Complete Biology for Cambridge IGCSE RG Student Book (新版

For the
Complete updated
syllabus
Biology
for Cambridge IGCSE ®
Third edition
Ron Pickering
Oxford and Cambridge

leading education together
Contents
2.19 Digestion prepares useful food
Characteristics and classification
1 of living organisms
molecules for absorption 66
2.20 Absorption and assimilation make
food available 70
1.1 Biology is the study of life and living
Questions on animal nutrition and health 72
organisms 2
2.21 Uptake of water and minerals by roots 74
1.2 The variety of life 4
2.22 Transport systems in plants 76
1.3 Plants 8
2.23 Transpiration: water movement
1.4 Invertebrate animals 10
through the plant 78
1.5 Vertebrate animals: five classes 12
2.24 The leaf and water loss 80
Questions on characteristics
2.25 Transport systems in animals use
and classification 14
blood as the transport medium 82
1.6 Organisms are made up of cells 16
2.26 The circulatory system 86
1.7 The organisation of living organisms 18
2.27 Capillaries: materials are exchanged
Questions on cells and organisation 20
between blood and tissues, and tissue
fluid is formed 88
Organisation and maintenance 2.28 The heart is the pump for the
2 of organisms circulatory system 90
2.29 Coronary heart disease 92
2.1 Movement in and out of cells: diffusion 22 Questions on circulation 94
2.2 Movement in and out of cells: osmosis 24 2.30 Health and disease 96
Questions on diffusion and osmosis 27 2.31 Pathogens are organisms that cause
2.3 All living things are made up of organic disease 98
molecules 28 2.32 Preventing disease: safe food 99
2.4 Testing for biochemicals 30 2.33 Individuals and the community
2.5 Enzymes control biochemical reactions can fight disease together 100
in living organisms 32 2.34 Combating infection: blood and
2.6 Enzyme experiments and the scientific defence against disease 102
method 34 2.35 Antibodies and the immune response 104
Questions on enzymes and biological 2.36 Respiration provides the energy for life 106
molecules 36 2.37 Contraction of muscles requires energy
2.7 Photosynthesis and plant nutrition 38 supplied by respiration 108
2.8 The rate of photosynthesis 40 2.38 The measurement of respiration 110
2.9 Leaf structure and photosynthesis 42 2.39 Gas exchange supplies oxygen for
2.10 The control of photosynthesis 44 respiration 112
2.11 Photosynthesis and the environment 46 2.40 Breathing ventilates the lungs 114
2.12 Plants and minerals 48 Questions on gas exchange 118
Questions on photosynthesis and plant 2.41 Smoking and disease 120
nutrition 50 2.42 How do we know that smoking causes
2.13 Food and the ideal diet: carbohydrates, disease? 122
lipids and proteins 52 2.43 Excretion: removal of the waste
2.14 Food and the ideal diet: vitamins, products of metabolism 124
minerals, water and fibre 54 2.44 Dialysis and the treatment of kidney
2.15 Food is the fuel that drives the failure 126
processes of life 58 2.45 Homeostasis: maintaining a
2.16 Balancing energy intake and energy steady state 128
demand: problems causing malnutrition 60 2.46 Control of body temperature 130
2.17 Animal nutrition converts food Questions on excretion and homeostasis 133
molecules to a usable form 62 2.47 Coordination: the nervous system 136
2.18 Ingestion provides food for the gut 2.48 Neurones can work together in
to work on 64 reflex arcs 138
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2.49 Integration by the central nervous
Organisms and their
system 140
4 environment
2.50 Receptors and senses: the eye as a
sense organ 142
4.1 Ecology and ecosystems 222
Questions on receptors and senses 146
4.2 Flow of energy: food chains and
2.51 The endocrine system 148
food webs 224
Questions on hormones 151
4.3 Feeding relationships: pyramids of
2.52 Drugs and disorders of the nervous
numbers, biomass and energy 228
system 152
4.4 Decay is a natural process 230
2.53 Sensitivity and movement in plants:
4.5 The carbon cycle 232
tropisms 156
4.6 The nitrogen cycle 234
4.7 Water is recycled too! 236
Development of organisms and Questions on ecosystems, decay
3 the continuity of life and cycles 238
4.8 Factors affecting population size 240
3.1 Reproduction is an important 4.9 Human population growth 242
characteristic of living organisms 160 4.10 Bacteria are useful in biotechnology
3.2 Reproduction in flowering plants: and genetic engineering 244
flowers 162 4.11 Humans use enzymes from bacteria 246
3.3 Pollination: the transfer of male sex 4.12 Using fungi to produce antibiotics:
cells to female flower parts 164 drugs to control bacterial disease 248
3.4 Fertilisation and the formation of seed 4.13 Baking and brewing: the economic
and fruit 166 importance of yeast 250
3.5 Germination of seeds* 168 Questions on bacteria 251
Questions on plant reproduction 170 4.14 Genetic engineering 252
3.6 Reproduction in humans 172 4.15 Food supply: humans and agriculture 256
3.7 The menstrual cycle 176 4.16 Land use for agriculture 258
3.8 Copulation and conception 178 4.17 Damage to ecosystems: malnutrition
3.9 Contraception 180 and famine 260
3.10 Pregnancy: the role of the placenta 182 4.18 Human impacts on the environment:
3.11 Pregnancy: development and pollution 262
antenatal care 184 4.19 Pollution of water: eutrophication 267
3.12 Birth and the newborn baby 186 4.20 Humans may have a positive effect on
3.13 Sexually transmitted infections 189 the environment: conservation of species 269
Questions on human reproduction 190 4.21 Managing fish stocks: science and the
3.14 Variation and inheritance 192 fishing industry 272
3.15 DNA, proteins and the characteristics 4.22 Conservation efforts worldwide 274
of organisms 194 4.23 Conservation of resources: recycling
3.16 How the code is carried 196 water by the treatment of sewage 276
3.17 Cell division 198 4.24 Saving fossil fuels: fuel from
3.18 Inheritance 200 fermentation 278
3.19 Studying patterns of inheritance 202 4.25 Recycling: management of solid waste 280
3.20 Inherited medical conditions and Questions on human impacts
codominance 204 on ecosystems 281
3.21 Sex is determined by X and Y
chromosomes 206
Questions on inheritance 208 5 Practical biology
3.22 Variation 210
3.23 Causes of variation 212
5.1 Practical assessment 284
3.24 Variation and natural selection:
5.2 Laboratory equipment 286
the evolution of species 214
3.25 Natural selection 216 Answers 290
3.26 Artificial selection 218 Index 319
Questions on variation 220
C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S
1.1 Biology is the study of life and living

