Epithermal Style Textures Brecciation Ve

Epithermal-style textures,
brecciation, veining and

alteration, southern
Gawler Ranges margin,
South Australia
Report Book
2014/00009
Epithermal-style textures,
brecciation, veining and
alteration, southern Gawler
Ranges margin, South Australia
Claire E. Wade, Stacey O. McAvaney,

Georgina A. Gordon and John L. Keeling
Geological Survey of South Australia,

Mineral and Energy Resources Group
December 2014
Report Book 2014/00009

Resources and Energy
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Preferred way to cite this publication

Wade CE, McAvaney SO, Gordon GA and Keeling JL 2014. Epithermal-style textures, brecciation and
alteration, southern Gawler Ranges margin, South Australia, Report Book 2014/00009. Department of State
Development, South Australia, Adelaide.
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 1
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 2
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 3
TECTONIC SETTING OF THE GAWLER RANGE VOLCANICS AND HILTABA SUITE
GRANITES ..................................................................................................................................... 6
EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS: TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS AND ASSOCIATED
MINERALISATION AND ASSEMBLAGES .................................................................................... 6
REGIONAL GEOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 8
Lake Gilles area ..................................................................................................................... 8
Roopena area ...................................................................................................................... 10
MATERIALS AND METHODS...................................................................................................... 11
RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Lithology and petrography.................................................................................................... 12
Spectral mineral analysis ..................................................................................................... 19
Scanning electron microscopy ............................................................................................. 22
Trace element geochemistry ................................................................................................ 28
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 32
Quartz textures .................................................................................................................... 32
Evidence of boiling and preserved depth of epithermal system ............................................ 33
Mineralisation....................................................................................................................... 33
Alteration assemblages........................................................................................................ 34
Low sulfidation vs high sulfidation ........................................................................................ 34
Epithermal system evolution ................................................................................................ 35
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 37
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. 38
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 39
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................... 43
1 SEM IMAGES AND EDX SPECTRA ..................................................................................... 43
R2017724 ............................................................................................................................ 45
R2017724A and B ............................................................................................................... 47
R2017727 ............................................................................................................................ 53
R2017728 ............................................................................................................................ 57
R2017745A .......................................................................................................................... 58
R2017746 ............................................................................................................................ 64
R2018201A .......................................................................................................................... 70
R2018201B .......................................................................................................................... 71
R2018202 ............................................................................................................................ 87
R2018203 ............................................................................................................................ 88
R2018203A .......................................................................................................................... 93
R2018203B ........................................................................................................................ 104
R2018203C ....................................................................................................................... 108
R2018211 .......................................................................................................................... 110
Resources and Energy Group iii Report Book 2014/00009

R2018213 .......................................................................................................................... 112
R2018214B ........................................................................................................................ 114
R2018214 .......................................................................................................................... 116
TABLES
Table 1. Porphyry-, epithermal-, and skarn-related mineralisation on northern Eyre Peninsula,
from SA-Geodata. ......................................................................................................... 4
Table 2. Sample details and relationship to structural and/or intrusive bodies. ......................... 13
Table 3. Mineralogy identified from HyLogger™ spectra VSWIR and TIR. ............................... 20
Table 4. Samples selected for Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) investigation. ................. 22
Table 5. Geochemical analyses of surface samples, together with background data for bulk
crust and samples of Gawler Range Volcanics. .......................................................... 30
Table 6. Summary of elements associated with high sulfidation and low sulfidation epithermal
deposits compared to the samples collected from Lake Gilles and Roopena. ............. 35
App. 1.1 Samples examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) ...................................... 43
App. 1.2 Summary of minerals identified from SEM investigation.............................................. 44
FIGURES
Figure 1. Alteration mineralogy in hydrothermal systems, modified from Corbett and Leach
(1998). .......................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 2. Summary diagram illustrating the relationship between IOCG, porphyry and epithermal
systems, adapted from Richards and Mumin 2013, Sillitoe 2010b, and Corbett and
Leach 1998. .................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3. Total magnetic intensity location map of field areas, showing the major faults, sample
locations and selected mineral deposits listed in Table 1. ............................................. 8
Figure 4. Surface geology and sample locations in the Lake Gilles field area. ............................. 9
Figure 5. Surface geology and sample locations in the Roopena field area. .............................. 10
Figure 6. Outcrop, hand specimen and photomicrograph images of granite breccias, Lake Gilles
area. ........................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 7. Hydrothermal breccias from the Roopena area. .......................................................... 15
Figure 8. Hand specimen and photomicrograph images of epithermal quartz vein breccias from
the Lake Gilles area. ................................................................................................... 17
Figure 9. Outcrop, hand specimen and photomicrographs of quartz veins from the Lake Gilles
area. ........................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 10. Spectral characteristics of samples recorded with HyLoggerTM. .................................. 21
Figure 11. Scanning electron images for selected breccias. ........................................................ 23
Figure 12. Scanning electron microscope images of sulfides from vein quartz samples. ............. 25
Figure 13. Scanning electron microscope images of iodides, sulfosalts, arsenopyrites and
sulfoarsenides in vein quartz samples. ....................................................................... 26
Figure 14. Scanning electron microscopy images of secondary lead and copper minerals in vein
quartz samples and example of Fe-quartz vein. .......................................................... 27
Figure 15. Scanning electron micrographs of surface coatings. ................................................... 28
Resources and Energy Group iv Report Book 2014/00009

ABBREVIATIONS
BSE backscattered electron
DDH diamond drillhole
EDX energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy
ESEM environmental scanning electron microscope
GRV Gawler Range Volcanics
HS Hiltaba Suite
H.S. homestead
ICP-AES inductively-coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry
ICP-MS inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
IOCG iron oxide-copper-gold
SEM scanning electron microscope
TIR thermal infrared
TMI total magnetic intensity
VSWIR visible and short wave infrared
WX well crystalline
PX poorly crystalline
Resources and Energy Group 1 Report Book 2014/00009

Epithermal-style textures, brecciation,
veining and alteration, southern Gawler
Ranges margin, South Australia
Claire E. Wade, Stacey O. McAvaney, Georgina A. Gordon and
John L. Keeling
ABSTRACT
Along the southern margin of the Mesoproterozoic (~1590 Ma) Gawler Range Volcanics, on
northern Eyre Peninsula, numerous occurrences of silver, lead, zinc and copper
mineralisation have been recorded at or near the base of the volcanics and within older
metamorphosed rocks altered by hydrothermal fluids associated with the ~1590 Ma igneous
event. In this investigation, rocks showing evidence of hydrothermal crystallisation or
alteration, from sites near Lake Gilles and Roopena, were sampled and examined to assess
the style of hydrothermal activity and associated mineralisation. The work contributes data
on the extent and characteristics of hydrothermal activity that can be used to refine models,
currently proposed, of an extensive Proterozoic subvolcanic epithermal mineral system
across the region. The results will assist with ongoing assessment of the potential for
formation and preservation of large or high-grade mineral deposits in the district.
Trace element geochemistry was determined for twenty samples that included
hydrothermal granite breccia, fluid-brecciated metasediment with calcite/tourmaline/apatite
or hematite/chlorite alteration, and epithermal vein quartz. Textural features of breccias and
veins were described and interpreted. Alteration mineralogy was assessed using visible-
shortwave infrared and thermal infra spectral analysis, and scanning electron microscopy.
Accessory minerals containing copper, lead, bismuth, silver or zinc were identified with the
aid of scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray analysis.
Alteration mineralogy of tourmaline, calcite, apatite, sericite, chlorite and hematite in the
fluid-brecciated metasediments in the Roopena area is interpreted as the result of
mesothermal fluid activity developed around igneous intrusions and along major fractures.
Quartz veins from the Lake Gilles area crystallised along with fluorite, barite, muscovite,
feldspar, kaolinite, halloysite and smectite. Minor base metal sulphides and silver minerals
were contained in quartz, but pyrite, alunite and dickite were not detected. Anomalous trace
elements included Ag, Sb, Te, Bi Cu, Pb and Zn. The mineral assemblage and anomalous
chemistry are consistent with low-sulfidation, epithermal vein systems forming within the
the argillic alteration zone of an intrusion-related hydrothermal system. The presence of
silver and copper chlorides, copper sulfate, lead oxide, jarosite and gypsum, along with
some of the goethite, hematite and opaline silica are interpreted as due to later oxidation by
near-surface weathering, under probable arid conditions.
Textures in vein quartz from the Lake Gilles area show lattice bladed calcite replaced by
quartz, colloform banding, feathery and plumose quartz, all of which are indicative of
boiling in hydrothermal systems. This equates to shallow crustal levels and environmental
conditions favourable for the precipitation of precious metals. The preservation of the
boiling zone in this ancient epithermal system, along with the presence of lead, zinc and
copper minerals in epithermal quartz, provide encouragement that in addition to further
precious metal deposits, base metal deposits are possible within the subepithermal portion
of the system.

INTRODUCTION
Epithermal deposits are important sources of gold and silver that form at shallow crustal levels
(<1 km) by the action of upper level, magma-related hydrothermal systems, which commonly form
in subaerial volcanic arcs (Simmons et al. 2005; Cooke and Simmons 2000; Hedenquist 2000) at
temperatures <300°C (Hedenquist 2000). Associated magmas are generally calc-alkaline to
alkaline that range in composition from basaltic andesite to andesite to dacite to rhyolite (Simmons
et al. 2005; Cooke and Simmons 2000; Hedenquist 2000). As well as gold and silver, epithermal
deposits typically host base metals (Pb, Zn), mercury and antimony (Hedenquist 2000). Quartz is
the principal gangue mineral accompanied by variable amounts of chalcedony, adularia, illite,
pyrite, and calcite (Simmons et al. 2005). Common distinctive quartz textures include banded
crustiform-colloform textures, lattice bladed textures, jigsaw textures, feathery, flamboyant and
plumose quartz textures, and comb textures (Moncada et al. 2012; Simmons et al. 2005; Dong et
al. 1995).
The Mesoproterozoic (~1590 Ma) Gawler Range Volcanics (GRV) comprise extensive A-type
bimodal volcanics which overlie a large portion (~90 000 km2) of the Mesoarchean to
Mesoproterozoic Gawler Craton (Allen et al. 2008). The GRV consists of two main packages: the
lower GRV which includes felsic and mafic lavas and volcaniclastics erupted from discrete volcanic
centres, including the Chitanilga Volcanic Complex at Kokatha (Branch 1978; Blissett 1975), Glyde
Hill Volcanic Complex at Lake Everard (Ferris 2003; Giles 1977), Bitalli Rhyolite at Menninnie Dam
(Roache et al. 2000), and Roopena Basalt at Roopena (McAvaney and Wade 2014); and the upper
GRV which consists of three regionally extensive, thick (200–300 m) felsic lava flows (Eucarro
Rhyolite, and the Pondanna Dacite and Moonaree Dacite Members of the Yardea Dacite), which
were high T (900–1100°C) low viscosity melts (McPhie et al. 2008; Allen et al. 2003; Allen and
McPhie 2002). The lower GRV is considered to be derived from fractional crystallisation and
crustal contamination of mantle melts (Fricke 2005; Stewart 1994; Giles 1988), whereas the upper
GRV was generated by extensive upper crustal melting (Giles 1988). The GRV is comagmatic with
the Hiltaba Suite, a bimodal intrusive suite distributed around the margins of the GRV and
dominated by high-T fractionated A-type granite to granodiorite with lesser mafic magmatism
(Stewart and Foden 2003; Flint 1993).
The southern boundary of the main outcrop of the Gawler Range Volcanics coincides with the Uno
Fault, a major E-W trending structure which extends for approximately 40 km from a rhyolite dyke
13 km NW of Corunna H.S. to north of the Uno Range (Turner 1975; Dalgarno et al. 1968). The
fault is largely obscured by alluvium shedding from the volcanics to the north and from older
granitic basement to the south, but is defined by discontinuous exposure of siliceous breccia and
cataclastically deformed granite (Turner 1975), and is visible as a linear demagnetised feature in
TMI imagery. The fault plane of the Uno Fault dips steeply to the north, and the northern side has
moved down, consistent with the interpretation that this is an extensional structure (Turner 1975).
The granite exposed along the fault plane is a medium- to coarse-grained quartz-potassium
feldspar granite with minor plagioclase and muscovite possibly equivalent to Hiltaba Suite granite,
in which case, movement on the fault occurred late to post ~1590 Ma.
The opportunity exists for a spectrum of deposit styles along the southern margin of the GRV in
northern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, resulting from thermal activity related to the ~1590 Ma
GRV-Hiltaba Suite event. This includes any (but not necessarily all) of iron oxide-copper-gold
(IOCG) mineralisation to epithermal Ag-Au and porphyry Cu-Au, Cu-Fe, Pb-Zn and Fe-Au skarns,
Zn-Pb-Ag ± Au ± Cu carbonate replacement mineralisation and sediment-hosted distal Au-As ± Sb
± Hg. Examples of mineral discoveries across the region are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Porphyry-, epithermal-, and skarn-related mineralisation on northern Eyre Peninsula,
from SA-Geodata.
Operator (2014) Name Commodity Discovery Classification Style
Archer Exploration Wildhorse Plain Th-Ag-Au-Mo 1969 Prospect Epithermal
Investigator Helen, Trojan Horse, Ag, Ag-Cu, 2010, 2012 Prospect Polymetallic veins
Resources Alexander, Hector Ag-Pb-Zn
Paris Ag 2010 Deposit Polymetallic replacement
Uno Au 1989 Prospect Regional metamorphism
related
Wartaka, Morgans Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu-Co, 1989 Prospect Porphyry intrusion related
Pb-Zn-Ag-Ba
Iron Clad Mining Hercules Mn 2013 Prospect Regional metamorphism
related
Zealous Sn-Pb-U-Zn 2012 Prospect Skarn
Monax Mining Hodgins, Polinga Mn 2009 Prospect Deposits related to surficial
processes and
unconformities
Musgrave Minerals Mannequin Ag-Zn-Pb-Cu 2012, 2013 Prospect Skarn
Frakes Ag-Cu-Pb-Zn 2013 Prospect Porphyry Cu, skarn-related
Erebus, Tank Hill, Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu 2012, 2013 Prospect Felsic porphyry intrusion
Phone Hill related
Tasman Resources Parkinson Dam Ag-Pb-Zn-Au 2005 Prospect Polymetallic veins
Terramin Menninnie Central Pb-Zn-Ag-(Fe) 2009 Prospect Polymetallic replacement
Viper Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag 1981 Deposit Skarn
Trafford Resources Golden Gate Pb-Zn-Au-(U) 1980 Prospect Polymetallic replacement
Black Hills West Ag 2012 Prospect Deposits related to surficial
processes and
unconformities
Telephone Dam Pb-Zn-Ag-U 1980 Prospect Polymetallic replacement
To the south of the GRV there is potential for a large subvolcanic epithermal mineralisation system
associated with felsic to intermediate volcano-plutonic complexes. In such large hydrothermal
systems, a continuum of alteration and mineralisation styles exist between spatially and genetically
linked IOCG-porphyry-epithermal systems e.g. porphyry-epithermal associations, such as at Cadia,
eastern Australia (Corbett and Leach 1998) and in the Maricunga Belt, Chile (Cooke et al. 2005;
Muntean and Einaudi 2001) and IOCG-porphyry-epithermal systems in the Great Bear Magmatic
Zone, Canada (Richards and Mumin 2013; Mumin et al. 2010). While IOCG deposits are
considered to be hotter, deeper seated and more regionally developed than porphyry Cu systems,
both systems form within broad zones marked by temperature gradients that range across
magmatic temperatures to near-surface ambient temperatures (Mumin et al. 2010; Sillitoe 2010a).
The associated alteration assemblages and textures may also reflect the various temperatures and
structural settings, and hence the probable style of mineralisation. For example in the Great Bear
Magmatic Zone porphyry systems are distinguished from IOCG and epithermal deposits by
potassic-phyllic-propylitic alteration zoning; epithermal deposits are characterised by lower
temperature assemblages, and near surface textures located distal or peripheral to high-
temperature alteration assemblages; IOCG deposits are characterised by alkali-iron metasomatism
and hydrothermal iron-oxides. Therefore the continuum between IOCG, porphyry and epithermal
deposits appears to be due to relative temperature and depth of mineralisation, which directly
influence the alteration assemblage and metal enrichments of each of the end members (Mumin et
al. 2010). The hydrothermal alteration systems associated with IOCG-porphyry-epithermal
mineralisation are zoned both laterally and vertically (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Alteration mineralogy in hydrothermal systems, modified from Corbett and Leach (1998).
While IOCG mineralisation has been shown to be genetically related to the ~1590 Ma Gawler
Range Volcanics (GRV)-Hiltaba Suite (HS) event (Hayward and Skirrow 2010; Skirrow et al. 2007;
Skirrow et al. 2006; Daly et al. 1998), the continuum of IOCG-porphyry-epithermal mineral systems
raises questions about the presence, preservation and distribution of the latter two mineralisation
styles, which likely also developed along with widespread IOCG mineralisation during the
~1590 Ma GRV-HS event. The southern margin of the GRV and areas extending further south and
north of this margin have been highlighted as potential areas for porphyry and epithermal
mineralisation, as evidenced by the discoveries listed in Table 1. The flat lying disposition of the
GRV and the presence of large scale structures such as the Uno Fault at the southern margin
provided suitable geological conditions for the formation of porphyry-epithermal systems at the
base of the volcanic pile. While further to the north (e.g. Olympic Dam) the top or upper sections of
the altered subvolcanic basement appear to have been variably removed by erosion, along the
southern margins of the GRV on Eyre Peninsula these upper sections appear to be preserved and
remain largely intact.
Abundant brecciation and extensive circulation of hydrothermal fluids were associated with the
GRV-HS event and were important local controls on IOCG mineralisation. Evidence of brecciation
and hydrothermal alteration were targeted and tested during this field study of the southern margin
of the GRV on ROOPENA and UNO 1:100 000 map sheets. The aim was to obtain further indication
of the significance and variation in epithermal-porphyry mineralisation styles associated with the
GRV-HS event in this region of Eyre Peninsula.

