting teachers with course instruction, and lesson plans.67 Teachers were
inspired to attend summer school for self-improvement, and were inspired to
organize school clubs for students, canning, garden and farm projects, and to
 Women’s History Review 9

help students find a way to transfer to the next larger school or college. Jeanes tea-
chers were noted for practical community activities, connecting the school with
the needs of homes and surrounding community.68
Randolph’s fame expanded beyond Henrico. Her work with the Virginia Tea-
cher’s Association (VTA) was stellar. Founded in 1887, the VTA was organized
by African-American teachers in segregated Virginia, and it originally started
out as a Virginia Teachers Reading Circle and grew to a statewide coalition of
leaders:69
The one element of great importance in the State Teachers Association in the
early years was that in the Negro race in Virginia there was a small group of
men and women who thought beyond their own little positions and encom-
passed, instead, a higher level of attainment for all the teachers in the state.70
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

Teachers, principals, ministers from county schools, Hampton Institute (now

University), Virginia Union University, St Paul’s College, Virginia Normal and
Collegiate Institute (now Virginia State University), the Peabody Institute, and
the Virginia School were very active in the VTA:71 ‘An important arm of the Tea-
chers Association appeared in the corps of Jeanes supervisors. The dean of these
workers was Virginia Randolph. . . .’72 Miss Randolph served as Vice President
and Executive Secretary and second Vice President in 1924, 1925 and 1926 respect-
ively, and treasurer in 1926–27. The Association donned her with the title of Hon-
orary Vice-President from 1927– 32. Her influence was felt amongst this august
body:
In a very real and vital way, the Negro teachers of Virginia worked on programs
of integration long before the word ‘integration’ was invented, they took pride
in being Negro. . .and involved themselves in state, district and local programs of
human relations that helped pave the way. . .for better living through better
teaching.73

Miss Randolph understood education as empowerment:

The word is held back today, not much by bad men as by good men who have
stopped growing. The moment one stops his own education he begins to lose
the power to educate others. Teach the child that he must never stop trying
to learn all the good he can for whenever you stop you dare standing in the
way of Progress.74
Hampton University was very involved in the VTA, and Randolph interfaced with
many of its professors in education. A portrait of Miss Randolph was unveiled and
hung in the old Hampton University library in 1934 as a tribute to her statewide
influence as a master-teacher and community leader.
African-American teachers existed in a complex system where the needs of
African-American children were formulated and communicated in systematic
and purposeful ways informed by the beliefs of the larger community.75 In
1937, the Southern Education Foundation recognized Miss Randolph.76 This
organization created the Virginia Randolph Fund for her pioneering efforts.
Monies raised by the Jeanes teachers in the South were used toward this fund.
 10 C. Nichols Fairfax

In 1939, she was awarded a Certificate of Meritorious Service by Virginia State

College, for her work as an educator.
To ensure that students in the community would attend school, Randolph
allowed them to reside in her home on Marshall Street. At one point, there
were 17 school-aged children living with her:77 ‘When asked about this, she recol-
lected that over the years she gave a home to as many as 59 children’.78 Randolph
transported students to the school, and creating the earliest ‘car-pools’ by asking
neighbors to share in getting children to school. Public transportation for African-
American students was not made available until 1934– 35. After Brown vs Board of
Education desegregated public education, all of the remaining one-room schools
for African-Americans were either closed or consolidated and Henrico County
provided transportation for African-American students to attend the Virginia
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

