LOGARITHMS
When we are given the base 2, and exponent 3, we can calculate 2° = 8. Inversely, If we are given base 2
and its power 8, and we need to find the exponent, 2” = 8.
This exponent is called logarithm. We call the exponent 3, as the “logarithm of 8 with base 2°. We write it
as, 3 = logz8
3 Is the exponent to which 2 must be raised to produce 8.
Similarly 10* = 10, 000, (Exponential form)
log 1010000 = 4 (Logarithmic form)
In general terms, we say logab is the exponent to which ‘a’ must be raised to get ’b’. Here we observe one
thing that logarithm and exponents are closely related and we will see further that logarithms inherit all the
properties from exponential functions.
Definition
The logarithm of a number m to the base ‘a’ is the exponent indicating the power to which the base ‘a’
must be raised to obtain the number m.
log, m=x ¢2 a* =m,a>0, a#1&m>0
Only positive real numbers (m > 0) have real logarithm; negative and complex numbers have complex
logarithms.
Logarithmic Function
We can define a logarithmic function
{(%) = logex
Whose domain is x < (0, ») and Range is R.
When base is ‘e’ then the logarithmic function is called natural logarithmic function and when base is
40, then itis called common logarithmic function.
4. al —m (Fundamental logarithms identity).
Proof: From the definition of logarithm of log, m = x <> a*
‘Substituting value of x, a” =m.
2 logax" = nlogax
Proof: Let logsx" = t
Using definition of logarithm => x" =
Now taking 1/n power, x = a”
Using definition of logarithm
logex = tin => t = nlogax => logax” = n logex.
a
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1
= Log, x
3. logy. x= log,
Proof: 10g. X= => x= (a")'=>x=a™
Now using definition of logarithm
logax = mt => t= timlogex = logs x = =
log, b
pa = 8” = Joge a x loge b
4. loge a eae ge 9
Proof: Let loga ==> a= b*
logea = y =>
bY => x =yz = logsa = logea logec.
Also a
In general, logea =logca x logec x loged x... IOgok.
log) a
Also =log.a = 25 |
log, ¢
log a 1
logaa = 8 - 4 and ioga =.
O98 ogg | and lose =o
5. toga x1 + loge x2 +... + loge Xa = lOga (Kt + X2 «Xe
Proof: Let us consider yi = logexs =>x1= a! ...(1)
and yz=logaxe => x2 = al? svn(2)
Yn = lOgaxa => Xo =a en(A)
‘Multiplying these n equations, we get
XOK2K9 0 Xn = aMta2ays.. ale
OF KHKS oan = alYtVEHI9* Vn)
or we can write itas yi + yr + ya + ...+ Yn
= logexs + logaxe + .... + logaxn = loga(xixe
6. logaxs — logexe = to, 2
x
Proof: Now from equations (1) and (2)
Aaah sy yer 0-2)
Xe
ie. logexs ~ logaxe = tae 24)
x2
Remark:
Q ifx:=1 and x2=x then loget— loaax=loee(2)
x
oof
logs 1 = O)a®? — clone
= 0 and logec = z => c = b, Hence a = cY = (b?) = bY”. 065 TST
Proof: Letk = a®®° so that
log k= log(a”*°) =log, (loga) = ae 08 =log, a(loge) =log(c%™*) => k= c*.
Illustration 1: Prove that a = 1+ loga b, for permissible values of letters involved in the result.
ab
Solution: LHS = loge x . logxab
© 5 logex (loge a + log b)
= loge x . logx a + loga x . logs b = 1 + loga b = RHS.
49
Illustration 2: Show that 2 =log, 431.
Solution: so Hl Poet i
ra logn roa loggn ©" logygn
3
Using the property loge b= —'— => aaa = loth 2 log, 3+..+1095 43
ioga > S¢i0g,n
Here the base is same and logarithm is in summation
Using the property, loga x1 + loga xe = loge x1 x2
3
4 tog, (2-3-....43) = 10g, (431).
=logx,a>1
i) When 0
1, y y= 0.
iii) When x > 1, x= a.
We have to choose those values of y for which x> 1.
Since a> 1,00. eed
v) When x> 1, q
we have to choose those values of y for which a¥ > 1.
Since a<1, y<0.