TECTONIC SETTING OF THE GAWLER RANGE
VOLCANICS AND HILTABA SUITE GRANITES
The Mesoproterozoic GRV-HS magmatism in southern Proterozoic Australia was initially
considered to have formed in a mid-cratonic, anorogenic or weakly extensional environment
(Creaser 1995; Flint et al. 1993), particularly given the abundance of weakly deformed or
undeformed granites and volcanic rocks in the Gawler Craton. It has since been demonstrated that
the GRV was extruded at around the same time as major regional metamorphism and associated
shortening across parts of the eastern Gawler Craton and in the Curnamona Province (Wade et al.
2012; Hand et al. 2008; Rutherford et al. 2007; Forbes et al. 2005). Parts of the lower GRV
preserve steep dips whereas the upper GRV is essentially undeformed (Hand et al. 2008)
suggesting that even as extrusion of the volcanic rocks was ongoing, some portion of the earlier
volcanic flows was being deformed. Locally, deposition of clastic sedimentary sequences
accompanied basaltic magmatism, such as the Roopena Basalt and Fresh Well Formation of the
lower GRV, when space was created to accommodate sedimentation (McAvaney and Wade 2014).
The presence of basaltic volcanism together with sedimentation suggests that, at the broad scale,
this early phase of magmatism was driven by lithospheric extension, resulting in asthenospheric
mantle ‘upwelling’, mantle partial melting, and associated higher mantle heat flow (Wade et al.
2012). The association between extensive bimodal A-type magmatism, high-temperature
metamorphism, and localised compressional deformation suggests the magmatism occurred in an
intracontinental setting, possibly mechanically connected to a far-field subduction zone (Wade et
al. 2012).
EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS: TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS

AND ASSOCIATED MINERALISATION AND
ASSEMBLAGES
Epithermal Au and Au-Ag deposits are associated with relatively shallow, magma-related
hydrothermal systems which commonly form in subaerial volcanic arcs, as well as in intra-arc,
back-arc and post-collisional rift settings (Fig. 2; Simmons et al. 2005). There are two major
deposit types: low and high sulfidation. These systems can be distinguished by diagnostic
minerals, textures and various states of pH, sulfidation and oxidation (Simmons et al. 2005), which
are dependent on the composition and mixing of related fluids (Corbett 2009; Cooke and Simmons
2000; Hedenquist 2000).
Low sulfidation epithermal deposits are commonly associated with calc-alkaline, alkaline and
tholeiitic bimodal basalt to rhyolite compositions in a magmatic arc undergoing extension, leading
to rifting, or in postcollisional rift settings (Simmons et al. 2005; Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003). Low
sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits are often related to porphyries e.g. Hishikari, Japan, Waihi,
New Zealand and Kelian, Indonesia (Cooke and Simmons 2000) and extend from the surface
down to the top of the porphyry stockwork, within the upper 1 km of the surface. In low sulfidation
deposits, reduced, near neutral pH fluids originate from deep circulating meteoric fluids (Simmons
et al. 2005). Gold and silver typically occur in their native form or as electrum, and the deposits are
characterised by low sulfide contents (generally <5%), with mineral assemblages of pyrite,
arsenopyrite-loellingite-pyrrhotite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite; magnetite-pyrite-
pyrrhotite and chlorite-pyrite (Simmons et al. 2005; Corbett and Leach 1998). The epithermal
gangue assemblage includes quartz ± calcite ± adularia ± illite (Simmons et al. 2005). Low
sulfidation systems often display banding where each band represents a separate episode of
hydrothermal mineral deposition.
High sulfidation epithermal deposits are often formed in magmatic arcs in static to mild extension
and less commonly compressional environments, particularly where volcanic activity is suppressed
(Simmons et al., 2005; Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003). The associated igneous rocks are often calk-
alkaline andesites to dacites (Simmons et al. 2005; Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003). This deposit
style is widespread in the Andes extending into Mexico and western USA, and also in the SW
Pacific Rim (Corbett and Leach 1998). High-sulfidation Au, Ag ± Cu deposits are characteristically

developed in the lithocap environment of porphyry Cu deposits. The preserved parts of many
lithocaps are, however, essentially barren; the mineralised portions being most susceptible to
erosion. The fluid in high sulfidation systems develops from an evolved, hot, near-neutral fluid, to a
hot, extremely acidic (pH 1–2) fluid at shallow levels (Corbett and Leach 1998), often traced
directly to a shallow intrusion (Simmons et al. 2005). High sulfidation epithermal systems are
characterised by large zoned alteration systems dominated by argillic to advanced argillic alteration
haloes. Hot acidic fluids are introduced via dilatant permeable structures commonly associated
with brecciation, including structural fault breccias, hydrothermal, or phreatomagmatic breccias and
lithological controls, such as permeable tuff units. The localisation of intensely acidic fluids within
these permeable zones often results in destruction of rock mass, leaving a porous framework of
residual silica, often termed ‘vughy silica’. More distally the alteration intensity decreases as acidity
is weakened then neutralised by ongoing fluid-rock interactions, progressing through advanced-
argillic (alunite-pyrophyllite-dickite) to argillic (kaolinite-illite±chlorite) assemblages. Mineralisation
is subsequently deposited from cooler mineralising fluids, with highest grade zones often located
within the framework of residual silica left by the early, hot acidic fluids. Mineralisation is
characterised by an assemblage dominated by pyrite-enargite-(luzonite)-covellite.
Figure 2. Summary diagram illustrating the relationship between IOCG, porphyry and epithermal
systems, adapted from Richards and Mumin 2013, Sillitoe 2010b, and Corbett and Leach
1998.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY
The two field areas are located on northeastern Eyre Peninsula within the Spencer Domain of the
Gawler Craton (Fig. 3), where a Meso- to Neoarchean dominantly granitic basement (Cooyerdoo
Granite and Sleaford Complex equivalent) is overlain by a series of Paleoproterozoic volcano-
sedimentary packages (Hutchison Group and Wallaroo Group) deformed and intruded by granite
and dolerite during the Kimban Orogeny (1730–1690 Ma). During the Mesoproterozoic (~1590 Ma)
these sequences were overlain by felsic and lesser mafic lavas of the Gawler Range Volcanics and
intruded by granite of the Hiltaba Suite (1590–1575 Ma; Reid and Hand 2012; Hand et al. 2007).
Figure 3. Total magnetic intensity location map of field areas, showing the major faults, sample
locations and selected mineral deposits listed in Table 1.
Lake Gilles area

The basement geology of the Lake Gilles area (Fig. 4) comprises a Neoarchean (~2530 Ma)
sequence of interlayered ortho- and paragneiss (Fraser and Neumann 2010; Reid et al. 2008)
intruded by granite plutons and dolerite dykes and plugs during the Kimban Orogeny (1730–
1690 Ma), including the Burkitt Granite and unnamed diorite in DDH LED001 (McAvaney et al.
2012). This is overlain by the Corunna Conglomerate, a package of alluvial and fluvial sediments
deposited prior to the extrusion of the GRV (maximum depositional age ~1680 Ma; Fraser and
Neumann 2010) and gently folded during the Kararan Orogeny (Hand et al. 2008; Morgan 2007).
These rocks are overlain and intruded by the GRV, including the Bitalli Rhyolite, a layered
sequence of rhyolitic to rhyodacitic lavas and pyroclastics belonging to the lower GRV (Turner
1975), and the Eucarro Rhyolite of the upper GRV (Allen et al. 2003).
Rhyolite dykes and plugs similar in appearance to the Eucarro Rhyolite intrude the Corunna
Conglomerate, Burkitt Granite and older basement. Many of the rhyolite dykes intrude the Corunna
Conglomerate along NW-striking structures; a rhyolite dyke also intrudes along the NNW-trending
axis of a synclinal fold in the Corunna Conglomerate. A large rhyolite dyke ~7 km long and 600 m

wide occurs 13 km NW of Corunna H.S., named the ‘dyke structure’ by Johns and Solomon
(1953), intruding the Burkitt Granite and Corunna Conglomerate. The dyke is bound by NW-
trending fault structures, which are visible in TMI imagery as magnetic highs. The rhyolite contains
granite xenoliths similar to the Burkitt Granite. Intrusions of the GRV are known to extend a
substantial distance from the major outcrop area, including intersections in DDH LED001 (229988),
where diorite is intruded by basalt, andesite and dacite which share geochemical affinities to the
GRV (McAvaney et al. 2012). Although not observed in outcrop, lag of coarse-grained and
pegmatitic granite along the southern margin of the Gawler Ranges is likely to be derived from
shallowly covered Hiltaba Suite granite.
A sheared zone within the Burkitt Granite, 500 m from its northern boundary with the Corunna
Conglomerate, contains quartz and barite veins containing fluorite and galena (Lemon 1972).
Along strike eastward from the northern Lake Gilles area, Pb-Zn skarn mineralisation has been
observed in DDH CC1 (Fig. 4; Parker and Daly 1979).
Figure 4. Surface geology and sample locations in the Lake Gilles field area.

Roopena area
The basement to the GRV in the Roopena area comprises a sequence of Paleoproterozoic
sedimentary rocks that include dolomitic and sandy metasiltstone of the Wandearah Formation and
lithic and arkosic sandstone of the Moonabie Formation (~1755 Ma; Fraser and Neumann 2010;
Weste 1996). The Moonabie Formation and Wandearah Formation are, in outcrop, separated by a
NNE trending fault (Fig. 5). The Angle Dam Volcanics, a porphyritic rhyolite to dacite, appears to
have intruded along this fault, cropping out as a linear body ~900 m by 300 m and extending for a
further 1 km to the north, in the subsurface. The volcanics are often brecciated and share similar
geochemical characteristics to those of the GRV.
The Moonabie and Wandearah Formations are overlain by the Roopena Basalt, a sequence of up
to 12 preserved calc-alkalic to tholeiitic basalt flows characterised by brecciated or amygdaloidal
tops totalling up to 250 m in thickness (McAvaney and Wade 2014; Fricke 2005; David et al. 1985).
The basalt is interlayered with the Fresh Well Formation, a flat-lying sequence of argillaceous and
tuffaceous sandstone, siltstone, laminated glauconitic and dolomitic shale and mudstone, pebble
conglomerate, lithic sandstone and tuff deposited in a lacustrine/shallow marine environment
(McAvaney and Wade 2014). The Pandurra Formation, consisting of relatively flat-lying fluvial
sediments, overlies the Roopena Basalt and older formations (Cowley 1991).
Figure 5. Surface geology and sample locations in the Roopena field area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fieldwork was undertaken north of Lake Gilles and near Roopena H.S. on northeastern Eyre
Peninsula on the PORT AUGUSTA 1:250 000 map sheet. Fieldwork involved mapping and rock
sampling for geochemistry, targeting outcrop and lag samples that showed textures typically
observed in epithermal and porphyry environments. Nineteen outcrop and subcrop to lag samples
were collected and analysed for 51 economic and pathfinder elements. Lithologies collected
ranged from vein quartz, breccias and Fe-quartz veins (Table 2). These lithologies were targeted to
test fertility of the epithermal systems and their environments of formation along the southeastern
margin of the GRV.
Geochemical analyses were done by commercial laboratory ALS Global. Forty eight elements
were determined by 4 acid ‘near total’ digestion inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) and inductively-coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Gold was
determined by fire assay and ICP-AES. Boron and mercury were determined by aqua regia ICP-
AES and ICP-MS, respectively.
Spectral data were collected on 21 hand specimens using the HyLoggerTM 3.3 visible and short
wave infrared (VSWIR, 380nm-2500nm) and thermal infrared (TIR, 6000nm-14,500nm) core
scanning system. Minerals were identified from the spectral data with the aid of software ‘The
Spectral Geologist’ (TSG, version 7_62). Minerals identified using VSWIR included iron oxides,
smectites, carbonates, tourmaline, and in the TIR tectosilicates, in particular quartz and feldspars.
Samples were scanned multiple times on weathered and fresh surfaces to give a maximum
number of viable spectra.
Twenty one samples were submitted for petrology; 14 thin section block samples were selected for
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at Adelaide Microscopy, the University of Adelaide, but only 9
samples were analysed. Polished thin section blocks were coated with approximately 15 nm of
carbon using the Quorum Q150TE vacuum evaporator, then mounted on aluminium stubs using
double sided carbon tape. Samples were examined using a FEI Quanta 450 SEM equipped with a
SDD (silicon drift detector) for chemical analyses by energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) analysis, with
EDAX Genesis software. Images were obtained in Backscattered Electron (BSE) mode using a
beam voltage of 20 kV and spot size 4.
Subsequent to spectral analyses, 7 samples were selected for further SEM examination of
mineralogy, particularly fine-grained silicate minerals. Fragments were broken from hand
specimens and manually reduced to around 10 mm sized particles. Selected pieces were mounted
on 12 mm aluminium stubs using ‘Araldite’. Individual mounts were photographed, prior to sputter
coating with carbon. The high silica content and presence of numerous vughs generally gave an
irregular and pitted fracture surface. Consequently, a relatively thick, ~40 nm, coating of carbon
was applied to reduce the likelihood of surface charging during examination.
Samples were examined at the Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation
(CERAR), University of South Australia, using a FEI Quanta 450 FEG Environmental Scanning
Electron Microscope (ESEM) with an EDXA Apollo X SDD Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX)
detector, operated under high vacuum. Accelerating voltage of 30 kV was routinely used for EDX
chemical analyses, reduced to 15 kV, as necessary to limit beam penetration for analysis of
comparatively small or less dense particles. With regard to EDX data, the surface roughness, and
the presence of various target minerals within vughs in silica, resulted in chemical analyses that
were essentially qualitative only, due to scattering and preferential absorption of lower energy
x-rays. Images were collected simultaneously in secondary electron and backscattered electron
modes, which show characteristics of surface topography and relative density respectively.