Randolph school. Randolph lobbied the Richmond/Ashland Railroad for students

to ride at a reduced fare. Through Randolph’s efforts, the community purchased
50 additional acres of land across from the training school to build the Boy’s Dor-
mitory on campus. In 1929, a fire destroyed the campus. There is no indication in
the historical record to indicate that there was an investigation conducted to deter-
mine the cause of the fire. Randolph galvanized the community for involvement in
rebuilding the campus. At the end of the year, a new eight-room school, a library,
and an auditorium were built with support from the Rosenwald Fund.
Randolph retired in 1949 as supervisor of Negro education in Henrico
County,79 after 57 years of service. With a legacy of supervising 24 schools, her
retirement was celebrated. A bust of Randolph was unveiled in 1954, in the Virgi-
nia Randolph School.80 The Virginia Randolph Foundation, Incorporated was
founded in 1954 to maintain the educational legacy of Miss Randolph. In 1960,
a Virginia Estelle Randolph Elementary School was built, and the last senior
high school class graduated in 1969.81 Miss Randolph never married and did
not have any children. She died on 16 March 1958 at the age of 84, and is
buried on the grounds of the campus. Her tombstone epitaph reads: ‘Virginia
Estelle Randolph, 1874–1958, She Helped People Of All Races. A Pioneer Educa-
tor, A Humanitarian, And A Creative Leader In the Field Of Education. Her Influ-
ence Throughout The World Will Continue To Live.’
After the closing of all African-American schools in the state of Virginia in 1969,
the high school was re-opened as the Virginia Randolph Education Center.82 Its
campus continues to be utilized today. In 1970, the Virginia Randolph
Museum, housed in the Home Economics Cottage was dedicated in her honor.
In 1976, the United States Department of Interior, National Park Service,
named the museum a National Historic Landmark.83 The Virginia Randolph
Foundation, comprised of alumna and residents, sponsors a fund-raising lunch-
eon, celebrating her life and legacy.

Randolph’s Community Mobilization

Community development demands the reapportioning or restructuring the estab-
lishment, yet the skill of mobilizing helps those dispossessed find their voices,
 Women’s History Review 11

discover their confidence, and feel that they actually have a chance of changing the
conditions of their lives and communities. This practice was utilized by addressing
education as a chief modality of upward mobility. Randolph contributed signifi-
cantly to shaping the first generation of African Americans born in the twentieth
century by asking parents to donate raw materials for school buildings, participate
in Arbor Day, Patron’s Day and Wrapping the Maypole activities, engage in the
League of Willing Workers and carpool. She made the school a priority of
parents and students.
Randolph mirrored organizational involvement to mobilize the creation of
institutions, as founded by Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of
St Luke,84 Ida Barbour’s Sewing Circle,85 and Janie Porter Barrett’s Federation
of Colored Women of Virginia.86 Virginia Randolph’s Patrons Improvement
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

League, composed mainly of adult males, helped to whitewash the buildings on

the campus.87 They regularly swept, cleaned and beautified the schoolhouse by
adding vines and flowers around it, and the League of Willing Workers assisted
with maintaining the campus and advocated for the Randolph School to business
leaders in the community.88 Randolph personalized community involvement by
persuading some parents to work cooperatively to improve the home of a sick
woman.89 These are some of the examples of mobilizing people to change the con-
ditions of communities.
Randolph maintained partnerships with her constituency by keeping her bene-
factor aware of her work. She wrote a letter to Anna Jeanes thanking her for her
financial support:
While I said to you today, I know the publicity in connection with your gift is
going to be disagreeable for a day or two, I hope you will realize that as an offset
to this annoyance, that there will be thousands of colored people in the South
who have little opportunity for education, whose hearts will be lifted up and
encouraged to an extent that you cannot realize, when they hear of this gift.90

Randolph knew how to assuage her support base. Maggie Walker’s recommen-
dation letter, to Dr George E. Haynes, is indicative of her individual leadership in
community mobilizing, ‘racial benefit uplift and cooperative racial understand-
ing’.91 Randolph’s work not only made education relevant, it helped the commu-
nity share in such relevancy in the intellectual development of African-American
children and expansion of community life.
Mediating with white educational leaders is an example of ‘cooperative racial
understanding’ that Walker mentions in her 1926 letter. Randolph worked with
Jackson Davis, Dr James Dillard, Dr Arthur White of the John P. Slater Fund;
John Stewart Bryan, member of the Richmond School Board and editor-
in-chief of the Richmond Times-Dispatch; Mr Willard F. Day, County Manager;
Virginia’s Superintendent Stearnes; Dr J. Curtis Dixon of the Southern Education
Foundation, and others, were a part of Randolph’s interracial constituency. Walker
illustrates this activity in her letter, ‘Miss Randolph made friends of some of Rich-
mond’s most influential white citizens, who have proven of inestimable value to
education and the race relationship.’92
 12 C. Nichols Fairfax