(1.0)
Graph of loggx, O 4
vi) Now domain of the function becomes x € R - {0} ,
The graph of this function will be the mirror image of graph of logs
about y-axis.
Graph of log,|x|, a >1
Solution of equations based on definition of a logarithm
We know by definition of logarithm that
log’ =b => a?=x, where x >0
Mlustration 3: Find the value of x satisfying the equation logs(5 + 4loga(x — 1)) = 2.
Solution: —_logs(5 + dlogs(x - 1)) = 2
Using definition of logarithm
=> 5 + 4loga(x — 1) = 3? => 4logs(x — 1) = 4 => loga(x — 1) = 1
Again by definition of log
xX-1=3>x=4,
Solving equations by using add/subtract property of logarithm and using fundamental logarithmic
identity
(i) When we see two log terms with same base, we use the below identity to solve the equation
mlog, x +nlog, y =log, xy"
(i) Whenever we encounter a term a, it can be removed by fundamental identity.
Mustration 4: Solve for x, loga(3 — x) + loga(1 — x) = 3.
loge(3 ~ x) + loga(1 — x) = 3 = loge (3 - x) (1 —x) = 3 => (3-x)(1-x) = 2°
=x? 4x-5=0
x=5,-1
But when x = 5, logz(3 — x) is not defined, So x = — 1 is the solution.
Solution:
Taking logarithms
In some equations, when we take logarithm on both sides the equation converts into a solvable form.
Mustration 5: Solve for x: (x + 1)%* = 100(x +1)
Taking logio on both sides.
logo (x 187 = ogg ™%9
logig (x +1) xlogig (x+1) = 2 + logig (x +1)
Now we substitute logiox + 1=t
Solution: Change of variable
We can substitute log, x= t, a new variable and then solve the resulting equation.
Mustration 6: Solve for x: (log, x)° ~log, x? +2 =0
Solution: (log, x)* -3log,x+2=0.
Now log.x=t =>t?—3t+2=0,=>t= 1,2
log, x =4,logx=2 => x= 2, :
Passing to a new base
We can convert a log equation into a new base by the identity log, 4
Mlustration 7: Solve for x: 1 + loga(x ~ 1) = logx-14
Solution: 1 + loga(x — 1) = logs 14
pads
log,(x=1) loga(x-1)
7 Es
Now equation becomes, 1 + I 11) ——————
‘ e5, 1+ loge 1) oe x=
Here we use the changing variable method.
logusd =
log, x-1=t => 1+t=2t
P+t-2=0
t=-2,1
log, x-1=-2, log x-1=1
x=5/4,3
SOLVED PROBLE
1 eu
[= +300? ]
2
. ” \iogas 7 — das &
Problem 1: Evaluate ——7>5—* [7 7 ~(125)°% |:
Solution: We evaluate each term, (81)iog,9 = (81)°%5 (+. Be a Al
>
= g2emS _ 92h 25 25 (using fundamental log property)
3
(09,63 _ 38109, VE _ 30946)" ir eee)
3 3 3 Using los, 8 =
3
= (V6) (using fundamental log property)
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CENT
2 tome 6 25 _gahh®
Similarly, [rp -asem] 7710057 _ 5 0tos6 — 700/25 52%.
= 25- 6V6
; 25-66) 625-216 _
The expression becomes aoe eo el
Problem 2: Find the value of x for which log (x + 3) + log (x ~ 3) = log 27.
The given equation
log (x + 3) + log (x - 3) = log 27
= log (x + 3)(x—3) = log 27
=> log (x?- 9) = log 27
=x 7 => x? = 36 => x =6.
Problem 1: The sum ofthe series 1+ 1,1... upton termsis
jogya *iog,a * loge a
(8) F logee
n(n+1)(2n+1)
ee tog
Solution:
(A) 2 rog2
©) © Drog2 ©)
The given expression can be written as
loge2 + logad + loga8 + .... upto n terms
= loge2 + 2 loge2 + 3 loge? +... n loge2
= (loge2) [1+ 2+... n= 2+ Dog, 2.
Solution:
Hence (A) is the correct answer.