RESULTS
Lithology and petrography
BRECCIAS
Three breccia types were identified based on hand specimens (Table 2). These were categorised
as brecciated feldspathic granite, hydrothermal breccia and epithermal quartz vein breccia.
Brecciation occurs within the Burkitt Granite proximal to an E-W trending quartz vein breccia
(Fig. 4), with which this brecciation may be genetically associated. In hand specimen the
brecciated feldspathic granite was coarse- to medium-grained, with quartz phenocrysts and
euhedral K-feldspar phenocrysts up to 2.5 cm in length, in a pink feldspathic groundmass (Fig. 6a).
Feldspathic clasts were sometimes rimmed by comb quartz (Fig. 6b). Clast morphology was
generally angular to subangular with some clasts displaying a jigsaw fit in a fine-grained
groundmass. The granite is crosscut by thin siliceous veins with some brecciated granite
incorporated into the veins (Figs 6c and 6d). The veins display an E-W strike orientation. In thin
section the brecciated feldspathic granite had a dominant quartz-rich matrix with lesser fine-
grained muscovite and quartzofeldspathic zones (Fig. 6e). The quartz dominant matrix ranged from
fine-grained to massive quartz minerals displaying a mosaic or jigsaw texture. Feldspar and quartz
were brecciated and crosscut by quartz veins (Fig. 6f). Quartz veins also crosscut the quartz-rich
matrix and quartz growth was observed along veins and fractures.
Hydrothermal breccias were observed in the Roopena area within the Moonabie Formation
adjacent to its contact with the Angle Dam Volcanics along the NNE-trending Angle Dam Fault
(Fig. 5). The Moonabie Formation has been affected by extensive hematite-sericite-chlorite-quartz-
feldspar alteration in the Roopena area, and by chlorite-calcite-siderite-tourmaline-apatite alteration
proximal to the Angle Dam Fault, observable in outcrop and drill hole (Weste 1996).
The breccia in the Moonabie Formation is a matrix-supported breccia with jigsaw fit patterns of
predominantly angular to subrounded quartzite clasts in a goethitic matrix (Fig. 7a). In thin section
similar textures were observed; the matrix was fine-grained and red-brown, dominated by goethite
with lesser fine-grained quartz and muscovite. Clasts were comprised of quartz and
sericite/muscovite clasts containing fine-grained quartz. Muscovite clasts appeared to have a
preserved fabric.
A second breccia proximal to the Angle Dam Fault was found in association with in situ lag of both
rhyolite, presumably the Angle Dam Volcanics, and striated white quartz (Fig. 7b). The breccia
comprised subangular to rounded buff quartzite clasts 1 mm – 5 cm in diameter, some with
concave or convolute and feathery edges suggesting resorption had occurred, in a black fine-
grained groundmass. In thin section the groundmass was observed to be tourmaline-rich with large
quartz and fine-grained muscovite clasts (Figs 7c and 7d).

Table 2. Sample details and relationship to structural and/or intrusive bodies.
Sample Lithology Associated Spatial structural Spatial intrusive relationship
stratigraphic map unit relationship
Breccias
2017724 Granite breccia Burkitt Granite proximal to NW-SE proximal to E-W epithermal
fault quartz vein breccia
2018216 Granite breccia Burkitt Granite — proximal to E-W epithermal
quartz vein breccia
2018217 Granite breccia Burkitt Granite — proximal E-W epithermal quartz
vein breccia
2018581 Granite breccia Burkitt Granite proximal to NW-SE proximal E-W epithermal quartz
fault vein breccia
1963579 Hydrothermal breccia Moonabie Formation proximal to NNE fault proximal to Angle Dam Volcanics
2017727 Hydrothermal breccia Moonabie Formation proximal to NNE fault proximal to Angle Dam Volcanics
2017728 Hydrothermal breccia Moonabie Formation? proximal to NNE fault distal to Angle Dam Volcanics,
Roopena Basalt, Hiltaba Granite
and Gairdner Dolerite
2018585 Epithermal quartz vein proximal to Uno Fault proximal to Kimban granite
breccia
2017745 Epithermal quartz vein proximal to Uno Fault proximal to Kimban granite
breccia
2018214 Epithermal quartz vein proximal to Uno Fault proximal E-W epithermal quartz
breccia vein breccia
Veins
2018202 Fe-quartz vein — proximal to Kimban granite
2018201 Quartz vein proximal to Uno Fault proximal to Kimban granite

2018211 Quartz vein proximal to Uno Fault proximal to E-W epithermal
quartz vein breccia
2018212 Quartz vein proximal to Uno Fault proximal to epithermal quartz
vein breccia
2018213 Quartz vein proximal to Uno Fault proximal to E-W epithermal
quartz vein breccia
2018605 Quartz vein proximal to NW-SE NW-SE vein
fault

a) b)
c) d)
e) f)
Figure 6. Outcrop, hand specimen and photomicrograph images of granite breccias, Lake Gilles
area.
a) brecciated Burkitt Granite, sample 2017746; b) brecciated Burkitt Granite, comprising angular
fragments derived from Burkitt Granite rimmed by comb quartz in purple-brown matrix, sample
2017751; c) Burkitt Granite crosscut by red siliceous veins; d) orange-pink brecciated Burkitt
Granite composed of feldspar fragments in a red-brown fine-grained groundmass, with some
fracture planes infilled by white quartz and red-brown silica, sometimes rimming feldspar
fragments; e) photomicrograph of brecciated Burkitt Granite illustrating angular K-feldspar (kfsp)
clasts in a fine-grained quartzofeldspathic (fsp) matrix, sample 2017751 (cross-polarised light);
and f) quartz (qtz) vein crosscutting K-feldspar (kfsp) clast in a fine-grained quartz (qtz),
feldspar, muscovite (mu) matrix, sample 2017746 (cross-polarised light). (Photos 414157–
414162)

a) b)
c) d)
Figure 7. Hydrothermal breccias from the Roopena area.

a) hydrothermal breccia composed of angular to subangular quartz clasts in a goethitic-
dominated matrix, SW Roopena H.S., sample 1963579; b) black breccia composed of
subangular – subrounded clasts of buff quartz/quartzite in a black fine-grained tourmaline-rich
groundmass, sample 2017728; c) photomicrograph of tourmaline-rich (tm) breccia with
subrounded clasts of quartz (qtz), sample 2017728 (plane-polarised light); and
d) photomicrograph of breccia with tourmaline-rich (tm) groundmass and large subangular
quartz (qtz) and minor fine-grained muscovite (mu) clasts, sample 2017728 (cross-polarised
light). (Photos 414163–414166)
Epithermal quartz vein breccias were observed to the south of the GRV and Uno Fault in the Lake
Gilles area, proximal to a Kimban granite. An epithermal quartz vein breccia occurs as an E-W
trending structure extending for ~3 km, crosscutting brecciated Burkitt Granite (Fig. 4). The quartz
vein breccia lies directly to the west of the NW-trending rhyolite dyke structure intruding the
Corunna Conglomerate, and may be related to the timing of the rhyolite intrusion. The breccia is
fine- to medium-grained, moderate reddish brown, with a moderate red-purple groundmass with
quartz and fluorite (Fig. 8a). Quartz veining is abundant in outcrop. Textures in other epithermal
quartz vein breccias found in the Lake Gilles area comprised comb quartz rimming angular clasts
in a quartz-rich matrix (Fig. 8b), lattice-bladed quartz replacing calcite (Fig. 8c), and white comb
quartz with secondary Cu minerals and a hematite surface coating (Fig. 8d).
In thin section the epithermal quartz vein breccias were comprised of a predominantly quartz-rich
matrix with crosscutting quartz veins. Two samples displayed carbonate replacement textures
(Fig. 8e). Colloform textures were also observed in thin section. Up to three generations of quartz
growth were observed, where edges of chalcedony clasts were displaced by crosscutting quartz
veins (Fig. 8f). Other quartz veins displayed comb quartz textures (Fig. 8g). Quartz vein containing
brecciated clasts of K-feldspar in a quartz supported matrix were also observed in thin section
(Fig. 8h). Massive, colourless fluorite was abundant and was observed to be intergrown with quartz
(Fig. 8h).

a) b)
c) d)
e) f)
g) h)

Figure 8. Hand specimen and photomicrograph images of epithermal quartz vein breccias from the
Lake Gilles area.
a) hand specimen of brecciated quartz vein with fluorite, sample 2018214; b) hand specimen of
epithermal quartz vein with angular grey and red-purple siliceous fragments rimmed by comb
quartz, sample 2017724; c) lattice-bladed quartz replacing calcite in a red-purple siliceous
groundmass, sample 2017724; d) hand specimen of epithermal quartz consisting of white comb
quartz with secondary Cu mineral and hematised surface, sample 2017745; e) photomicrograph
displaying bladed carbonate replacement textures in epithermal quartz vein, sample 2018585
(cross-polarised light); f) photomicrograph displaying colloform quartz growth. Early quartz with
successive banding and rimmed by comb quartz is crosscut and displaced by later quartz-
dominated growth. Both stages of quartz growth crosscut the fine-grained quartz, feldspar and
muscovite (mu) matrix, sample 2018214, (plane-polarised light); g) photomicrograph of comb
quartz (qtz) infilling a cavity within a quartzofeldspathic (qtz-fsp) groundmass, sample 2018214
(plane-polarised light) and; h) photomicrograph of brecciated epithermal quartz vein with
abundant fluorite (flr) and angular feldspar (fsp) clasts in a quartz-rich matrix, sample 2018214
(plane-polarised light). (Photos 414167–414174)
VEINS
Two vein types were identified in hand specimens: vein quartz and Fe-quartz veins (Table 2). The
veins rarely crop out, but occurred extensively in lag directly to the south of the GRV in the Lake
Gilles area. Contact relationships with the host rocks to the veins were not observed, but they are
presumed to intrude the poorly exposed Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic sequence of ortho- and
paragneiss, granite and dolerite. The orientation of the veins is uncertain. Vein quartz was the most
dominant vein lithology and ranged in colour from white, purple, pale red purple and greyish purple.
Comb quartz textures were also present in most vein quartz samples (Fig. 9a). Some samples
displayed banding of white quartz with chalcedony and quartz with iron-stained layers (Figs 9b, c
and d). Many vein quartz specimens were also brecciated and contained clasts of hematitic quartz
and country rock, including volcanic clasts, often displaying several episodes of brecciation and
veining, and differing degrees of hematisation. Many quartz vein samples contained cavities with
inward growing quartz with hematite centre infill.
In thin section quartz minerals displayed a range of textures which are typically observed in the
epithermal environment. Crosscutting relationships and multiple vein generations were also
observed in thin section. Quartz veins were typically comprised of fine-grained and coarse-grained
quartz with minor fine-grained muscovite, feldspar and clays constituting the matrix. One sample
contained a high content of fluorite, barite and iron oxide. Textures observed in quartz minerals
included jigsaw or mosaic quartz, colloform, saccharoidal quartz (Fig. 9e), feathery quartz (Fig. 9f),
lattice bladed and comb textures. Multiple generations of vein formation is evidenced by numerous
crosscutting vein relationships. Sulfides were apparent in hand specimen (Fig. 9e) and thin section
(Figs 9g and h). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis showed that sulfides often
contained zinc-rich cores surrounded by galena, copper oxides and copper chlorite minerals.

a) b)
c) d)
e) f)
g) h)

Figure 9. Outcrop, hand specimen and photomicrographs of quartz veins from the Lake Gilles
area.
a) comb quartz rimming angular rock fragments, sample 2018201; b) cut face of banded vein
quartz, sample 2018201; c) banding in quartz vein, similar to colloform quartz; d) cut face of
banded quartz and chalcedony in quartz vein, sample 2018213; e) saccharoidal quartz vein with
visible sulfides (?pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite) and secondary copper minerals,
sample 2018203; f) photomicrograph of flamboyant quartz texture in quartz and muscovite (mu)
groundmass, sample 2018201 (cross-polarised light); g) photomicrograph of sulfides in a quartz
matrix, sample 2018203 (cross-polarised light); and h) photomicrograph displaying growth-
zoned (?) quartz with sulfides, sample 2018203 (cross-polarised light). (Photos 414175–
414182)
Spectral mineral analysis

The 19 samples submitted to Hylogger™ 3-3 (Table 3), were scanned on weathered and fresh
surfaces. Analysis of spectral data showed weathered surfaces were dominated by quartz,
kaolinite (poorly crystalline), and goethite, while fresh and cut surfaces were principally quartz,
white micas, smectite, and tourmaline.
BRECCIATED FELDSPATHIC GRANITE

Three samples were analysed from this group. All showed white mica (muscovite), as the dominant
mineral in the SWIR, with kaolinite present on weathered surfaces. From TIR data, quartz
(Fig. 10a) and K-feldspar/orthoclase were the dominant minerals present.
HYDROTHERMAL BRECCIAS
Of the three samples submitted to HyLogger from this group, two were similar (1963579 and
2017727) and the third (2017728) differed by the presence of tourmaline in the matrix. Samples
1963579 and 2017727 contained similar angular feldspathic fragments, and were dominated by
quartz, smectite (montmorillonite) and white mica (muscovite), the weathered surfaces were
dominated by kaolinite and goethite. Sample 2017728 had an iron-rich tourmaline matrix
(Fig. 10b).
EPITHERMAL QUARTZ VEIN BRECCIA

Four samples were submitted for spectral analysis, and unlike other breccias, the fresh surfaces of
sample 2017745 gave SWIR spectra characteristic of well crystalline kaolinite, which was also
present with goethite and muscovite on fresh surfaces. Quartz, kaolinite and feldspar were the
dominant minerals in the TIR.
VEINS
Sample 2018202 contained an iron-rich chlorite (Fig. 10c), and hematite, with possible minor
diaspore. Diagnostic absorption features for diaspore, however, overlap with iron-rich chlorite and
while diaspore may be expected in epithermal alteration mineral assemblages, this occurrence
remains to be verified. The remaining quartz veins showed mineralogy of white mica (muscovite),
kaolinite (well crystalline where fresh surfaces scanned), and iron-rich chlorite in the SWIR and
quartz, K-feldspar, and albite in the TIR.
Samples 2018201 and 2018203 showed a spectral response that was characteristic of well
crystalline kaolinite (Fig. 10d). This was present, along with goethite and muscovite on fresh
surfaces.