organisms
Objectives
You may see other similar lists of these
■ To understand that living things differ from non-living
characteristics using slightly different words.
things
You can remember this particular list using the
■ To be able to list the characteristics of living things
word rIngEr. It gives Ringer’s solution its
■ To understand that energy must be expended to
name. This is a solution of ions and molecules
maintain life
that physiologists use to keep living tissues in – it
keeps the cells alive.
The dawn of life As well as the characteristics in the ‘ringer’ list,
Scientists believe that the Earth was formed living things have a complex organisation that
from an enormous cloud of gases about 5 billion is not found in the non-living world. A snowflake
years ago. Atmospheric conditions were harsh or a crystal of quartz is an organised collection of
(there was no molecular oxygen, for example), the identical molecules, but even the simplest living
environment was very unstable, and conditions cell contains many different complex substances
were unsuitable for life as we know it. arranged in very specific structures.
Many scientists believe that the first and simplest Living things also show variation – the offspring
living organisms appeared on Earth about are often different from one another and from
2.8 billion years ago. These organisms probably their parents. This is important in adaptation to
fed on molecules in a sort of ‘soup’ (called the the environment and in the process of evolution.
primordial soup) which made up some of the
shallow seas on the Earth at that time. A question How the characteristics of life depend
that has always intrigued scientists, philosophers on each other
and religious leaders is: Each of the characteristics of life is linked to the
others – for example, organisms can only grow if
What distinguishes these first living organisms
they are nourished. As they take nourishment from
from the molecules in the primordial soup?
their environment, they may also produce waste
In other words, what is life?
materials which they must then excrete. To respond
Characteristics of living organisms to the environment they must organise their cells
You know that a horse is alive, but a steel girder is and tissues to carry out actions. Because of the
not. However, it is not always so obvious whether random nature of reproduction, they are likely to
something is alive or not – is a dried-out seed show variation from generation to generation.
or a virus particle living or non-living? To try to
Depending on energy
answer questions like this, biologists use a list of
The organisation in living things and their ability
characteristics that living organisms show.
to carry out their life processes depends on a
Living organisms: supply of energy. Many biologists today define
■ Respire life as a set of processes that result from the
■ Show irritability (sensitivity to their organisation of matter and which depend on the
environment) and movement expenditure of energy.
■ Nourish themselves In this book we shall see:
■ Grow and develop
■ how energy is liberated from food molecules
■ Excrete
and trapped in a usable form
■ Reproduce
■ how molecules are organised into the
The opposite page gives more detail of the structures of living organisms
characteristics of life. ■ how living organisms use energy to drive their
life processes.
2
R espiration: the chemical reactions