Miss Rudolph made the school relevant to the community by initiating

‘Patrons’ Day,’ to get parents to come to school, and through launching a
‘Better Homes’ campaign, by teaching children how to create scraps, and inviting
parents to extend the idea of making things to improve their homes.93 These pro-
jects emphasized parental involvement in the school, and showcased the talents of
students in the community.94 Building partnerships with the local white business
community, white donors, parents, The Patron’s Improvement League, The
School Improvement Club, and The League of Willing Workers, Randolph con-
stantly received feedback to consistently evaluate her work: ‘. . .having confir-
mation of the communities support, she began visiting other schools to find
more ideas for her students’.95
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

Conclusion
Today, grave concerns linger about public education and the African-American
community. African-American students graduate, finish college, earn terminal
degrees, contribute to our military, become business owners, and leaders in cor-
porate America. Many of those children hail from stable families and commu-
nities. However, in poor communities, high truancy and tardiness rates, poor
social behaviors, inadequate writing, math, and reading competencies, lack of tan-
gible skills for immediate employability, fragile parent/teacher relationships and
associations are a few of the concerns plaguing parents of students in poor
public school systems. ‘Shifting blame to schools and away from economic dispar-
ities allows social inequalities to remain firmly entrenched’.96
The educational system is often seen solely as a teacher-student dynamic which
ignores the synergy that the educational system has with other societal systems and
elides the grave problems of economic discrepancy: ‘Because the dominant narra-
tive of No Child Left Behind defines teachers and schools as the heart of edu-
cational ills, the harsh realities of poverty remain hidden’.97 Randolph’s model
ensured that students learned a skill that could be used to economically sustain
themselves and the community. More complimentary community-based schools
with a capability to prepare practically and professionally skilled students upon
graduation, is an example of preparing students for work-based experiences.
Teacher/parental collaborations in homes, or in community common-areas
such as local restaurants, churches, centers during evening hours, are examples
of schools extending their boundaries. More opportunity for students to use
these trade-skills for immediate employment is an outcome of mobilization. Ran-
dolph’s model remains relevant for teaching students’ skills that may be used in
industries of service, business, agriculture and technology.
If public education principals and teachers received more training in commu-
nity mobilizing techniques, some of these factors could be addressed. Often stu-
dents bring community and family issues such as employment struggles,
poverty, poor housing, transportation, and lack of access to technology for
school systems in poor tax districts. Randolph’s mobilizing placed her directly
in the path of parent engagement—thus strengthening the relationship between
 Women’s History Review 13

school and family. President Leon Botstein of Bard College asserts an observation
about school learning in that ‘we haven’t figured out how to inspire real ambition
and a love of learning in the adolescent group, starting with middle school through
to really the end of college’.98 And ‘[t]he view we’ve developed through our empiri-
cal models is that we should have a two-tier system-elementary and secondary—
rather than a three-tier system we have now’.99 Teaching and mobilizing may prove
more successful within a traditional two-tier system, since it is in the middle tier
where students become disengaged.
Locally, Virginia Estelle Randolph’s name is legend. Her legacy, as with the lega-
cies of other women who spearheaded community organizing and mobilizing
efforts, is often neglected.100 Not only is her legacy relevant, if seriously applied
to public education models today, there may be a probability of improved
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

middle and high schools in mobilized communities.