Table 3. Mineralogy identified from HyLogger™ spectra VSWIR and TIR.
R_NUMBER LITHOLOGY VSWIR TIR
2017724 granite breccia hematite, kaolinite-PX, kaolinite-WX, quartz, albite, kaolinite, illite
muscovite
2017746 granite breccia hematite, kaolinite-PX, muscovite quartz, microcline, orthoclase, kaolinite,
illite, biotite?
2017751 granite breccia goethite (weathered), hematite (cut), quartz, microcline, albite, orthoclase,
muscovite pyrophyllite
1963579 hydrothermal breccia goethite, chlorite quartz, biotite, illite, albite,
montmorillonite, goethite, muscovite,
hematite
2017727 hydrothermal breccia goethite, phengite, diaspore? quartz, albite, montmorillonite,
microcline, biotite, diaspore?
2017728 hydrothermal breccia kaolinite-WX, phengite, tourmaline (Fe), quartz, kaolinite, muscovite,
tourmaline montmorillonite, chlorite?, biotite,
hornblende?, talc?
2017745 epithermal quartz Hematite (fresh surface), kaolinite-WX, quartz, albite, kaolinite, montmorillonite,
vein breccia muscovite, minor kaolinite-PX hematite
2018214 epithermal quartz goethite, muscovite, kaolinite-PX, quartz, microcline, orthoclase, albite,
vein breccia phengite kaolinite
2018585 epithermal quartz goethite, hematite, kaolinite-PX, chlorite- quartz, kaolinite
vein breccia Fe (<2%), diaspore? (<2%), talc?
2018201 quartz vein goethite, kaolinite-WX, muscovite quartz, albite, kaolinite
2018202 Fe-quartz vein goethite, kaolinite-PX, minor (<2%) quartz, albite, montmorillonite, kaolinite,
chlorite Fe, diaspore muscovite, talc, illite, biotite
2018203 quartz vein goethite, kaolinite-WX, minor kaolinite- quartz, microcline, albite, kaolinite
PX
2018211 quartz vein goethite, muscovite, kaolinite-WX, PX, albite, illite
phengite, gypsum
2018212 quartz vein goethite, kaolinite-WX, PX, muscovite, quartz, microcline (minor), albite,
siderite kaolinite, montmorillonite
2018213 quartz vein goethite, kaolinite-WX, -PX, muscovite quartz, albite, microcline, orthoclase,
kaolinite
2018595 quartz vein goethite, kaolinite-PX, paragonitic illite, quartz, microcline, orthoclase, kaolinite
muscovite
2018605 quartz vein goethite, kaolinite-WX, -PX, muscovite quartz, microcline, albite, orthoclase,
kaolinite
2018608 quartz vein goethite, hematite, kaolinite-WX, quartz, albite, hematite
phengite, muscovite, paragonitic illite
2018611 quartz vein goethite, kaolinite-WX, -PX, muscovite, quartz, albite
siderite

a) quartz
b) tourmaline
c) chlorite
d) kaolinite
TM
Figure 10. Spectral characteristics of samples recorded with HyLogger .
a) sample 2017724 – left is the spectral response of quartz in the TIR (blue line is the spectra from the
sample and black is the spectra from the pure mineral library, right is the image of the sample from the
HyLogger linescan; b) sample 2017728 – left is the spectral response of iron-rich tourmaline, right is
the image of the sample from HyLogger; c) sample 2018202 – left is the spectral response of iron-rich
chlorite in the SWIR, right is the image of the sample from HyLogger; and d) well crystalline (WX)
kaolinite spectrum from sample 2018203. (Plan number 204527-018)

Scanning electron microscopy
Nine of the 14 polished thin section blocks and 7 fragments from surface outcrop and float
samples, listed in Table 4, were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) facilities at
the University of Adelaide and University of South Australia. Minerals observed are described
below and illustrated in the accompanying figures (Figs 11–15). These results are taken from a
more comprehensive selection of images, spectra and descriptions given in Appendix 1.
Polished thin section blocks were selected to determine the metallic minerals, sulfides, accessory
minerals and alteration/secondary minerals associated with the epithermal-porphyry mineralisation
in the Lake Gilles and Roopena areas. Sample fragments were used to examine mainly the
morphology and composition of fine-grained alteration minerals and to investigate the silicate
alteration minerals identified from HyLogger spectra.
Table 4. Samples selected for Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) investigation.

R number Lithology Sample type
2017724 Granite breccia Polished thin section block and fragment
2017746 Granite breccia Fragment
2017727 Hydrothermal breccia Fragment
2017728 Hydrothermal breccia Polished thin section block
2017745 Epithermal quartz vein breccia Fragment
2018214A Epithermal quartz vein breccia Polished thin section
2018214B Epithermal quartz vein breccia Polished thin section block and fragment
2018201A Quartz vein Polished thin section block and fragment
2018201B Quartz vein Polished thin section block
2018203 Quartz vein Polished thin section block and fragment
2018211 Quartz vein Polished thin section block and fragment
2018213 Quartz vein Polished thin section block
2018202 Fe-quartz vein Polished thin section block
BRECCIAS
Two brecciated feldspathic granite samples and two hydrothermal breccias were selected for
polished section and surface analysis. Brecciated quartzofeldspathic granite samples were
comprised of a quartz matrix with iron oxide and inclusions of copper sulfide (Fig. 11a) and barite
(Fig. 11b). The polished thin section block for the hydrothermal breccia identified two possible
tourmaline groups, dravite (Mg member) and schorl (Fe member) (Fig. 11c). The epithermal quartz
vein breccia sample was comprised of predominantly quartz, iron oxide and barite. One sample
contained aluminium lead phosphates, either plumbogummite [PbAl3(PO4O2(OH)5.(H2O)] or
hinsdalite [(Pb,Sr)Al3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6] in fluorite intergrown with rutile and quartz (Fig. 11d). An
unidentified rare earth element mineral with lead was also recorded (Fig. 11e).
VEINS
Four quartz vein samples were selected for thin section block analyses and three of these for
surface analyses.
Metallic minerals and sulfides

The main metallic minerals and sulfides identified in quartz vein samples included Zn and Pb
sulfides, and Cu sulfides. Zinc and lead sulfides often occurred together, with sphalerite [(Zn,Fe)S]
often rimmed by fresh galena [PbS] (Fig. 12a) and possible oxidised galena (Fig. 12b). Galena was
also observed to infill vughs within the quartz matrix (Fig. 12c). Chalcopyrite [CuFeS2] was also
rimmed by galena (Figs 12d and 12e). Some samples contained copper sulfide inclusions that had
silver cores (Fig. 12f). Some galena rims on chalcopyrite contained arsenic inclusions (Figs 12g
and 12h). Sphalerite was also rimmed by galena and contained Cd-bearing inclusions, greenockite
[CdS] or zincian greenockite [(Cd, Zn)S] (Fig. 12i). Zinc inclusions also occurred in vughs mostly
filled with calcite, iron oxide, and sphalerite. Copper sulfide inclusions were also found in quartz.
Barite inclusions and iron oxides surrounding barite were also observed.

Figure 11. Scanning electron images for selected
breccias.
a) copper sulfide (CuS) in quartz (qtz)
matrix with iron oxide (Fe ox), sample
2017724; b) barite (brt) inclusions in quartz
(qtz) matrix with iron oxide (Fe ox), sample
2017724; c) quartz (qtz) and tourmaline,
dravite or schorl (srl), sample 2017728;
d) AlPb phosphate, plumbogummite
(pbgm) or hinsdalite (hd) with minor fluorite
(fl) intergrown with rutile (rt) in quartz (qtz),
sample 2018214B; e) inset from (d) REE
mineral with Pb in rutile (rt) and AlPb
phosphate, plumbogummite (pbgm) or
hinsdalite (hd), sample 2018214B. (Photos
414247–414251)
Iodides, sulfosalts, arsenopyrites and sulfoarsenides

Silver and bismuth occurred in iodides, sulfosalts, arsenopyrites and sulfoarsenides in quartz vein
samples. Iodargyrite [AgI] was observed as inclusions within atacamite [Cu2Cl(OH)3] (Figs 13a and
13b). Atacamite also occurred with chalcopyrite [CuFeS2] and with copper sulfides containing silver
cores. Native bismuth occurred in quartz and atacamite (Figs 13c and 11d). Chalcopyrite with
galena rims contained copper sulfide inclusions, possibly covellite [CuS] and danaite [(FeCo)AsS]
or Co-bearing sulfarsenides such as alloclasite [(Co, Fe)AsS], glaucodot [(Co, Fe)AsS] or cobaltite
[CoAsS] (Fig. 13e). Silver and bismuth sulfosalt inclusions occurred in quartz vein samples. Such
sulfosalts may include emplectite [CoBiS2], wittichenite [Cu3BiS3], matildite [AgBiS2] or
cuprobismutite [Cu10Bi12S23] (Fig. 13f).

Secondary lead and copper minerals
Secondary lead minerals observed included AlPb phosphate minerals, plumbogummite
[PbAl3(PO4O2(OH)5.(H2O)] or hinsdalite [(Pb,Sr)Al3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6] associated with feldspar and
quartz, and barite, feldspar and quartz (Figs 14a and 14b). Other secondary lead minerals
identified included plumbojarosite [PbFe3+6(SO4)4(OH)12], tending towards beaverite
[PbCu2+(Fe3+,Al)2(SO4)2(OH)6] composition, observed to infill spherical cavities in quartz and iron
silicates (Fig. 14c). Vughs in vein quartz samples were filled with secondary copper minerals,
brochantite [Cu4(SO4)(OH)6], dolerophanite [Cu2(SO4)O] or chalcanthite [CuSO4.5(H2O)] (Fig. 14d).
In other samples abundant large copper sulfide (?covellite [CuS]) and atacamite minerals
[(Cu2Cl(OH)3] were observed, where atacamite appeared to be filling cracks, vughs and voids
within the copper sulfide minerals (Fig. 13a). The Fe-quartz vein consisted of an iron oxide matrix
with quartz and barite inclusions (Fig. 14e).

Figure 12. Scanning electron microscope images
of sulfides from vein quartz samples.
a) sphalerite (sp) core with galena (gn) rim,
sample 2018203; photo 414183;
b) remnant sphalerite cores within galena
surrounded by oxidised galena (gn), sample
2018203; photo 414185; c) vugh infilled
with galena (gn), sample 2018203; photo
414186; d) galena and chalcopyrite (ccp)
associated with ?oxidised galena (?ox gn),
sample 2018203; photo 414184; e)
chalcopyrite (ccp) in quartz (qtz) with
galena (gn) rims and galena inclusions,
sample 2018203; photo 414252; f) copper
sulfide mineral containing silver (CuS with
Ag) in core of atacamite (atcm) and
chalcopyrite (ccp), sample 2018201; photo
414187; g) chalcopyrite (ccp) and galena
(gn) with arsenic inclusions (bright white) in
galena (inset), sample 2018213; photo
414253; h) arsenic (ar) inclusions (bright
white) in galena (gn), sample 2018203;
photo 414254; and i) sphalerite (sp) rimmed
by galena (gn) with Cd-bearing inclusion,
greenockite (gnk), zincian greenockite
(zgnk), sample 2018203; photo 414255.

Figure 13. Scanning electron microscope images of iodides, sulfosalts, arsenopyrites and
sulfoarsenides in vein quartz samples.
a) iodargyrite (iag) inclusions (bright white) in atacamite (atcm) with copper sulfide inclusions (CuS), sample
2018201B; photo 414256; b) iodargyrite (iag) inclusions (bright white) in atacamite (atcm) and copper sulfide
(CuS), sample 2018201B; photo 414257; c) native bismuth (bi) within atacamite (atcm), sample 2018201B;
photo 414188; d) native bismuth (bi), sample 2018201B; photo 414258; e) chalcopyrite (ccp) rimmed by
galena (gn) with inclusions of Cu sulfide (CuS), galena (gn) and Co-bearing arsenopyrite (asp, danaite), or
other Co-bearing sulfoarsenides (sfas, alloclasite, glaucodot or cobaltite), sample 2018203; photo 414259;
and f) native bismuth (bi) in quartz (qtz). Bright white inclusions are sulfosalts (sfs) either emplectite,
wittichenite, matildite or cuprobismutite, sample 2018201B; photo 414260.
Figure 14. Scanning electron microscopy
images of secondary lead and
copper minerals in vein quartz
samples and example of Fe-quartz
vein.
a) AlPb phosphate, plumbogummite
(pbgm) or hinsdalite (hnd) with quartz
(qtz) and feldspar (fsp), sample
2018213; b) AlPb phosphate,
plumbogummite (pbgm) or hinsdalite
(hnd) with barite (brt), quartz (qtz)
and feldspar (fsp); c) plumbojarosite
(pbj) or beaverite-(Cu) (bv) infilled in
spherical cavities in quartz and iron
silicate minerals, sample 2018201B;
d) vugh filled with secondary copper
sulfate mineral, either brochantite
(brch), dolerophanite (dlpn) or
chalcanthite (chln), sample
2018201B and e) iron oxide (Fe ox)
matrix with quartz (qtz) and barite
(brt), sample 2018202.
(Photos 414261–414265)

SURFACE MINERALOGY
Surface mineralogy identified for the brecciated quartzofeldspathic granites included fine-grained
kaolinite with a patchy coating of silica clusters as incipient lepispheres, probably opal CT. In
sample 2017724, crystalline quartz-lined vughs incorporated kaolinite intergrown with quartz,
indicating that at least some kaolinite formed during quartz veining. In this sample, tubular
halloysite, partially recrystallised to kaolinite, was present also as kaolin infill within the vugh
(Fig. 15a). Granite breccia (sample 2017746) was predominantly K-feldspar with various surface
coatings, including probable gorceixite [(BaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5.H2O] (Fig. 15b), barite and iron oxide.
Surface mineralogy for sample 2017727 of altered Moonabie Formation included patches
containing leached calcite/siderite, remnant clasts of fragmented iron-rich mica (phengite/biotite),
and areas where mica had been replaced or coated by iron oxides, mostly goethite.
The epithermal quartz vein breccia (sample 2017745) contained both hematite and goethite on the
surface, where hematite occurred as platy crystal aggregates forming rosettes on quartz and
kaolinite, while bright yellow goethite had a distinctly fibrous morphology (Figs 15c and 15d).
Kaolinite also formed a coating on iron oxide rosettes. Vughs in quartz were lined with kaolinite
flakes with patches of silica, as micron-sized aggregates of probable opal CT (Fig. 15e). Sample
2018214 contained fluorite cement incorporating small patches of barite intergrown with quartz that
had numerous small cavities (likely fluid inclusions). Unidentified carbon patches were present, to
30 microns across, and were tentatively identified as poorly crystalline graphite.
Vein quartz samples contained a wide variety of surface coatings, sulfides and secondary
alteration minerals. In sample 2018201 probable smectite contained traces of Pb and Cu and
formed together with an iron-rich coating that included native bismuth, bismuth carbonate, and
secondary copper silicate. Minerals identified on the surface of sample 2018203 included
plumbojarosite [(KNaPb)(Fe3+AlCu)3(SO4)2(OH)6] (Fig. 15f) and other alunite supergroup minerals
of variable compositions [Fe Cu Pb Al K SO4]. Kaolinite was present on the surface and intergrown
with silica on vugh margins. Sulfide minerals, present as minor grains in quartz, included covellite
[CuS], in places altered to brochantite [Cu4(SO4)(OH)6], chalcopyrite [CuFeS2] and galena, with a
Cu-rich core of covellite or geerite [Cu8S5].
Trace element geochemistry