(ogx)’~2(tog x)
The value(s) of x satisfying the equation x°"°"”) -3!%) _ 499 (4)¥8 (base is 10)
Problem 2:
(8) 1, 100
(yt,
(C) 10, a (0) a 100
We take logarithm on both sides,
fog 008-5000) _ fog(100-10")
(scsi) ~}((09x)}io0x = i
Now changing variable log x = t
32), 7
= (3 ~Zi)t=2 2 9¢—27-7=05 (@-1)@¢+7=0
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Solution: 1 are the only solutions
4
.logx=—1 => x=10,
logx=—1 => x= 10, 77
Hence (C) is the correct answer.
Evaluate 48!%%a(9-V6)-6b(v5-2)
4 1
Evaluate 5°") 419g," + 1og,,) ——__
Oe Ts "toad
A
wy
a If a = 1log1218 and b = logz454 then find the value of ab + 5(a — b)
log, 24 _ log, 192 _
Prove that 3
logy5 2 logis 2
y log, x.log, x
Prove that logy, x = "9a 09» *_
ee ie mers log, x +log, x
Solve for x: (where the base is not provided take 10 as the base)
logeei(x? +x — 6° = 4.
~ I 095120 + (x 3)- 2: loge(t —5**) = ~logs(0.2 — 5
wy
log3(1og) x+4.+9" )= 2x
a! log x.[iog, 5V5 + logy, 5v5 = -V6 .
BI caper txap
oe
While solving logarithmic inequalities, it is necessary to remember that the function
y = logax (a > 0, a # 1, x > 0) is decreasing when a « (0, 1) and increasing if a ¢ (1, «0)
Therefore if a < (0, 1), log(f(x)) < log(g(x)) = (x) > g(x)
Ifa e (1, ), loga( f(x) < logag(x)) => f(x) < g(x)
This can also be considered as, when we take antilogarithm to remove a logarithm with base ‘a’, nature of
inequality changes if a (0, 1) and it remains same if a ¢ (1, «)
Based on the above thought, we conclude
()ifa>4 log, x>0= x>1
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log, x <0=> O 00=>0p => 0x>a
log, x x> a?
4x+6 9
Find the solution set of the inequality log,
5
The base lies in (0, 1)
4x46 oy
Taking antilog 0 <
Solving this we get x ¢ [-2, -3/2)
SOLVED PROBLEMS
SESS a
Problem 1:
Find the solution set of the inequality log¢a,,3) X° (2x +3)
x?-2x-3>0 Sy
=> (x -3) (x + 1) > 0 =x € (~~, -1) U (3, 0)
But interval in consideration is x < (~ 3/2, - 1)
Hence x é (- 3/2, - 1)
Case 2: 2x+ 3>1
2X2 = 1 lOgha,49)(X") x? < 2x + 3 ("base > 1) => x? - 2x -3 <0
= (x-3) (K+ 1)<0 >xe(-1,3)
Complete Solution: x © (-3/2, = 1) U (- 1, 3)
Problem 1:
The value of x, satisfying loga(1 + logu{1 + loge(1 + logpx)}) = 0, is
(A)4 (B)3
(C)2 (0)1
The given equation yields 1 + logo{1 +.logc(1 + logpx)} = 1
=> logo{1 + loge(1 + logex)} = 0 => 1+ loge(1 + logpx) = 1
=> loge(1 + logpx)=0 = 1+logpx=1=> logpxx=0 >x=1.
Hence (D) is the correct answer. 50 ~ xi0105 jg
Problem 2: The value of x, satisfying the equation 51°%0*
pa (8) 10
ten) (0) 1000
Solution: 51090% 4 x!0905 _ 5q
ea al (Since loge b = loge b - logs c)
= 500% 5005 x _ glogs(xime8)
Using fundamental log identity
= x8105
Now the equation becomes
2.80% = 50 => 50% = 25 = 52,
= logy) x= 2 => x= 100
Hence (C) is the correct answer.
EXERCISE — 2
Solve for x:
KO OKT cM 4g
2
ey 1205 [lo X24) <0
x4
109.6 (10s. } 0
x O42
Y If logos (x — 1) 1, show that 2 logio x — logs (0.01) 2 4.
Stone? sone 8
er Solve the equation x47 ""*4 = /3,
x x x x x 1
7. Prove that log cos~ + log cos-*- + log cos*-+ ... +log cos + log sin~ =log— sinx.
log cos + log cos + log cos 5 g cos; + log sing = log,
y-zZ z-x x-y'
Also prove that x” + y+ z* > 3.