Notes
[1] An interdisciplinary analysis shows that African American women historically con-
tributed in areas of community development, civic engagement and activism, as
evidenced in Iris Carlton-LaNey (Ed.) (2001) African American Leadership: an
empowerment tradition in social welfare history (Washington, DC: NASW Press);
Paula Giddings (1985) When and Where I Enter: the impact of black women on
race and sex in America (New York: Bantam Books); Jacqueline Rouse (1996)
Out of the Shadow of Tuskegee: Margaret Murray Washington, social activism,
and race vindication, Journal of Negro History, 18, pp. 31 – 46; and Linda
B. Pincham (2005) A League of Willing Workers: the impact of Northern philan-
thropy, Virginia Estelle Randolph and the Jeanes teachers in early twentieth-
century Virginia, Journal of Negro Education, 72(2), pp. 112 – 23.
[2] Jerome H. Schiele, M. Sebrena Jackson & Colita Nichols Fairfax (2005) Maggie
Lena Walker: a social welfare legacy of African American community development,
Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 20(1), pp. 21 – 38.
[3] Linda Strieter & Lydia Blalock (2006) Journey to Successful Collaborations, Journal
of Extension, 44(1). Available from, http://www.joe.org/joe/2006february/tt4.php
[4] Iris Carlton-LaNey (1990) The Intellectual Biography: a mechanism for integrating
historical content, Arete, 15, 32 – 51. The intellectual biography is a study of the
contributions of a figure that made a significant and lasting impact. I complemen-
ted qualitative interviews with material housed at the Virginia Randolph Museum
in Henrico County, Virginia.
[5] Cheryl E. Waites (1990) The Tradition of Group Work and Natural Helping Net-
works in the African American Community, in David Fike & Barbara Rittner
(Eds) Working from Strengths: the essence of group work (Miami, FL: Center for
Group Work Studies), pp. 211– 24, see page 211.
[6] E. Vanessa Siddle Walker (2001) African American Teaching in the South: 1940 –
1960, American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), pp. 751 – 79, p. 753.
[7] Siddle Walker, African American Teaching, p. 753.
[8] Tonya Perry & Denise Davis-Maye (2008) Bein’ Womanish: womanist efforts in
child saving during the progressive era, Affilia: Journal of Women and Social
Work, 22(2), pp. 209– 19, see p. 218.
[9] Siddle Walker, African American Teaching, p. 753.
 14 C. Nichols Fairfax

[10] Donald Generals (2000) Booker T. Washington and Progressive Education: an

experimentalist approach to curriculum development and reform, Journal of
Negro Education, 69(3), pp. 215– 34.
[11] The Anna T. Jeanes Foundation funded African American teachers and supervisors.
Jeanes was born in Philadelphia to a Quaker family who took active interest in the
enfranchisement and education of newly freed people in the United States. She
inherited the fortune of her family around the 1900s, using it to assist those who
were infirmed and dispossessed. In 1907, her Jeanes Fund was created to teach
and train African American teachers and supervisors in the south. It is through
this fund that Virginia Randolph was paid as a teacher and ultimately as the first
African-American supervisor. After her death, the Jeanes Fund, also called the
Negro Rural School Fund was created and continued to distribute funds.
[12] Dr Asa Hilliard (2000) To Be an African Teacher, in K. Gallman & M. Ani (Eds) To
Be African: essays by Africans in the process of Sankofa, returning to our source of
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

power (Atlanta, GA: MAAT), pp. 65 – 76.