Results of chemical analyses on breccia and vein samples, for trace elements broadly associated
with epithermal systems, are reported in Table 5. In general, low sulfidation systems show
anomalously high Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Zn, Pb, Se, K and Ag/Au; and anomalously low Cu, Te/Se
(Table 6; White and Hedenquist 1995). In contrast, high sulfidation systems generally show
anomalously high Au, Ag, As, Cu, Sb, Bi, Hg, Te, Sn, Pb, Mo and Te/Se, and anomalously low K,
Zn and Ag/Au (Table 6; White and Hedenquist 1995).
Fourteen samples of Gawler Range Volcanics were also analysed for most of the epithermal-
related elements and the results for 11 of these samples are shown in Table 5. The data indicate
the range for element background values in extrusive rocks associated with the ~1590 Ma igneous
event. The location of these samples is not shown on accompanying figures but the sample
numbers link to full details in SA Geodata and are accessible through SARIG.
Figure 15. Scanning electron micrographs of surface coatings.

a) tubular halloysite on the surface of a quartz crystal lining a quartz vugh, indication of
recrystallisation of halloysite layers to kaolinite platelets, sample 2017724; b) probable
gorceixite (BaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5.H2O) crystals coating K-feldspar, sample 2017746; c) rosettes of
hematite coating on quartz, sample 2017745; d) fibrous goethite, as bright yellow patches lining
vugh in epithermal quartz, sample 2017745; e) incipient growth of silica lepispheres on the
surface of crystalline kaolinite, sample 2017745; f) crystals of plumbojarosite
3+
((KNaPb)(Fe AlCu)3(SO4)2(OH)6) alteration in quartz, sample 2018203.
(Photos 414266–414271)
See next page

A B
C D
E F

Table 5. Geochemical analyses of surface samples, together with background data for bulk crust
and samples of Gawler Range Volcanics.
R number 2017746 2018581 2018216 2018217 2017724 2017751 1963579 2017727 2017728 2018202
granite granite granite granite granite granite hydrothermal hydrothermal hydrothermal Fe-quartz
Lithology
breccia breccia breccia breccia breccia breccia breccia breccia breccia vein
Ba ppm 6470 1330 >10000 6440 1770 6500 1410 500 300 950
Ag ppm 0.27 1.05 <0.5 <0.5 2.14 0.75 0.05 0.04 0.08 1.13
Au ppm 0.001 0.001 0.006 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001
Hg ppm <0.005 <0.005 0.015 0.007 0.008 0.015 0.029 0.101 0.045 0.125
B ppm 10 <10 10 10 10 20 150 30

P ppm 2150 130 70 430 1850 1320 190 6630
As ppm 9.7 22.7 5.7 5.7 7.4 9.3 14.5 20.8 4.7 48.7
Sb ppm 4.68 7.83 2.84 0.53 34.9 3.35 2.11 1.02 1.98 3.49
Bi ppm 0.43 0.46 0.33 0.14 0.59 2.13 0.1 0.05 0.63 0.63
S % 0.02 0.1 0.23 0.05 0.13 0.14 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.05
Se ppm 3 <1 0.7 1.3 <1 1 2 2 2 8
Te ppm <0.05 <0.05 <0.01 <0.01 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
K % 4.92 0.13 0.21 4.44 1.08 1.43 0.13 1.1
V ppm 124 18 197 184 16 36 58 74 48 104

Cr ppm 13 14 10 10 13 11 24 25 22 480
Fe % 5.42 1.52 2.43 1.98 37.6 43.3 2.56 41.5
Ni ppm 2.9 1.8 2 9 2.1 2.2 10.9 14.3 21.6 74.7
Cu ppm 8.1 6.8 14 70 1030 34.8 148 145 15.8 820
Zn ppm 32 10 25 73 11 67 114 103 9 1170
Mo ppm 0.35 1.71 <1 <1 0.66 0.77 1.5 1.44 0.53 3.12
W ppm 15 6.8 17 12 6.3 8.1 13.6 5.3 31.4 1.1
Sn ppm 3.1 0.4 4 5 1 1.8 1.9 2.2 11.5 0.6
Pb ppm 229 765 41 91 71 546 15.4 8.7 8.4 2470
U ppm 14.6 1.3 11.45 8.41 2.6 7.3 11.8 3.6 2.3 8
R number 2017745 2018214 2018201 2018203 2018211 2018212 2018213 2018605 2018611
vein vein Bulk Bulk crust x
Lithology vein quartz vein quartz vein quartz vein quartz vein quartz vein quartz vein quartz
breccia breccia crust* 10
Ba ppm 200 3190 750 120 2290 3520 4290 950 190 456 4560
Ag ppm 0.62 12.6 10 1.32 0.17 0.74 4.53 0.32 0.65 0.056 0.56
Au ppm 0.005 0.002 0.021 0.011 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.0013 0.013
Hg ppm 0.007 0.011 <0.005 0.024 <0.005 0.01 0.021 0.006 <0.005 0.03 0.3
B ppm 10 10 <10 <10 <10 10 <10 <10 <10 10 100

P ppm 30 500 120 30 20 240 200 60 90 779 7790
As ppm 4.1 41.5 2.7 10.6 1.7 6.4 3.9 1.1 0.4 2.5 25
Sb ppm 7.03 3.24 12.4 5.52 19.05 5.68 0.69 2.89 1.54 0.2 2
Bi ppm 3.32 25.7 199.5 2.8 1.17 7.24 18.85 0.47 0.21 0.18 1.8
S % 0.03 0.16 0.04 0.16 0.06 0.1 0.15 0.03 0.01 0.0404 0.404
Se ppm <1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0.13 1.3
Te ppm <0.05 <0.05 0.08 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0
K % 0.03 1.44 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.25 0.42 0.09 0.45 0.91 9.1
V ppm 12 18 10 8 2 18 13 6 13 138 1380

Cr ppm 34 28 21 37 12 27 16 13 11 135 1350
Fe % 1.49 1.85 1.35 1.52 0.86 2.92 1.39 0.99 1.06 7.3 73
Ni ppm 3 3.6 1.6 2.9 1.3 3.8 1.6 2.3 1.5 59 590
Cu ppm 251 85.7 722 1030 20.9 109.5 119.5 9.1 10 27 270
Zn ppm 208 61 99 969 27 63 27 4 18 72 720
Mo ppm 3.29 1.81 7.39 4.76 0.53 0.82 18.05 0.26 0.37 0.8 8
W ppm 0.8 6.9 2.6 1.5 0.3 6.7 0.8 0.8 0.3 1 10
Sn ppm 0.4 1 3.5 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.3 1.7 17
Pb ppm 280 5230 334 2320 59.9 136 460 58.7 120 11 110
U ppm 1.3 5.4 0.2 0.8 0.3 3.1 2.1 0.8 0.8 1.3 13

R number 2018591 2018210 2018596 2018612 2018613 2018616 2018617 2018624 2018199 2018200 2018618
Lithology Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite
Bittali Bittali Bittali Bittali Bittali Bittali Bittali Eucarro Eucarro Eucarro
Map Unit GRV
Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite
Ba ppm 1695 1880 2680 621 1460 3440 1580 1735 1175 1205 1305
Ag ppm <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Hg ppm <0.005 <0.005 0.006 0.029 <0.005 0.007 0.006 0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005
As ppm 1.8 0.7 2.1 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.4 2.7 0.9 0.6
Sb ppm 0.14 0.14 0.1 1.01 0.44 0.1 0.42 0.06 0.16 0.11 0.12
Bi ppm 0.13 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.6 0.1 0.18 0.01 0.14 0.14 0.18
S % 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.02 <0.01
Se ppm 1.1 1.4 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.4 1.5 1.8 0.9 1.1
Te ppm <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.01
V ppm 45 <5 11 9 <5 6 9 <5 <5 <5 <5

Cr ppm <10 30 <10 <10 10 10 <10 10 10 <10 10
Ni ppm 8 2 2 1 1 4 2 2 1 2 1
Cu ppm 6 11 3 13 7 3 11 5 5 4 4
Zn ppm 50 74 118 195 24 57 36 32 109 70 179
Mo ppm <1 1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 2 1 1
W ppm 1 1 1 3 <1 5 7 4 1 2 5
Sn ppm 3 5 4 5 2 5 1 4 4 5 5
Pb ppm 9 29 70 14 20 18 6 11 44 14 37
U ppm 8.07 7.16 6.74 7.59 3.65 6.86 3.93 6.62 6.78 6.67 7.07
* Bulk crust values are from Rudnick and Gao (2003)
BRECCIAS
The brecciated Burkitt Granite samples recorded anomalously high (greater than ten times bulk
crust) Ba (1330– >10000 ppm), Ag (0.27–2.14 ppm), Sb (0.53–34.9 ppm), W (3.6–17 ppm), Pb
(41–765 ppm) and U (1.3–11.45 ppm), with a few samples recording anomalously high Bi
(2.13 ppm), Se (3 ppm) and Cu (1030 ppm) values (Table 5). Elevated values were recorded for P,
As, S and K, but not in excess of ten times the bulk crust values. The tourmaline-bearing
hydrothermal breccia sample (R2017728) showed anomalously high B (150 ppm), Se (2 ppm) and
W (13.6 ppm), while Sn, Bi and Sb contents were also elevated (Table 5). Hydrothermal breccias
in the Moonabie Formation overall showed anomalously high B (10–150 ppm), Se (1–2 ppm), Sb
(1.02–2.11 ppm), and W (2.3–31.4 ppm), with elevated Hg (0.045 ppm) and Sn (11.5 ppm)
contents (Table 5). The vein breccia samples had anomalously high Ag (0.62–12.6 ppm), As (4.1–
41.5 ppm), Sb (3.24–7.03 ppm), Bi (3.32–25.7 ppm) and Pb (280–5230 ppm) with elevated Zn and
Mo and W contents (Table 5).
VEINS
The Fe-quartz vein contained anomalously high Ag (1.13 ppm), As (48.7 ppm), Sb (3.49 ppm), Se
(8 ppm), Cu (820 ppm), Zn (1170 ppm) and Pb (2470 ppm) and elevated Hg, P, Cr, Ni, Mo and U
contents (Table 5). Vein quartz samples were anomalously high in Ag (0.17–10 ppm), Sb (0.69–
19.05 ppm), Bi (0.21–199.5 ppm), Cu (9.1–1030 ppm), Zn (4–969 ppm), Mo (0.26–7.39 ppm) and
Pb (58.7–2320 ppm) with elevated Ba, As and Au contents (Table 5).
GAWLER RANGE VOLCANICS

The Gawler Range Volcanics samples generally showed lower abundances or similar to crustal
values for most elements listed in Table 5, the exceptions being Se (0.3–1.8 ppm) and U (3.65–
8.07 ppm).
The trace element levels recorded for breccia and vein samples, relative to background values for
GRV samples, are consistent with the addition of trace elements by hydrothermal fluids during or
following brecciation and vein formation.

DISCUSSION
Quartz textures
JIGSAW/MOSAIC QUARTZ
Jigsaw or mosaic quartz textures are characterised by aggregates of microcrystalline to crystalline
quartz crystals with interpenetrating grain boundaries (Moncada et al. 2012; Dong et al. 1995). This
texture is formed by the recrystallisation of massive chalcedony or amorphous silica (Moncada et
al. 2012; Dong et al. 1995), with an interpreted recrystallisation temperature of >180°C (Fournier
1985). Mosaic and jigsaw textures are commonly associated with ore minerals in epithermal
deposits, e.g. Mexican epithermal deposits (Moncada et al. 2012). Samples 2018585, 2017724,
2018201, 2018203 and 2018211 display jigsaw/mosaic quartz textures. Samples 2018203,
2018201, 2018211 have zinc sulfide cores surrounded by galena associated with jigsaw quartz
(Figs 9g and 9h).
COLLOFORM QUARTZ
Colloform quartz texture involves successive, narrow and subparallel bands which are
distinguished by differences in texture, mineral proportions and/or colour (Dong et al. 1995). The
banding is commonly symmetrical, developed from both walls of a fissure, fracture or vein (Dong et
al. 1995), and is formed as a result of rapid, episodic fluctuations in temperature, pressure or fluid
conditions during boiling (Moncada et al. 2012) creating successive banding. Colloform quartz
textures are observed in sample 2018214, an epithermal quartz vein breccia from the Lake Gilles
area (Fig. 8f). Banded veins are typical of low sulfidation systems which are formed by repeated
opening of vein-hosting structure, ore fluid influx and repeated mineral deposition (Moncada et al.
2012). The process may involve multiple fluid sources and often the mixing of magmatic with
meteoric fluids. Bands are commonly monominerallic—usually quartz—and these bands are
described as colloform. Colloform quartz is usually composed of chalcedony to microcrystalline
quartz. Bands may also display different mineral compositions, and are then described as
colloform-crustiform. Crustiform bands are formed as different, often alternating bands of minerals,
such as quartz and adularia, deposited as crusts on the walls of the vein-hosting structure. This
deposition reflects changes in the chemistry and temperature of the hydrothermal fluid induced by
rapid pressure fluctuations. These conditions may result in precipitation and concentration of
economic minerals, depending on fluid chemistry and metal content.
FEATHERY QUARTZ
Feathery quartz may also be referred to as plumose or flamboyant quartz. It is best identified under
cross polarised light where a feathery or splintery appearance is observed at slight optical
differences in maximum extinction positions. This texture is usually well developed on the margins
of quartz crystals with a clear euhedral core. Feathery quartz is a recrystallisation texture thought
to develop from aggregates of fibrous chalcedony with rounded external surfaces, and originated
as silica gel (Dong et al. 1995). Samples 2018201 (Fig. 9f) and 2018203 display feathery quartz
textures which are indicators that boiling has occurred (see below).
CARBONATE REPLACEMENT TEXTURES

Lattice bladed calcite is often replaced by quartz; these textures may also form when quartz
replaces barite, zeolites or laumontite (Moncada et al. 2012). There is a close association of lattice
bladed textures and boiling in geothermal systems which is attributed to rapid crystal growth as
carbon dioxide is lost to the vapour phase during boiling (Moncada et al. 2012). In some instances,
lattice bladed textures are related to low sulfidation deposits e.g. Mexican deposits, but not usually
closely associated with ore minerals (Moncada et al. 2012). Samples with lattice bladed quartz
include epithermal quartz vein breccias, 2017724 (Fig. 8c) and 2018585 (Fig. 8e). In both
instances quartz has completely replaced the original mineral, most likely calcite.
COMB QUARTZ
Comb quartz is a primary depositional texture that describes parallel or subparallel quartz crystals
which grow into open space perpendicular to the vein walls. These crystals typically display

uniform grain size and have euhedral terminations at their free ends (Dong et al. 1995). Comb
quartz is observed in brecciated granite samples 2017724 (Fig. 8b) and 2017751, epithermal
quartz vein breccias 2017745 (Fig. 8d), 2018214 (Fig. 8g), and 2018585, and in quartz vein
sample 2018211.
Evidence of boiling and preserved depth of epithermal system