Y% Find x if 3!°%* +3. x! =
Common Logarithms
In common logarithms the base is always taken as 10.
This system of logarithms is also known as Brigg's system.
1p 109% _ OGY _ 1092 rove that x”. Note:
Q Any positive number k in decimal form is written in the form k = m x 10° where p is an integer and
1 1 logs x - logs x - 3 < 0 => - 3 < 0 which is true for all x
= x> 1is the solution set
Case Il: logsx sO 0 - 3/2=>x> axe(Zut
27 27 SOS
»
ERRS ENG
«4
134
The complete solution is (
+
Hence (A) is the correct answer.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
‘Show that 3 log 4 - 2 log 6 + log (18)? = log 96 V2.
Solve for x, 3*. 8%™2!= 6,
Solve for x the equation x = Vx".
Solve for x the equation Vx = 10. (use base 10)
Solve for x:x™"9" = 16,
Sette on 8
Find x if itis given bylogs| = |=3-(logg x).
x
Prove that log2 3 is not a rational number.
=logvx
ops loge? -2
2
log 2 + log (x + 2) ~ log (3x ~ §) = log 3.
x(y+2=¥) _Y(Z+X=¥) _ Z+Y=2) ove that yiz¥= 28 = xy,
if
logx logy logz
Solve the equation
x + logio(1 + 2%) = x logio5 + logro6.
Find all real numbers x which satisfy the equation 2log, (log, x) + log, (log (2V2x)) = 1.
too = y and
Solve for x and y, the equations logio x + logio x"? + logio x" + .
14345
4474104
+(2y-1) 20
+(By41) TlOgio x”
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Exercise — 1
a) 2 6
Se 6. 1
hm 8 {1/3}
9 (1/5) 10. 10%,2, 10°
Exercise — 2
1. 6, «) 2 (-4,-3) (8, ~)
3. (-6,-5)U(-3,-2) 4 xe?
6. x=2, i. ue 9. x= Qos
Miscellaneous Exercise
20 x=1,x=-2logs6 3 x=4,x=4
4. x= 100, 5. no solution
' "400 .
6 x42 & 103,10
. Be . ,
19
, 4.0 xe
9. 7 x
12, x=8 13. x= 105,y=10
enn rag, Back ei Bareh Barrer ee Tees ae Peat SEUSS, 7h AALSNOE, SERDAR, Ps RELAPSE
aves Lid, OLVED PROBLEM
UDG eee ae Ee
Problem 1:
Solution:
Problem 2:
Solution:
Problem 3:
Solution:
Problem 4:
Solution:
If logs x = a, find the value of 81°~" in terms of x.
We have logs x = a
=>xa3
Now (1) = (3* y = 314
on (0h oe (sf
= s 2
I logg x= 22 then find x
logx ___logx____ 2logx
logV8 (1/2)log8 ~—log8
= log8' = log x® = 81° = x®
=> X= (8)'08 = (8)5 =
10
Here 3 =o @ x=
1
Find the value of (0.16)°%(4).
ase) ions!
Let A= (0.16)°*"l2) = (0.4)"%2
. are : gy" (SJ? = 4
5. 2 2
If in a right angled triangle, a and b are the lengths of sides and c is the length
hypotenuse and c ~ bx 1, ¢ +b + 1, then show that
logera + loge-pa = 2loge+a . loge-va .
We know that in a right angled triangle
c= att b?
or c? — b? =a. wen)
Also loge +ba + loge-»a =
1
jog, (¢ +b) * log, (6-5)
log, (c—b)+log,(c+b) ___!09, (c? -b*)
Tog, (¢+b)log,(c—b) log, (¢ +b) log, (cb)
. log, a”
~ Tog, (c +b)log, (¢ —b)
(using (1) ) Problem 5:
Solution:
Problem 6:
Solution:
= Zlogera . loge »; a= RHS-
fog, (c +b)log, (¢ -b)
Alternative Solution
Ina Ina
LHS =logesv@ + ToB8® = a6. 1) ‘Inc b)
_ Ina-In(o? -b?) _ Ina 2ina
~ in(e + b)In(c b) Infor b)In(eb)
= 2logewa . logeva = RHS.