[13] Joan D. Ratteray (1992) Independent Neighborhood Schools: a framework for the
education of African Americans, Journal of Negro Education, 61(2), pp. 138 –47.
[14] Adam Fairclough (2000) Being in the Field of Education and Also Being a
Negro. . .Seems. . .Tragic: African-American teachers in the Jim Crow South,
Journal of American History, 87(1), pp. 65 – 91, p. 65.
[15] Michael Fultz (1995) African American Teachers in the South, 1890 – 1940: power-
lessness and the ironies of expectations and protest, History of Education Quarterly,
35(4), pp. 401 – 22.
[16] Fairclough, Being in the Field, p. 66.
[17] Lauri Johnson (2004) A Generation of Women Activists: African American female
educators in Harlem, 1930 – 1950, Journal of African American History, 89(3),
pp. 223– 40, p. 236.
[18] Mary F. Berry (1982) Twentieth-Century African-American Women in Education,
Journal of Negro Education, 51(3), pp. 288 –300.
[19] Cassandra Jackson (2003) ‘I Will Gladly Share With Them My Richer Heritage’:
schoolteachers in Frances E.W. Harper’s Iola Leroy and Charles Chesnutt’s
Mandy Oxendine, African American Review, 37(4), pp. 553– 68.
[20] Joyce Dickerson (2001) Margaret Murray Washington: Organizer of Rural African
American Women, in I. Carlton-LaNey (Ed) African American Leadership: an
empowerment tradition in social welfare history (Washington, DC: NASW
Press), pp. 55 – 73, p. 57.
[21] Jackson, ‘I Will Gladly Share’, p. 565.
[22] Mary F. Berry, Twentieth-Century African-American Women, p. 289.
[23] Martha W. Owens (1947) The Development of Public Schools for Negroes in Rich-
mond, Virginia 1865 – 1990 (Master’s thesis, Virginia State College).
[24] Jackson, ’I Will Gladly Share’, p. 555.
[25] There is ongoing documentation of social welfare activity of African-American
women in the state of Virginia as found in Veronica. A. Davis, (2005) Inspiring
African American Women of Virginia (New York: iUniverse, Inc); Colita Nichols
Fairfax (2007) The African American Child-Saving Legacy of Ida Barbour: an
alternative to foster care policy and practice, Arete, 31(1 – 2), pp. 73 – 85; Wilma
Peebles-Wilkins, (2001) Janie Porter Barrett and the Virginia Industrial School
for Colored Girls: community response to the needs of African American children,
in Carlton-LaNey, African American Leadership, pp. 123 – 35.
[26] Two public articles on the death of Miss Virginia Randolph: Crisis Magazine of the
NAACP reports her birth in 1875 (1958), pp. 296, 299; and Don Owen, The Rich-
mond Afro-American (18 July 1970), p. 5, reports her birth in 1875. Frank Lincoln
Mather (1915) Who’s Who Of The Colored Race: a general biographical dictionary of
 Women’s History Review 15

men and women of African descent, volume I (Chicago: Gale Research Company)
reports Randolph’s birth year as 1876.
[27] Public historian, Elvatrice Belsches, reported using the Freedman’s Bank database
to search for information confirming Maggie Lena Walker’s birthdate and also
found Randolph’s date in Wesley Hester’s Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper
article.
[28] Linda B. Brown (1990) Schooling for African-Americans in Henrico County, Vir-
ginia 1870 – 1933 (PhD dissertation, Virginia Polytechnical Institute & State Uni-
versity); and Elaine P. Witty (1992) Virginia Randolph, in Jessie Carney Smith
(Ed) Notable African-American American Women (Detroit: Gale Research, Inc),
p. 918.
[29] The George Washington Carver and Jackson Ward neighborhoods date back to the
1800s. This is the same community where Maggie Lena Walker lived, as their
homes were in close proximity with one another. See, Schiele, Jackson & Fairfax,
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

Maggie Lena Walker.