Boiling is widely regarded as an important process in precious metal mineralisation in epithermal
systems (e.g. Moncada et al. 2012) and evidence of boiling can therefore be used as an
exploration indicator for mineralisation. A favourable hydrological setting is necessary for boiling to
occur; sharp temperature-pressure gradients and a free fluid path to the surface are required
(Simmons and Browne 2000b; Simmons and Browne 2000a). The combination of focused fluid
flow, boiling and mixing strongly influences the precipitation of metals in an epithermal or
geothermal environment (Simmons et al. 2005; Cooke and Simmons 2000; Saunders 1994;
Buchanan 1981). Boiling in the epithermal and geothermal environments causes phase separation
which lowers precious and base metal solubility, due to a sharp loss of H2, H2S and CO2, and in
turn increases the pH and oxidation state of the fluid (Simmons et al. 2005). Sulfide complexes
transport gold and silver in hydrothermal solutions, while base metals are often transported as
chloride complexes. In hydrothermal systems, base metal and copper sulfides generally precipitate
at depths below the boiling zone, and the highest precious metal grades generally occur at or
above the base of the boiling zone (Buchanan 1981). The depth of the boiling zone may shift
upwards or downwards as the epithermal system evolves, producing overprinting mineral textures.
Quartz textures that indicate boiling during silica deposition include feathery, flamboyant, plumose
quartz, colloform, ghost-sphere, and crustiform (Moncada et al. 2012). Textures more typical of
non-boiling include rhombic, massive, zonal, cockade and comb quartz (Moncada et al. 2012). The
onset of adularia (variety of K-feldspar) is a mineralogical indicator of the onset of boiling, as when
boiling occurs, pH drops and adularia precipitates forming colloform-crustiform-banded quartz-
adularia veins. In samples that show textures due to boiling, the presence of quartz with textures
which are not related to boiling may simply reflect silica deposition pre or post the boiling event. It
should be noted, however, that not all hydrothermal systems that show evidence of boiling contain
gold or silver (Camprubi and Albinson 2007).
The majority of the quartz veins and quartz vein breccia samples examined in this study showed
quartz textures indicative of boiling e.g. feathery/plumose, lattice bladed, and colloform quartz.
Where surface samples show textures that are indicative of boiling then the base of the boiling
zone is predictably at or below the present day land surface. The quartz vein, Fe-quartz vein and
quartz vein breccia samples which contain quartz textures indicative of boiling were elevated to
anomalously high in precious metals (Ag and Au), which mostly precipitate above the base of the
boiling zone, and base metals (Cu, Pb and Zn) which generally precipitate below the base of the
boiling zone. This suggests that depth to the boiling zone shifted over time and precious metal
precipitation is an overprint on the base metals or vice versa. Consequently, any base metals
precipitated below the zone of boiling are likely to have been preserved in the subsurface. Precious
metal deposits may also be preserved, but the likelihood is increased for areas where altered rocks
above the boiling zone were protected from erosion, such as in areas where the lower GRV
remains in situ.
Mineralisation
Various metallic minerals containing Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Cd and Bi were identified in the quartz vein
and quartz vein breccia samples, including sulfides, iodides, sulfosalts, arsenopyrites and
sulfoarsenides, phosphates, sulfates and hydroxides.
The base metal sulfides in the epithermal vein samples, in particular chalcopyrite, sphalerite and
galena, are commonly observed in low sulfidation systems. They also occur in steeply dipping
epithermal quartz veins at the nearby Parkinson Dam epithermal prospect, ~8 km to the north east
of the Lake Gilles area, where broad zones of elevated Pb and Zn were intersected (96 m at 0.2%
Pb and 27 m at 0.4% Zn, along with narrow higher grade intervals such as 7.6% Pb, 10.5% Zn and

0.4% Cu over 1.66 m in drill hole PD30 (Tasman Resources 2007). Sphalerite mineralogy can vary
greatly in epithermal veins with composition ranging from nearly pure zinc sulfide which is typically
pale yellow-green to honey coloured, to very iron-rich sphalerite, which is black in colour (a variety
known as ‘marmatite’). A high cadmium (Cd) content in iron-poor sphalerite imparts a green colour.
Quartz vein sample R2018203 contained sphalerite with no detectable Fe but with minor Cd. Low-
sulfidation epithermal sphalerite is commonly iron-poor (Corbett 2002).
Various secondary base metal minerals were observed in the epithermal vein samples, including
copper sulfates and copper chloride (atacamite), and lead oxide and lead sulfate minerals. This
suggests that the primary base metal sulfides were exposed at or near the surface and that the
mineralised zone is at least partially oxidised. These secondary minerals were observed to mostly
fill voids and vughs in copper sulfides. Plumbojarosite is indicative of acidic conditions, and the
formation of atacamite requires high evaporation and saline groundwater in arid areas.
Silver and gold, in native form or as electrum, are common in epithermal mineral deposits. At the
Parkinson Dam epithermal prospect high-grade Au and Ag hosted in banded veins was intersected
in PD63, with 21 m at 21 g/t Au and 83 g/t Ag, including 9 m downhole at 31 g/t Au and 152 g/t Ag
(Tasman Resources 2008). Gold was not identified in epithermal vein samples in this study; some
native silver was observed, but much of the silver was present as secondary silver minerals
including Ag halides and Ag sulphosalts. The source of the Cl and I required to form the silver
halides may have been sea spray or have been introduced during inundation of the southern
Gawler Craton during the Neoproterozoic or Paleozoic. Silver halides are extremely insoluble,
forming in situ, and are thus likely to preserve the original location of the silver mineralisation. The
formation of silver halide and copper chloride (atacamite) was observed in association with
remnant metal sulfides.
Alteration assemblages
The alteration mineralogy associated with the hydrothermal breccia samples determined from
HyLogger spectra and SEM includes tourmaline, goethite, muscovite, smectite and calcite or
siderite, similar to those mineral associations observed to affect the Moonabie Formation in the
vicinity of the Angle Dam Fault (hematite-sericite-chlorite-quartz-feldspar and chlorite-calcite-
siderite-tourmaline-apatite) (Weste 1996). This mineralogy is more typical of a mesothermal
system (Fig. 1).
The alteration mineralogy of quartz and Fe-quartz veins and epithermal breccia vein samples
determined from HyLogger spectra and SEM includes quartz, hematite, kaolinite, halloysite,
smectite, sericite, and chlorite. No alunite or dickite was observed, and the presence of diaspore
was not confirmed. This mineralogy suggests that the system lies within the argillic alteration zone
associated with epithermal systems (Fig. 1).
Low sulfidation vs high sulfidation

Low-sulfidation deposits display a wide variety of vein styles including banded, crustiform and
chalcedony veins, druse-lined cavities and multiple-episode vein breccias (Hedenquist 2000; White
and Hedenquist 1995). Lattice-textured bladed calcite is commonly formed as a result of boiling
and the calcite is often replaced by quartz as the system cools (Hedenquist 2000; White and
Hedenquist 1995). In contrast, high-sulfidation deposits are characterised by predominantly vughy
quartz textures (Hedenquist 2000; White and Hedenquist 1995). While some vughy quartz was
observed in samples from the Lake Gilles site, the majority of textures are consistent with those
described for low sulfidation systems.
Chemical associations with high and low sulfidation systems are listed in Table 6. Key chemical
characteristics for samples collected from the Lake Gilles and Roopena areas are also listed along
with the sulfidation system that most closely matches the chemistry. High and low sulfidation
systems both show anomalously high Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg and Pb; these elements (except for Au)
are anomalous in samples of vein breccia, Fe-quartz vein and vein quartz samples (Tables 5 and
6). Elements that distinguish low from high sulfidation deposits include Cu, Bi, Te, Sn and Mo; and

Zn, Se, K and Cu respectively (Table 6). Samples that recorded anomalous or elevated amounts of
Cu, Bi, Te, Sn and Mo include the epithermal vein breccia and vein quartz (Tables 5 and 6),
indicative of a low sulfidation environment. High Se, K and Zn were recorded for the brecciated
Burkitt Granite and hydrothermal breccia, together with elevated levels of Bi, Cu and As (Tables 5
and Table 6). Elevated zinc contents were also present in the vein breccia, Fe-quartz vein and vein
quartz samples (Tables 5 and 6). Sulfides identified in the Lake Gilles samples include sphalerite
and galena. Sphalerite and galena are generally minor minerals in low sulfidation epithermal
deposits but may dominate the base metal assemblage in some deposits, including subepithermal
vein Zn-Cu-Pb-Ag ± Au deposits (Fig. 2). Covellite was identified as an accessory sulfide mineral
along with chalcopyrite in samples 2018201 and 2018203, which is also uncommon in a low
sulfidation environment. The presence of zinc and other base metal sulfides in the Lake Gilles
samples may be due, in part, to prior base metal enrichment (Cu, Pb and Zn) in metasediments in
the area (e.g. in drill holes Broadview 1 (15954) (Rankin and Flint 1992), SJCD 2 (163711),
SJCD 17 (163738) and SJCD 44 (163739) (Newell et al. 1994).
The tourmaline-rich hydrothermal breccia adjacent the Angle Dam fault (2017728) shows elevated
Sn, W, and B (Tables 5 and 6) and is probably related to fluid activity in close proximity to an
igneous intrusion, rather than to fluid circulation in the epithermal environment. Breccia samples
from the Roopena area are likely to have formed by hydrothermal brecciation in a mesothermal
environment. This is consistent with the location of the samples within or adjacent to a broad zone
of hematite-sericite-chlorite-feldspar alteration, which was outlined during mapping of the
basement rocks (Fig. 5).
Table 6. Summary of elements associated with high sulfidation and low sulfidation epithermal
deposits compared to the samples collected from Lake Gilles and Roopena.
High sulfidation Low sulfidation
Anomalously Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Zn, Pb, Se, K, Ag/Au Au, Ag, As, Cu, Sb, Bi, Hg, Te, Sn, Pb, Mo, Te/Se
high
Anomalously Cu, Te/Se K, Zn, Ag/Au
low
Granite breccia Hydrothermal breccia Vein breccia Fe-qtz vein Vein quartz
Anomalously Ag, Ba, Sb, Bi, Se, Se, W, Sb, B Ag, Sb, Bi, Pb, Ag, As, Sb, Se, Ag, Sb, Bi, Te,
high Cu, W, Pb, U, Ag/Au Cu, Zn, Pb, Cu, Zn, Mo, Pb,
Ag/Au Ag/Au
Elevated P, As, S, K Ba, Hg, P, As, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo, W Hg, P, V, Cr, Ba, Sn
Zn, U Fe, Ni, Mo
Associated High or low sulfidation Mesothermal Low sulfidation Low sulfidation Low sulfidation
system
Epithermal system evolution

Epithermal systems form in a diverse range of host rocks, broadly classified as volcanic-hosted,
sediment-hosted and carbonate-hosted (White and Hedenquist 1990). Mineral deposits are best
developed where marked permeability or rheological contrasts exist within host lithologies (Sillitoe
1997). Volcanic and subvolcanic host rocks are the common hosts for high sulfidation and low
sulfidation epithermal deposits (e.g. andesite-dacite-rhyolite Waitekauri area New Zealand
(Simpson and Mauk 2011); rhyolite Taupo Volcanic Zone New Zealand (Cooke and Simmons
2000); Hishikari epithermal deposits, Japan (White and Hedenquist 1990); non-volcanic rocks
observed to host epithermal deposits include dolostone host rocks at Colquijirca (Sillitoe and
Hedenquist 2003) and various deposits in the western United States (Bagby and Berger 1985)).
The two field areas are located on northeastern Eyre Peninsula, where a Meso- to Neoarchean,
dominantly granitic, basement is overlain by a series of Paleoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary
packages deformed and intruded by granite and dolerite during the Kimban Orogeny (1730–
1690 Ma). During the Mesoproterozoic (~1590 Ma), these were overlain by felsic and lesser mafic
lavas of the Gawler Range Volcanics and intruded by granite of the Hiltaba Suite ((1590–1575 Ma);

Reid and Hand 2012; Hand et al. 2007). The basement host rocks in the field areas are anomalous
in base metals (pers comm. M. Davies 2014) and in many areas occur proximal or distal to Hiltaba
Suite granites and mafic rocks. Igneous intrusion of these rocks and hydrothermal activity
associated with extensive GRV extrusion are likely therefore to have had a significant role in
remobilising and concentrating metals within the basement rocks and overlying volcanics.
Importantly, in geothermal and hydrothermal systems, the chemistry of the hydrothermal solution
ascending to the epithermal environment is influenced by the proportions of deep magmatic and
circulating deep meteoric waters, and the extent of water-rock interaction (Simmons et al. 2005;
Giggenbach 1997; Giggenbach 1992). In addition to controlling the pH of the fluid, these factors
also control the oxidation and sulfidation state of the hydrothermal solution (Simmons et al. 2005;
Einaudi et al. 2003; Giggenbach 1997; Giggenbach 1992). Sharp physical and chemical gradients
conducive to base metal and precious metal precipitation created by boiling and/or mixing
conditions, particularly at epithermal depths, are also critical genetic factors in epithermal deposit
formation (Simmons et al. 2005). Focused fluid flow, in addition to boiling and mixing, are efficient
mechanisms to precipitate metals in epithermal and geothermal systems.
Veins, mineralised structures and/or zones, geochemical and geophysical anomalies and alteration
zones are key attributes that need to be assessed as part of any exploration of epithermal mineral
systems. The Lake Gilles area occurs at the intersection between the E-W trending Uno Fault and
a regional NE-SW trending fault clearly evident in regional magnetic data (Figs 3 and 4). In this
area, NW-SE and E-W trending faults are proximal to sites where quartz vein and breccia samples
with epithermal characteristics were collected. Faults and fault intersections are efficient
mechanisms for hydrothermal fluid transport and mixing, leading to metal precipitation. While it is
unclear what role these faults played—they may represent dry faults or fluid pathways—the E-W
oriented veins parallel to the Uno Fault have associated mineralised veins and breccias, which
indicates this E-W orientation was likely an important controlling factor in the evolution of the
hydrothermal system. The intrusion of volcanic feeder dykes of the GRV along NW-SE trending
structures indicates that these structures were either formed in response to igneous activity or
were existing structures undergoing dilation at ~1590 Ma. Structures trending NW-SE also appear
to be important controls on fluid transport and development of epithermal vein systems. In this
regard, a regional NE-SW trending fault which offsets the Uno Fault, is located close to Parkinson
Dam, a low sulfidation Ag-Au-Pb-Zn prospect, and at the Paris Silver Deposit and Alexander
prospect, silver mineralisation is distributed along NW-SE trending structures (Anderson 2014).
In the Roopena area, N-S Roopena Fault and NNE-SSW trending Angle Dam Fault are spatially
related to the hydrothermal breccia samples collected from the Moonabie Formation. The Angle
Dam Fault is likely to have been dilational when the Angle Dam Volcanics intruded at ~1590 Ma
(McAvaney and Wade 2014). Additionally there is evidence that movement occurred along the fault
during deposition of sediments synchronous with volcanism (Fresh Well Formation) due to differing
sediment thicknesses deposited between tuff marker horizons (David et al. 1985). The tourmaline-
rich magmatic-hydrothermal breccia adjacent the NNE-trending fault (sample 2017728) has
elevated Sn, W, and B and may be related to intensive Fe-tourmaline alteration over 20 m at the
top of the Moonabie Formation along the same fault further to the north, recorded previously in drill
holes SAMEDAN SOC 7 (135473) and 9 (140481) (David et al. 1985).
Polymetallic Cu-Ag-Co-Pb-Zn mineralisation has been recorded in both the arenaceous Moonabie
Formation and the underlying calcareous and dolomitic sediments of the Wandearah Formation in
drill holes proximal to the Angle Dam Fault (David et al. 1985 and Christensen 2014). This
mineralisation may be associated with the intrusion of the Angle Dam Volcanics which appears to
be connected with a large Hiltaba Granite pluton directly to the south.