Given a positive term geometric progression a, a1, a2,... and an anthmetic progression p
i, bz... with positive common difference. Show that there exists a system of loganthen
for which logan ~ br=loga ~ b (for any n). Find the base of the system
Let d be the common difference of the A.P. and r be the common ratio of the G.P. so that,
an = ar’, (1)
bs = b + nd. val2)
Taking logarithms on both sides of (1) to base fi (B + 1, B > eo) we get
log, a, = log, a +nlog, r.
Operating (3) ~ (2) leads to
log, a, —b, =logs a+nlog, r—b-nd. (4)
Now, in order that the RHS of 4 reduces to logya ~ b, we must have
n loger - nd = 0
or logpr = d => r= B%=> B =r",
Hence there exists a system of logarithm to base r4 such that
logan — bn = loga — b.
Alternative Solution:
Let d be the common difference of the A.P and r be the common ratio of the G.P., so that
bn = b + nd and an = ar® => In an=Ina+nine
b, -b
=ina+
= In.a + (bn —b) In r= logs an = loge a + br- b, where x =r,
Solve for x and y, the equations logioo)x + y| = 1/2 and logio y~ logio [x| = logieo 4.
From logtoo|x + y| = 1/2, we get
Ix + yl = 100 = 10 (1)
From logso y — logio |x| = logioo 4 = logio 2, we have
ne = x2 + y? + Oxy = 100
or 5x? + 4x|x| = 100
10
Also, x= = forx>0—y=2 and x = ~10 forxy=20. Eee
Solve for x, log,, (6% ~36*) > -2
log,, jg (6**" - 36%) > -2
Removing log,, ;; by taking antilog, sign of inequality will change, since 0 < base < 1
2
6" -36"< (=) = 6-6" -6% <5 > 6% -6.6% 4520
Now 6*=t
The equation becomes t?- 6t + 5>0
= (t-1)(t-5)20
Hence t € (-, 1] U[5, 0)
=> Ge (-, 1] U[5, 0)
X € (— 2, 0] U [logs 5, «). CES NA -1.06-16
CHAPTER PRACTICE PROBLEMS)
Lk |
ty Solve for x
xbaltx? <9
(2) loge (3~x) + log, (1x) = 3 wy
or lm -5lon m5 =3V3 gy ser $5. xPH5 = 3
a ‘Evaluate
(ay logstan 2/6 Sof log,2 b+log yb
a Jog.s 0.008 y logays144
10
SY ox If log, x +109, 2= 4° = log, y +log, 2 and x+y, then find x+y
{D~ If a =10g¢ 12, b =l0ggg 24, © = logy 36, Prove that 1 + abc = 2be
J (BY _ tog (x-1)>2 then find x.
Ra
wo Solve the equation log, (x? ~1) = logy, (x-1)
a Y%
5. (2) M log; 210g, (2*-5), and log, [2 ~(7/2)] are in A.P., then find the value of x.
or Find the value of x, satisfying 34/°%(**") _ 22lom* 4.3,
14
S If x = logsbe, y = logs(ac), z = loge(ab), then 1 +—1_ 1 ig equal to
xe yet zed
(A)O (B)2
(C)4 (D) none of these
98% OY 10822 and yen 4
7 = =
Y 6 3k
Then k is
(8)-6
O-8 (B)-10
~The value of (0,05 9%" 20%0001.. or) ig
(aya ex
(C) 20 (D) x
ip 700" 8) «oy 4), Thenx
(A) (1, 2) (B) {2, 3}
(C) {3,4} (D) none of these 10.
11.
12.
sa
SECTION - I
PART-A
og, b
Iflogax, logex, logex are in A.P. where x # 1, then show that c’ (ac) .
If a? + b? = Zab, prove that log +(a +b)= Floaa +logb].
Find the least value of the expression 2logiox — logx0.01 v x > 1.
'f nis a natural number such that n = p?' - BP saneePp* Where 1, P2, D3, .... Pk are distinct
prime numbers, then show that log n> k log 2.
Solve for x: (use base 10)
6 all9 %lo9%0 00945) _ logy x/10 _ gl?8ic0 x+l09, 2
Solve the equation: |x — 4%* 70.9 _ (, _ 1.
1 1 1
Ify = a'"%* and z= a'%Y then prove that x = at m2,
Prove that (yz)!0\”),(zx)/o9(2) (xy)lootny) = 4,
Prove that x!09v ~ looz . yloaz ~ SOS ZOOS Yon As
If logs 2, logs (2*- 5), logs (2* — 7/2) are in A.P., determine the value of x.