that break down nutrient molecules
in living cells to release energy for
metabolism. The form of respiration
that releases the most energy uses
oxygen. Many organisms have
gaseous exchange systems that
supply their cells with oxygen from
their environment.
Irritability (or sensitivity): the ability

to detect or sense changes in the
internal or external environment
and to make appropriate responses.
The changes are called stimuli and
the responses often involve
movement (an action by an
organism or part of an organism
causing a change of position
or place).
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for

energy, growth and development.
Plants require light, carbon dioxide,
water and ions and make their foods
using the process of photosynthesis.
Animals require organic compounds
and ions (and usually water) and
obtain their foods ‘ready-made’ by
eating them.
Growth and development: the

processes by which an organism
changes in size and in form. For
example, as a young animal
increases in size (as it grows), the
relative sizes of its body parts
change (it develops). Growth is a
permanent increase in size and dry
mass, and results from an increase
in cell number or cell size or both.
Excretion: removal from organisms

of toxic materials, the waste
products of metabolism (chemical
reactions in cells including
respiration) and substances in
excess of requirements.
Reproduction: the processes that

make more of the same kind of
organism – new individuals. An
organism may simply split into two,
or reproduction may be a more
complex process involving
fertilisation. Reproduction makes
new organisms of the same species
as the parents. This depends on a
set of chemical plans (the genetic
information) contained within each Q
living organism.
1 Approximately how many years passed between the formation of the
Earth and the appearance of the first living organisms?
2 What sort of molecules do you think might have been present in the
primordial soup?
3 RingeR is a word that helps people remember the characteristics of living
organisms. Think of your own word to help you remember these
characteristics.
4 Suggest two ways in which reproduction is essential to living organisms.
3
1.2 The variety of life

Objectives
For example, classification is important in
■ To know that organisms can be classified into groups by
■ conservation: scientists need to be able
the features that they share
to identify different organisms in habitats
■ To appreciate why classification is necessary
which are being managed, and they need to
■ To understand the use of a key
control which organisms are used in breeding
■ To be able to name the five kingdoms, and describe
programmes.
their distinguishing characteristics
■ understanding evolutionary relationships:
■ To understand the hierarchy of classification
organisms which have many of the same
■ To know why a binomial system of nomenclature
features are normally descended from
is valuable
common ancestors. The more features shared
by different organisms the more recently they
The need to classify living things separated from one another during evolution.
Variation and natural selection lead to evolution.
Evolution, and the isolation of populations, leads
Classification keys
Taxonomists (people who study classification)
to the development of new species (see page 216).
place organisms into groups by asking questions
Each species has different characteristics, and
about their characteristics, such as ‘Does the
some of these characteristics can be inherited by
organism photosynthesise?’ or ‘Does the organism
successive generations of this species. Observing
contain many cells?’. A series of questions like this
these inherited characteristics allows scientists
is called a classification key. Examples of such
to put all living organisms into categories. The
keys are shown below and on the opposite page.
science of placing organisms into categories on
the basis of their observable characteristics is The characteristics of living organisms used
called classification. There are so many different to make classification keys have traditionally
types of living organism (i.e. an enormous variety been based on morphology and anatomy
of life) that the study of these organisms would (the shape and structure of organisms) because
be impossible without an ordered way of this was what the scientists could easily observe
classifying them. and measure.
This kind of key, with only two answers to

each question (in this case, YES or NO), is
called a dichotomous key (‘dichotomous’
means branching). It can be written as a All living organisms
branching or spider key, using the same The five kingdoms
questions: Prokaryote
Protoctistans
1 Does the organism have cells with a definite nucleus?
Plants
Fungi
YES NO Animals
2 Is the organism made up of many different cells?

It is a prokaryote
NO YES
3 Is the organism a heterotroph?