SUMMARY
Fieldwork in the Lake Gilles area and the Roopena area identified vein and breccia lithologies
associated with epithermal and intrusion-related hydrothermal mineralisation, respectively.
Epithermal Fe-quartz vein and vein quartz are present in the Lake Gilles area together with
brecciated feldspathic granite and quartz vein breccia. In the Roopena area, hydrothermal breccia
and brecciated metasediments resulted from intrusion-driven, hydrothermal fluids.
Two styles of hydrothermal breccia were recorded. One contains angular quartzofeldspathic
sandstone fragments in a goethitic matrix, containing quartz, smectite (montmorillonite), and white
mica (muscovite). The other has an iron-rich-tourmaline matrix. The hydrothermal breccias all have
elevated Se, W and Sb and are proximal to the NNE Angle Dam Fault. These elements may be
indicative of more widespread mesothermal hydrothermal fluid activity along the Angle Dam Fault,
including fluids involved in the intensive Fe-tourmaline alteration, over 20 m, at the top of the
Moonabie Formation, recorded in drill holes further to the north. Calcareous and dolomitic units
within crystalline basement rocks in this area may be prospective lithologies for intrusion-related or
hydrothermal mineralisation related to proximal (or distal) mineralising intrusions associated with
the Angle Dam Volcanics and Hiltaba Granite.
Brecciated feldspathic granite (Burkitt Granite) and quartz vein breccia occur in the Lake Gilles
area, in close proximity, and are probably genetically related. The brecciated feldpspathic granite
shows a predominance of quartz, K-feldspar/orthoclase and white mica (muscovite). The
epithermal quartz vein breccia contains crystalline kaolinite, with goethite and muscovite on fresh
surfaces, along with quartz and feldspar. The brecciated Burkitt Granite shows geochemical
associations that are typical of both high sulfidation and low sulfidation systems; the trace element
geochemistry of quartz vein breccias, however, is more typical of low sulfidation epithermal
systems (e.g. Ag, As, Sb, Bi and Pb). The quartz vein breccia contains abundant fluorite and
shows epithermal quartz textures indicative of boiling, such as crustiform quartz and lattice bladed
calcite replaced by quartz.
Vein quartz from the Lake Gilles site shows textures indicative of also being formed in epithermal
environments. These include jigsaw/mosaic quartz, colloform quartz, feathery quartz, lattice bladed
textures and comb quartz. The majority of the quartz textures are typical of low sulfidation
environments where boiling has occurred (e.g. feathery/plumose, lattice bladed and colloform
quartz). The vein chemistry is indicative of a low sulfidation environment (e.g. elevated levels of
Ag, As, Sb, Bi, Pb, Se, Cu, Zn, Pb and Mo). Vein samples examined in this study show a complex
and diverse vein-ore mineralogy of secondary Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag minerals (oxidation products) and
primary sulfides sphalerite and galena. Sphalerite and galena are generally minor components of
low sulfidation epithermal deposits but may dominate the base metal assemblage in some
deposits.
The alteration mineralogy of vein quartz and epithermal quartz vein breccia is dominantly quartz,
with hematite, kaolinite, halloysite, smectite, sericite, and chlorite. Alunite and dickite were not
observed nor identified from the spectral data, and the presence of diaspore was not confirmed.
The mineral assemblage is consistent with low-sulfidation epithermal vein systems forming within
the argillic alteration zone of an intrusion-driven hydrothermal system.
Quartz textures and trace element chemistry of the quartz vein breccia and quartz vein samples
collected from the Lake Gilles area are also consistent with formation within a low sulfidation
epithermal system. Given the trace levels of native lead and zinc in the samples, together with the
presence of copper, lead and zinc sulfides, and the epithermal alteration assemblage, there is
encouragement that the breccias and veins are indicators that the southern margin of the Gawler
Range Volcanics remains highly prospective for large subepithermal vein Zn-Cu-Pb-Ag ± Au
systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ben Wade at Adelaide Microscopy and Stuart McClure at University of South Australia are thanked
for assisting with SEM analysis of samples. Justin Gum (Musgrave Minerals Limited) is thanked for
providing constructive and useful feedback on a summary of the work prepared earlier for
publication. Dave Hopton and Richard Hill from Investigator Resources provided constructive
discussions regarding the epithermal exploration model and geological setting of the Lake Gilles
area. Ben Nicolson is thanked for his review of the manuscript.

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APPENDIX
1 SEM IMAGES AND EDX SPECTRA
App. 1.1 Samples examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
R Number Rock description SEM analysis / stub ID SEM analysis date
2017724 Granite breccia – Burkitt Granite - proximal to NW-SE Adelaide Microscopy / 08 July 2014
fault and E-W epithermal quartz vein breccia 2017724
2017724 Granite breccia – Burkitt Granite - proximal to NW-SE Uni SA / 7724A,B 10 June 2014
fault and E-W epithermal quartz vein breccia 22 July 2014
2017727 Hydrothermal breccia – Moonabie Formation, proximal Uni SA / 7727 22 July 2014
to NNE fault and ‘Angle Dam porphyry’
2017728 Hydrothermal breccia – Moonabie Formation, proximal Adelaide Microscopy / 08 July 2014
to NNE fault, distal to volcanic and igneous intrusions 2017727
2017745 Epithermal quartz vein breccia, proximal to Uno Fault Uni SA / 7745A,B 10 June 2014
and to Kimban granite
2017746 Granite breccia – Burkitt Granite – proximal to NW-SE Uni SA / 7746 10 June 2014
fault and E-W epithermal quartz vein breccia
2018201 Quartz vein – proximal to Uno Fault and to Kimban Adelaide Microscopy / 08 April 2014
granite 2018201A, B 07 July 2014
2018201 Quartz vein – proximal to Uno Fault and to Kimban Uni SA / 8201 22 July 2014
granite
2018202 Fe-quartz vein – proximal to Kimban granite Adelaide Microscopy / 08 April 2014
2018202
2018203 Quartz vein – proximal to Uno Fault and to Kimban Adelaide Microscopy / 08 April 2014
granite 2018203 07 July 2014
2018203 Quartz vein – proximal to Uno Fault and to Kimban Uni SA / 8203A,B,C 04 June 2014
granite
2018211 Quartz vein lag with volcanic clasts Adelaide Microscopy / 08 April 2014
2018211 07 July 2014
2018213 Quartz vein – proximal to the Uno Fault Adelaide Microscopy / 08 July 2014
2018213
2018214 Epithermal quartz vein breccia – proximal to Uno Fault Adelaide Microscopy / 08 July 2014
and to E-W epithermal quartz vein breccia 2018214B
2018214 Epithermal quartz vein breccia – proximal to Uno Fault Uni SA / 8214 22 July 2014
and to E-W epithermal quartz vein breccia

App. 1.2 Summary of minerals identified from SEM investigation
R Number Lithology Minerals formed by Minerals formed during
Hydrothermal/Epithermal activity Oxidation/Weathering
2017724 Granite breccia Quartz, copper sulfide (covellite?), Opaline silica, gypsum, iron oxide?
barite, kaolinite, halloysite, iron oxide?
2017727 Hydrothermal breccia Calcite Iron oxide, kaolinite
– Moonabie Fm
2017728 Hydrothermal breccia Quartz, tourmaline (dravite
– Moonabie Fm NaMg3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 or schorl
+3
NaFe 2Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4)
2017745 Quartz vein breccia Kaolinite, hematite? Goethite, hematite, kaolinite, opaline
silica
2017746 Granite breccia Barite (BaSO4) Gorceixite (BaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5.H2O),
iron oxide
2018201 Quartz vein Quartz, native zinc, calcite, iron oxide, Iodargyrite (AgI), atacamite
chalcopyrite, covellite, native bismuth, (Cu2Cl(OH)3), chrysocolla (Cu2-
native silver xAlx(H2-xSi2O5)(OH)4nH2O (x<1)),
sulfosalts either emplectite (CuBiS2),
wittichenite (Cu3BiS3), matildite
(AgBiS2) or cuprobismutite
(Cu8AgBi12S24), plumbojarosite
3+
(PbFe 6(SO4)4(OH)12) or beaverite-
2+ 3+
(Cu) (PbCu (Fe ,Al)2(SO4)2(OH)6
2018202 Fe-quartz vein Quartz, barite, hematite Iron oxide
2018203 Quartz vein Quartz, kaolinite, chalcopyrite, covellite, Brochantite (Cu4(SO4(OH)6),

galena, arsenopyrite, Co-bearing plumbojarosite or beaverite-(Cu),
arsenopyrite (danaite FeCo)AsS), or gypsum, kaolinite, iron oxide
other Co-bearing arsenosulfides
alloclasite (Co,Fe) AsS, glaucodot,
(Co,Fe)AsS or cobaltite (CoAsS),
sphalerite rimmed by galena with Cd-
bearing inclusion, greenockite CdS,
Zincian greenockite (Zn,Cd)S
2018211 Quartz vein Quartz, fluorite, barite, iron oxide,
native lead
2018213 Quartz vein Quartz, feldspar, iron oxide AlPb phosphate plumbogummite
(PbAl3(PO4)2(OH)5•(H2O) or hinsdalite
(Pb,Sr)Al3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6
2018214 Epithermal quartz vein Quartz, fluorite, barite, rutile, REE Plumbogummite or hinsdalite, gypsum
breccia mineral with Pb

R2017724
granite breccia
minor copper sulfide (CuS) in quartz
(qtz) matrix with iron oxide (Fe ox)

R2017724
granite breccia
barite (brt) inclusions in quartz (qtz)
matrix with iron oxide (Fe ox)

R2017724A and B
granite breccia
Sample 2017724A – granite breccia - iron oxides/hydroxides and, kaolin, on quartz

(2017724A.jpg).
Sample 2017724B – granite breccia – white kaolin in vughy crystalline quartz vein (2017724B.jpg).

x s064
Sample 2017724A – kaolinite flakes and solution channels with patchy growth of fine-grained silica
on surface of flakes with trace of gypsum (7724A-MX_088.tif).
Sample 2017724A – composition of central kaolinite flake (s064) showing high silica, due to
surface silica deposits – with trace of gypsum and iron oxide (7724A-SP_064_3.jpg).

Sample 2017724A – clusters of silica growth (as silica lepispheres - opal CT?) on crystalline
kaolinite (7724A-AN_089.tif).
a b
Si Kα
Si Kα
Al K
Al K
Sample 2017724A – approximate composition of (a) silica lepisphere (s066), and (b) kaolinite
crystal substrate (s067) (7724A-SP_066_1.jpg and 7724A-SP_067_1.jpg).

Sample 2017724A – detail of kaolinite flakes with silica overgrowths as upright bladed lepispheres
(probable opal CT), lower right (7724A-SE_087.tif).
Sample 2017724B – quartz and kaolinite intergrowth – crystallised at about the same time (7724B-
SE_039.tif).

Sample 2017724B – halloysite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4.nH2O) tubular crystals showing flattened surfaces
(7724B-AN_035.tif) – central thick crystal analysed (s039).
Sample 2017724B – Halloysite crystal composition, minor Fe substitution (~1.5 wt%), spot EDX
analysis s039 (7724B-SP_039_1.jpg).

Sample 2017724B – Halloysite tubes with flattened surfaces, on quartz crystal face (7724B-
AN_036.tif).
Sample 2017724B – Detail of AN_036 showing halloysite tubes which in part appear to be
recrystallised to kaolinite (7724B-SE_037.tif).

R2017727
hydrothermal
breccia
Moonabie Fm
Sample 2017727 – Moonabie Formation – hydrothermal breccia - outline denotes region examined
by SEM (2017727.jpg).
Sample 2017727 – Moonabie Formation – showing areas analysed (7727-AN_085.tif).

Sample 2017727 – detail of whitish region – dominantly leached calcite (7727-SE_082.tif)
Sample 2017727 – average composition of area of 7727-SE_082 calcite with minor iron (7727-
SP_059_1.jpg) – low C and O2 reflect short count time and uneven surface – indicative
composition only.

Sample 2017727 – detail of dark brown region – iron oxide with minor kaolinite (7727-SE_083.tif)
Sample 2017727 – average composition of area of 7727-SE_083 iron oxide with minor kaolinite
(7727-SP_060_1.jpg).

Sample 2017727 – detail of yellow brown region – disaggregated but largely unaltered biotite or
Fe-rich phengite (7727-SE_083.tif)
Sample 2017727 – average composition of area of 7727-SE_084 - dominantly unaltered biotite

(7727-SP_061_1.jpg).

R2017728
hydrothermal breccia
quartz (qtz) and tourmaline dravite (drv)
NaMg3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 or schorl (srl)
NaFe2+3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4

R2017745A
epithermal quartz
vein breccia
Sample 2017745A – epithermal quartz vein breccia - hematite and goethite (bright yellow) on
vughy quartz (2017745A.jpg).
Sample 2017745B – epithermal quartz vein breccia - hematite and goethite on vughy quartz
(2017745B.jpg).

Sample 2017745A – fibrous goethite (FeO(OH)) – bright yellow patches of iron oxide (7745A-
SE_020.tif).
Sample 2017745A – fibrous goethite (bright yellow iron oxide patches), with minor kaolinite –
average composition of field of view in image SE_020 (7745A-SP_022_1.jpg).

Sample 2017745A – detail of SE_021 – aggregates of platy hematite (Fe2O3) crystals forming
rosette clusters on quartz and kaolinite (7745A-SE_022.tif).
Sample 2017745A – hematite rosette on quartz (7745A-SP_024.jpg), average composition across

image SE_022.

Sample 2017745A – Vugh in quartz coated with kaolinite and silica (7745A-AN_025.tif), - location
of higher magnification image outlined (see below).
Sample 2017745A – aggregates of thin platy probable silica (opal CT) crystals as incipient
lepispheres on kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) (7745A-MX_023.tif).

Sample 2017745A – detail of MX_023, aggregate of thin platy crystals of probable silica (opal CT)
lepispheres on kaolinite (7745A-MX_024.tif).
Sample 2017745A – probable silica (opal CT) lepisphere on kaolinite (7745A-SP_026_1.jpg) –

spot composition (s026) central platy crystal (7745A-SP_026_1.jpg).