[30] Brown, Schooling for African-Americans; Witty, Virginia Randolph.
[31] Sylvia G. L. Dannett (1964) Negro Heritage Library: profiles of negro womanhood.
Vol. 1: 1619 – 1900 (New York: Educational Heritage Inc).
[32] Mr Warner Magajar Jones, Sr (1912 – 2005) was an enduring historical figure in
Henrico County, Virginia. Born into well-known Native/African American
family who owned 1600 acres in the county, he was educated in the segregated
system, attending two-room schools, and graduated from the Virginia Randolph
Training School in 1930. Randolph was one of his teachers and principal at the
time. Educated at Virginia Union University, he earned his master’s degree in
history in 1955 from Virginia State University. His master’s thesis ‘Development
of Public Education in Henrico County, Virginia during the period of 1870
through 1954,’ was a standard reference for years. Jones became assistant principal
of the high school, and after Brown vs. Board of Ed., he became principal of the
Virginia Randolph Elementary School, which was built next to the high school.
He lost his position after the county closed the school in 1969. He was on the fore-
front of a campaign to prevent the county school board from eliminating the Ran-
dolph name, by serving as a curator of the Virginia Randolph Museum for several
decades. After the 1929 fire at OHMS, his father, William Jones, donated the
lumber for seven newly built horse stalls.
[33] Mather, Who’s Who of the Colored Race, p. 225; Owen, Museum to Honor Pioneer
Educator, The Richmond Afro-American (18 July 1970), p. 5.
[34] Mather, Who’s Who of the Colored Race, p. 225.
[35] Witty, Virginia Randolph, p. 918.
[36] Fairclough, Being in the Field, provides examples of the respect afforded to Black
teachers, pp. 67 and 77.
[37] Pincham, A League of Willing Workers, pp. 114 – 19.
[38] Louis H. Manarin & Clifford Dowdey (1984) The History of Henrico County (Char-
lottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia), p. 384.
[39] Manarin & Dowdey, The History of Henrico County, p. 385.
[40] Witty, Virginia Randolph, p. 918.
[41] Manarin & Dowdey, The History of Henrico County, p. 386.
[42] Benjamin Brawley (1971) Doctor Dillard of the Jeanes Fund (Freeport, NY: Books
for Libraries Press), p. 58.
[43] Brawley, Doctor Dillard, pp. 58 – 59.
[44] Virginia E. Randolph (1908) Virginia Randolph’s First Report as Jeanes Teacher: a
brief report of the manual training work done in the colored schools of Henrico
County, VA for Session, 1908 – 1909 (Henrico County, VA).
[45] Manarin & Dowdey, The History of Henrico County, p. 382.
 16 C. Nichols Fairfax

[46] Mather, Who’s Who Of The Colored Race, p. 225; Owen, The Richmond Afro-
American, p. 5.
[47] Brawley, Doctor Dillard, pp. 59 – 60.
[48] Brawley, Doctor Dillard, p. 60.
[49] Virginia School Report, 1916 – 1917, p. 84; ibid, 1917 – 1918, pp. 56– 57.
[50] Pincham, A League of Willing Workers.
[51] Brown, Schooling for African-Americans in Henrico County.
[52] Brown, Schooling for African-Americans in Henrico County.
[53] Manarin & Dowdey, The History of Henrico County, p. 386.
[54] Brenda D. Nichols (2010) African Americans of Henrico County (Charleston, SC:
Arcadia Publishing).
[55] Throughout the state of Virginia, there were roughly 371 Rosenwald Schools,
making Virginia a desirable state for this educational project. The Rosenwald
Fund was founded by philanthropist Julius Rosenwald, who was able to largely
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

control the direction of African-American education, particularly higher education