I | i
Prove that logan logon + logen logen + fogen logan =-292."__!0d) n_log. n :
lOdape n
If the expression /log,,
If a, b, ¢ be three distinct positive numbers, each different from 1 such that
(logea logca -logaa) + (logab logcb — logub) + (logac logoc — logec) = 0, then prove that abc = 1.
is real, then determine the values of x for which this will hold. n
eS
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[_Ma-L0G-19 7 CEES ee
PART-B
(MULTI CHOICE SINGLE CORRECT)
The va of exreesin ——2__ 8s squat
log, (2000)° tog, (2000)'
(a) 14 (B) 4/2
(C) 6 (D) none of these
1
If a= logy2 V0.125 and b= k (eu) then
2 Oh oe
(A) a0, b>0 (B)a<0,b<0
(C)a>0, b<0 (D)a<0,b>0
The number loge? is
(A) rational number (B) irrational number
(C)aprime number (D) an integer
The value of x, satisfying 3°%(**9) _ 22%. 43, ig
(A)x=0. (B)x=1
(C)x=2 (D)x=3
The value of 141 _ ig
logs x logy x
(Ay2 (8) less than 2
(C) more than 2 (D) none of these
The value of jlogea + logsb| where a and b are positive numbers is always
(A) 22 (B)<2
(c)=2 (D) none of these
ifa>0,c>0,b= Jac, as 1,cs 1, ace 1 andn>0, then the value of 0999 i. squat to
jog, n—log, n
log, n log, a
ate (B) ——
(A) ie (B) jog, 6
(C) logea (D) none of these
16 25 81,
The value of 7log7= +5log>7 + 3logzo Is
(A) log2 (B) log 3
3 o 0 ar of these
Values of x satisfying the equation lo9)2,,2) (6x" + 23x + 21) = 4 —logia,,7) (4x2 +12x + 9) is
(a) - 118 (8)- 1/4
(C) -1 (D)-2
fon 8 60% 6onaiou5 _ 3" log2
Value of x, satisfying the equation = a°%* Wanalens _ 3 = 920010942 jg
(A) 50 (B) 100
(C) 150 (D) 200
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46106000, 26563493, Fax 26
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13.
14,
15.
16.
17.
19.
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The product of the positive roots of the equation /2008 - x°S* = x? is
(A) (2008) (B) 1004
(C) (2008)? (D) none of these
If logo.s(x ~ 1) 0 2log, a +log,, a+ 3log,2, a= 0 are
(A) a art (Ba, at
(a3 at (0) a“, art
The value of x, satisfying the equation logya (98 «vx? — x? —12x + 36) =2is
(A)-3 (B)-4
(C)-5 (D)-6
If 49% 4 glom4 — 4019.83 then x is equal to
(A)2 (8) 10
(C)9 (D) none of these
lfx>1,y>4,z>4 areinGP, then —1_, 1 1 are in
T+inx’ T+Iny’ 1+Inz
(A)AP (8) GP
(C)H.P (D) none of these
The value of x, satisfying the inequality logos(x? + 8) > logo.9x, lies in
(A) 18 (D) none these
For 0% _ ny _ IZ v7 ig equal to
b-c c-a a-b
(A)1 (B) abo
(c)o (D) none of these
The number of solution of logs (x — 1) = loge (x — rea
(A) 3
(A) (0)0
(c)2 {__MA-LOG-21 J
CaINtn
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. (a)-1,
2 (a)-1/4,
3. (a) 842%
4 (a) (1,3/2)
5. (a3
6. D
10. D
14. D
(b) 4, (©) 3,27,13, (a) a?
(b) 118, (c) -6, (d) 4
1+ V5
) x=
(b) 1
7c a oA 9 8B
1. 0OA 12. «=B 13.
1A
: ANSWERS TO ASSIGNME
4
x= 2, 81
com
e2oBna0
SECTION -I
PART-A
5. x= 100
10. x=3
PART-B
(MULTI CHOICE SINGLE CORRECT)
2 =A 3 B 4 8B
6 A 7A A 8 OA
10. B cis 120A
14. D 5 OB 16 =B
18.0 OA 19. A 20. B
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