Sample 2017745B – kaolinite, coating iron oxide (7745B-MX_027.tif).
Sample 2017745B – kaolinite coating iron oxide (7745B-SP_030_1.jpg), spot composition centre
MX_027.

R2017746
granite breccia
Sample 2017746 – Brecciated and altered K-feldspar granite (2017746.jpg).
Sample 2017746 – K-feldspar grain, (7746-AN_030.tif), spot composition (7746-SP_033_1.jpg),

heavily etched (lower left).

Sample 2017746 – K-feldspar composition (s033) (7746-SO_033_1.jpg).
Sample 2017746 – probable gorceixite (BaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5.H2O) (7746-AN_031.tif), spot

composition (s034).

Sample 2017746 – probable gorceixite (BaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5.H2O) (7746-SP_034_1.jpg).
Sample 2017746 – detail of AN_031, probable gorceixite (BaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5.H2O) crystals (7746-

SE_032.tif).

Sample 2017746 – barite (BaSO4) crystals coating fracture surface (7746-BE_029.tif).
Sample 2017746 – barite crystals coating fracture surface (7746-SP_032_1.jpg), spot composition
centre crystal.

Sample 2017746 – coarse grain of K-feldspar partially replaced and coated by iron oxide (7746-
AN_033.tif).
Sample 2017746 – Iron oxide coating on K-feldspar (7746-AN_034.tif), showing location of spot
analyses.

Sample 2017746 – composition of iron oxide coating (7746-SP_036_1.jpg).
Sample 2017746 – composition of remnant fragments of K-feldspar (7746-SP_038_1.jpg).

R2018201A
quartz vein
zinc (zn) inclusion in vugh mostly filled with
calcite (cal) and iron oxide (Fe ox)
(black areas are vughs)

R2018201B
quartz vein
iodargyrite (iag) (AgI) inclusions (bright
white) in atacamite (atcm) (Cu2Cl(OH)3) with
copper sulfide (CuS) remnant inclusions

R2018201B
quartz vein
iodargyrite (iag) (AgI) inclusions (bright
white) in atacamite (atcm) (Cu2Cl(OH)3) with
copper sulfide (CuS) inclusions

R2018201B
quartz vein
native bismuth (bi)

R2018201B
quartz vein
native bismuth (bi) as thin platelets in quartz
(qtz)
Bright white inclusions are sulfosalts (sfs)
either emplectite (CuBiS2), wittichenite
(Cu3BiS3), matildite (AgBiS2) or cuprobismutite
(Cu8AgBi12S24)

R2018201B
quartz vein
atacamite (atcm) (Cu2Cl(OH)3) and native
bismuth
O and Si peaks due to underlying quartz (qtz)

R2018201B
quartz vein
atacamite (atcm) (Cu2Cl(OH)3) and
chalcopyrite (CuFeS) containg Cu sulfide
(CuS) mineral with silver (ag) core
O and Si peaks are from underlying quartz
(qtz)

R2018201B
quartz vein
plumbojarosite (pbj) PbFe3+6(SO4)4(OH)12 or
Cu-beaverite (bv)
PbCu2+(Fe3+,Al)2(SO4)2(OH)6 infill in spherical
cavities ‘moss texture’ in quartz, with iron
oxide

R2018201B
quartz vein
Sample 2018201 – Vughy quartz vein with iron oxide patches, proximal to Uno Fault
(2018201.jpg).
Sample 2018201 – Vughy quartz vein with various coatings – sites of EDX analyses (8201-
AN_069.tif).

x s042
Sample 2018201 – Fibrous smectite? coating platy bismuth – site of EDX analysis (s042) (8201-
AN_069.tif).
Sample 2018201 – Platy native bismuth, probably coated by Mg-Fe smectite (8201-SP_042.jpg).

x s043
Sample 2018201 – Native bismuth on quartz (8201-SE_070.tif).
Sample 2018201 – Native bismuth analysis s043 (8201-SP_043_1.jpg).

Sample 2018201 – Probable Fe, Mg smectite containing Cu, Bi, V and Zn (8201-SE_072.tif).
Sample 2018201 – Average composition SE_073 Fe-Mg smectite containing Cu, Bi, P, Zn (8201-
SP_046_1.jpg).

x s048
Sample 2018201 – Secondary copper silicate (8201-SE_074.tif).
Sample 2018201 – Average composition SE_074 copper silicate (chrysocolla?) (8201-

SP_047_1.jpg).

Sample 2018201 – Composition of amorphous-looking coating in SE_074 (site s048) copper
silicate (8201-SP_048_1.jpg).
Sample 2018201 – Detail of secondary copper silicate mineral (8201-SE_075.tif).

Sample 2018201 – Bismuth carbonate mineral with copper and silica (8201-AN_076.tif).
Sample 2018201 – Composition (site s051 - SE_076) calcium bismuth carbonate (kettnerite?) and
quartz? (8201-SP_051_1.jpg).

Sample 2018201 – Composition (site s052 - SE_076) calcium bismuth carbonate with Cu and
quartz? (8201-SP_052_1.jpg).
Sample 2018201 – Composition (site s053 – SE_076) bismuth, calcium, copper carbonate with
silica (8201-SP_053_1.jpg).

Sample 2018201 – Secondary copper and iron oxide mineral on quartz (8201-AN_078.tif).
Sample 2018201 – Secondary copper, iron oxide coating, with minor Zn (s055), on quartz (8201-
SP_055_1.jpg).

R2018202
Fe-quartz vein
Iron oxide (Fe ox) matrix with quartz (qtz)
and barite (brt) (BaSO4) inclusions.
(black areas are vughs).

R2018203
quartz vein
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) in quartz (qtz) with
galena (gn) (PbS) rims and galena
inclusions.
(black areas are vughs).

R2018203
quartz vein
chalcopyrite (CuFeS) and galena (gn)
(PbS).
Arsenic sulfide (as) inclusions (bright white)
in galena (inset).

R2018203
quartz vein
chalcopyrite (CuFeS) rimmed by galena
(gn) (PbS) with inclusions of Cu sulfide
(CuS), galena and Co-bearing mineral
possibly ferroan cobaltite (CoAsS).

R2018203
quartz vein
sphalerite (sp) rimmed by galena (gn) with
Cd-bearing inclusions (cd), grenockite CdS
or zincian greenockite (Zn,Cd)S.

R2018203
quartz vein
Vugh filled with secondary copper sulfate
(CuSO4) mineral, possibly brochantite
(Cu4(SO4)(OH)6).

R2018203A
quartz vein
vughs contain copper sulfide and
copper sulfate minerals.
Sample 2018203A – Vughy quartz vein with patches of sulfide and secondary copper minerals and
kaolin alteration (2018203A.jpg).
Sample 2018203 – Primary Cu sulfide and secondary Cu minerals in quartz (8203A-AN_001.tif).

Sample 2018203 – Poorly crystalline dense (bright) mass (s001) composition Bi Pb Cu Fe Cl S O
(possible oxidised eclarite (Pb9(Cu,Fe)Bi12S28) (8203A-SP_001_1.jpg).
Sample 2018203 – Copper sulfide (s002), probable covellite (CuS), platy bright mass, lower left
(AN_001), (8203A-SP_002_1.jpg).

Sample 2018203 – Secondary copper sulfate (s003), probable brochantite (Cu4(SO4)(OH)6),
radiating prismatic crystal aggregate (8203A-AN_002.tif).
Sample 2018203 – Radiating prismatic crystals of copper sulfate (s003), probable brochantite
(Cu4(SO4)(OH)6) (8203A-SP_003_1.jpg).

Sample 2018203 – Kaolinite infill in vugh (8203A-AN_003.tif).
Sample 2018203 – Detail of kaolinite platelets, edge view (8203A-AN_004.tif).

Sample 2018203 – Bright margin to crystals of Fe Cu Pb Al K sulfate mineral – probable member
of alunite supergroup, similar to larger crystals on left side (8203A-AN_006.tif).
Sample 2018203 – Composition of fine-grained crystals forming bright margin to well crystalline
sulfate crystals – probable plumbojarosite subgroup (8203A-SP_006_1.jpg).

Sample 2018203 – Well crystalline probable plumbojarosite subgroup mineral (8203A-AN_006.tif).
Sample 2018203 – Iron-copper-lead-aluminium-potassium sulfate crystals (alunite supergroup),

probable plumbojarosite subgroup with substantial Cu in the “B-site”
(KNaPb)(Fe3+AlCu)3(SO4)2(OH)6 - possible affinity with ‘beaverite’? (PbCu(FeAl)2(SO4)2(OH)6)
(8203A-SP_005_1.tif).

Sample 2018203 – Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) grains in quartz, analysis (s007) from centre of large
grain (8203A-AN_007.tif).
Sample 2018203 – Composition of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) grain (s007) (8203A-SP_007_1.jpg).

Sample 2018203 – Copper minerals - primary sulfide (covellite) and secondary sulfate
(brochantite?) in quartz (8203A-AN_007.tif).
Sample 2018203 – Foliated copper sulfide (probably covellite (CuS) or geerite (Cu8S5)) altering to
secondary copper sulfate (probable brochantite (Cu4(SO4)(OH)6)) (8203A-AN_009.tif).

Sample 2018203 – Copper sulfide (s008) possible covellite (CuS) or geerite (Cu8S5), foliated, platy
(8203A-SP_008_1.jpg).
Sample 2018203 – Secondary copper sulfate mineral (s009), prismatic crystals of probable
brochantite (Cu4(SO4)(OH)6), composition Cu S O (8203A-SP_009_1.jpg).

Sample 2018203 – Copper sulfide, probable covellite, in quartz (8203A-AN_010.tif).
Sample 2018203 – Copper sulfide, probable covellite (CuS) (8203A-AN_011.tif).

Sample 2018203 – Copper sulfide composition (s010), probably covellite (CuS) (8203A-
SP_010_1.jpg).
Sample 2018203 – Intergrowth of kaolinite and quartz on vugh margin indicating both crystallised
at around the same time (8203A-SE_013.tif).

R2018203B
quartz vein
quartz with galena and minor
gypsum.
Sample 2018203B – Vughy vein quartz with galena (dark grey) and gypsum (opaque white, upper
right of galena grain) (2018203B.jpg).
Sample 2018203B – Galena (PbS) grain in quartz with reaction rim and alteration by later Cu-rich
sulfate solution to give Pb-Cu sulfide margin and Cu-sulfate crystals (8203B-AN_014.tif).

Sample 2018203B – Detail of 8203B-AN_014.tif, of Cu reaction zone within galena, showing Cu
infiltration along galena crystal grain boundaries and reaction rim between galena and copper
sulfate solution –analyses s015 and s016 (8203B-AN_015.tif).
Sample 2018203 – Lead sulfide (s014) galena (8203B-SP_014_1.jpg).

Sample 2018203 – Lead, copper sulfide (s015) reaction rim, probably not a single mineral phase
(8203B-SP_015_1.jpg).
Sample 2018203 – Copper sulfide mineral (s016), probable covellite (CuS), (8203B-
SP_016_1.jpg).

Sample 2018203 – Aligned aggregates of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) or anhydrite (CaSO4) crystals
close to the margin with galena particle (8203B-AN_016.tif), spot EDX analysis s017 – see below.
Sample 2018203 – Crystallographically aligned aggregates of gypsum crystals containing minor Fe

and Cu (8203B-SP_017_1.jpg).

R2018203C
quartz vein
iron oxide and kaolinite on vein
quartz.
Sample 2018203 – Iron oxide and kaolinite coating on quartz (2018203C.jpg).
Sample 2018203 – Kaolinite platelets with high Fe oxide (8203A-AN_017.tif).

Sample 2018203 – Average composition (s018) of area of image AN_017 iron oxide and kaolinite
coating on quartz (8203C-SP_018_1.jpg).

R2018211
quartz vein
fluorite (flr) with barite (brt) inclusions and
iron oxide (Fe ox) rims in quartz (qtz)
matrix.

R2018211
quartz vein
lead (pb) inclusion in fluorite with iron oxide
(Fe ox) rims in quartz (qtz) matrix.

R2018213
quartz vein
AlPb phosphate (plumbogummite) (pbgm)
PbAl3(PO4)2(OH)5•(H2O) or hinsdalite (hd)
(Pb,Sr)Al3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6 with quartz (qtz)
and feldspar (fsp).

R2018213
quartz vein
(PbAl3(PO4)2(OH)5•(H2O)) or hinsdalite (hd)
(Pb,Sr)Al3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6 with barite (brt),
quartz (qtz) and feldspar (fsp).

R2018214B
epithermal quartz vein breccia
(Pb,Sr)Al3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6 with minor
fluorite (flr) intergrown with rutile (rt) in
quartz (qtz).

R2018214B
epithermal quartz vein breccia
REE mineral with Pb in rutile (rt) and AlPb
phosphate (plumbogummite) (pbgm)
(Pb,Sr)Al3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6).

R2018214
epithermal quartz
vein breccia
Sample 2018214 – Quartz vein breccia with fluorite, proximal to Uno fault (2018214.jpg).
Sample 2018214 – Coarse grained fluorite with minor barite and quartz (8214-AN_079.tif).

Sample 2018214 – Barite with calcium mixed with trace fluorite - analysis s056 (8214-
SP_056_1.jpg).
Sample 2018214 – Fluorite - analysis s057 (8214-SP_057_1.jpg).
Sample 2018214 – Patch of possible phengitic mica with fine-grained gypsum (centre) together
with fluorite, quartz and a small barite crystal (8214-AN_080.tif).

Sample 2018214 – patch of possible phengitic mica with gypsum (analysis s058 – AN_080) (8214-
SP_058.jpg).
Sample 2018214 – Barite (pale grey) in fluorite with possible graphite (G – poorly crystalline)
(8214-AN_080.tif).

Epithermal Style Textures Brecciation Ve

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Epithermal-style textures,

brecciation, veining and

Claire E. Wade, Stacey O. McAvaney,

Geological Survey of South Australia,

Report Book 2014/00009

South Australian Resources Information Geoserver (SARIG)

© Government of South Australia 2015

Preferred way to cite this publication

Resources and Energy Group iii Report Book 2014/00009

Resources and Energy Group iv Report Book 2014/00009

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EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS: TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS

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Lake Gilles area

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2018201 Quartz vein proximal to Uno Fault proximal to Kimban granite

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Figure 7. Hydrothermal breccias from the Roopena area.

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Spectral mineral analysis

BRECCIATED FELDSPATHIC GRANITE

EPITHERMAL QUARTZ VEIN BRECCIA

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Table 4. Samples selected for Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) investigation.

Metallic minerals and sulfides

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Iodides, sulfosalts, arsenopyrites and sulfoarsenides

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Trace element geochemistry

Figure 15. Scanning electron micrographs of surface coatings.

See next page

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B ppm 10 <10 10 10 10 20 150 30

V ppm 124 18 197 184 16 36 58 74 48 104

B ppm 10 10 <10 <10 <10 10 <10 <10 <10 10 100

V ppm 12 18 10 8 2 18 13 6 13 138 1380

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V ppm 45 <5 11 9 <5 6 9 <5 <5 <5 <5

GAWLER RANGE VOLCANICS

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CARBONATE REPLACEMENT TEXTURES

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Evidence of boiling and preserved depth of epithermal system

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