in the United States (Brown, Schooling for African-Americans; The JBHE Foun-
dation [1999], p. 52). Born in 1862 in Springfield, Illinois, across the street from
Abraham Lincoln, and the son of Jewish immigrants, he amassed a vast fortune
through the profits of Sears and Roebuck (The JBHE Foundation, 1999). As a phi-
lanthropist, Rosenwald erected more than 5000 schools in fifteen states stretching
from Maryland to Texas. He would offer seed money of about 20 – 33% of the total
cost of the school, with the African-American community obliging to raise the rest
of the funds (The JBHE Foundation, 1999).
[56] Kim Q. Boyd (1987) An Actress Born, A Diplomat Bred: Maggie L. Walker, race
woman (Master’s thesis, Howard University), and Wilkins, Janie Porter Barrett
and the Virginia Industrial School, pp. 123– 35.
[57] Norfolk Journal and Guide, Social Briefs (19 January 1935), p. 11.
[58] Miss Randolph’s leadership as an educator has been cited in Boyd, An Actress Born;
Charles W. Florence (1923) The Training of Colored Teachers for the Public Schools of
Virginia (Master’s thesis, University of Pittsburgh); Norfolk Journal and Guide, p 11.
[59] Dannett, Negro Heritage Library.
[60] George Edmund Haynes (1945) Public Approbation as a Means of Changing Inter-
racial Attitudes and Customs, Social Forces, 24(1), pp. 105– 10.
[61] Maggie Lena Walker (1867 – 1934) was the first female bank president, and first
woman to charter a bank, in America, a notable contribution as an African-
American woman. She was a fraternal leader who collaborated with other
African-American social reformers and educators in economic and community
development needs. Letter to George Haynes, Esq. Sec., Commission on Church
and Race Relations, Federal Council of the Churches of Christ of America, 28
July 1926. See also Schiele, Jackson & Fairfax, Maggie Lena Walker.
[62] Randolph, A Brief Review of Work In Henrico County.
[63] Warner M. Jones (1955) Development of Public Education in Henrico County, Virgi-
nia During the Period 1870 through 1954 (Master’s thesis: Virginia State College).
[64] Brown, Schooling for African-Americans in Henrico County, pp. 130 –32.
[65] Jones, Development of Public Education in Henrico County, p. 28.
[66] Manarin & Dowdey, The History of Henrico County.
[67] Brown, Schooling for African-Americans in Henrico County, p. 132.
[68] Brown, Schooling for African-Americans in Henrico County, p. 132.
[69] J. Rupert Picott (1975) History of the Virginia Teachers Association (Washington,
DC: National Education Association).
[70] Picott, History of the Virginia Teachers Association, p. 36.
[71] Ibid., p. 88.
[72] Ibid., p. 88.
 Women’s History Review 17

[73] Ibid., p. 207.

[74] Virginia E. Randolph (1906) Letter to the State Teacher’s College in East Radford,
Virginia. Randolph Museum, Glen Allen, Virginia.
[75] Siddle Walker, African American Teaching.
[76] Manarin & Dowdey, The History of Henrico County, p. 387.
[77] Randolph, Crisis Magazine (May 1958), pp. 296– 99.
[78] Manarin & Dowdey, The History of Henrico County, p. 384
[79] Randolph, Crisis Magazine, pp. 296, 299.
[80] Witty, Virginia Randolph, p. 918.
[81] Owen, The Richmond Afro-American, p. 5.
[82] Manarin & Dowdey, The History of Henrico County, p. 386.
[83] Witty, Virginia Randolph, p. 918.
[84] Schiele, Jackson & Fairfax, Maggie Lena Walker.
[85] Fairfax, The African American Child-Saving Legacy.
Downloaded by [New York University] at 15:44 09 December 2014

[86] Wilkins, Janie Porter Barrett and the Virginia Industrial School.
[87] Pincham, A League of Willing Workers.
[88] Ibid.
[89] Witty, Virginia Randolph.
[90] Virginia E. Randolph (1907) Letter to Miss Anna T. Jeanes, Friends’ Home,
Germantown, Pennsylvania.
[91] Maggie Lena Walker (1926) Letter to Dr George Edmund Haynes, New York City.
[92] Walker, Letter to Dr George Edmund Haynes.
[93] Jones, Development of Public Education in Henrico County; Pincham, A League of
Willing Workers; Witty, Virginia Randolph.
[94] Witty, Virginia Randolph.
[95] Davis, Inspiring African American Women of Virginia, p. 213.
[96] Cynthia I. Gerstl-Pepin (2009) The Paradox of Poverty Narratives: educators strug-
gling with children left behind, in Anna Leon-Guerrero & Kristine Zentgraf (Eds)
Contemporary Readings in Social Problems (Los Angeles, CA: Pine Forge Press),
pp. 151– 61, please consult p. 158.
[97] Gertsl-Pepin, The Paradox of Poverty Narratives, p. 158.
[98] Michael Haederle (2009) In It for the Duration: a Miller-McCune interview of
intellectual provocateur Leon Botstein, Miller-McCune, 23 April, pp. 72– 75.
[99] Haederle, In It for the Duration, p. 73.
[100] Susan Stall & Randy Stoecker (1998) Community Organizing Or Organizing Com-
munity? Gender and the Crafts of Empowerment, Gender & Society, 12(6),
pp. 729 – 56.