It is a protoctistan
YES NO
4 Does the organism have cell walls and Branching keys are easy to use, but take
does it feed by external digestion? up a lot of space when fully drawn out.
It is a plant For this reason the listed form of a
NO dichotomous key like the one shown
YES
opposite is usually used for identification
of organisms outside the laboratory.
It is a fungus It is an animal
4
YES Go to question 2
1 Does the organism have cells with a definite nucleus?
NO It is a prokaryote
2 Is the organism made up of many different cells?
NO It is a protoctistan
3 Is the organism a heterotroph?
NO It is a plant
4 Does the organism have cell walls and does it feed by YES It is a fungus
external digestion? NO It is an animal
p A key may be used to place an organism in one of the five kingdoms
Five Kingdoms notice that each classification group is given a

Using the key opposite, it is possible to place any name. Lions belong to the class Mammalia and
living organism into one of five very large groups. the order Carnivora, for example. The final two
These groups, distinguished from one another group names are written in italics – this is a
by obvious characteristics of morphology and worldwide convention amongst scientists. The
anatomy, are called the five Kingdoms. Each of lion is called simba in Swahili, león in Spanish
these kingdoms contains an enormous number and leu in romanian but is known as Panthera
of different species, and keys can be used within leo to scientists in each of these countries. This
a kingdom to place any individual species into convention of giving organisms a two-part
further groups. The diagram below shows the name made up of their genus and species was
names of these groups, and how the lion is introduced by the Swedish biologist Carolus
classified within the Animal Kingdom. Linnaeus. He gave every organism known to
science a two-part name based entirely on the
Hierarchy of classification* body structure of the organism. This binomial
The sequence of kingdom, phylum, class, order, system of nomenclature is still in use today
family, genus and species is called a hierarchy (binomial 5 ‘two name’).
of classification.
Kingdom (Animalia) All animals are ingestive

On moving down the heterotophs.
hierarchy of groups,
note that there are ... Phylum (Chordata) Other phyla
All chordates have a
notochord (becomes the
Class (Mammalia) Other classes backbone).
More similarities
All mammals have fur and
and Order (Carnivora) Other orders
mammary glands.
fewer differences
between the members
Family (Felidae) Other families All carnivores have well
developed carnassial
(flesh-cutting) teeth.
Genus (Panthera) Other genera
All Felidae have
Species Other species retractable claws.
Panthera leo
All Panthera (big cats)
can roar but cannot purr.
All lions belong to the same

species. Members of the
same species can mate and
produce fertile offspring
with other members of the
same species.
p The hierarchical classification of the lion
5
1.2 The variety of life
new species today may be classified based Viruses

on characteristics such as protein structure, When the five-kingdom system of classification
chromosome number or gene (DnA or rnA) was devised, no one was able to find a place for
sequence, which Linnaeus knew nothing about. the group of organisms called the viruses. This is
Each organism, even each individual, has its own because viruses do not show the typical features
DnA profile. Scientists can compare DnA profiles of living things – respiration, nutrition and
of different species. reproduction, for example – unless they are inside
the cells of another living organism. In other
How this helps in classification
words, all viruses are parasites and therefore
■ Protein structure: organisms which are
cause harm to their host. Some taxonomists have
closely-related (share a more recent ancestor)
suggested that viruses belong in a sixth kingdom.
have very similar amino acid sequences in
There is great variation in the structure of viruses,
proteins such as haemoglobin.
but they all have certain common features. The
■ DNA structure: closely-related organisms
structure of a typical virus is shown below.
have very similar base sequences in DnA
(see page 196) because there has been less
Genetic material – may be
‘evolutionary time’ for mutation to change
DNA or RNA, but always a
these base sequences. single strand.
Organisms that are closely related have very similar DNA

profiles – humans and chimpanzees, for example, share 98.6%
of their genes!
Protein coat – protects the

single strand of nucleic acid.
Made of many subunits.
Spikes – may contact and

recognise the cell to be
infected.
p A typical virus has genetic material and a protein coat,

but cannot carry out its life processes. It has no cytoplasm.
Most viruses cause disease – they may infect

humans, domestic animals or plants.
It is important not to confuse viruses with
bacteria. The structure of bacteria and their
importance to humans are described on page 244.
The pages that follow describe the characteristics
that distinguish living organisms in some of the
most important phyla and classes.
6
Q
1 The scientific names for the weasel and mink are Mustela nivalis and Mustela vison,
respectively. Both of these animals belong to the order Carnivora, as do the fox
(Vulpes vulpes) and otter (Lutra lutra). The otter, mink and weasel all belong to the
family Mustelidae.
a Which feature must they have in common to belong to the order Carnivora?
b Which two animals are most closely related?
c Which animal is the most different from the other three?
d Suggest one feature that places all of these organisms in the Animal Kingdom.
2 The scientific name for the human is Homo sapiens. Try to find out the meaning
of this name.
3 Why is it difficult to classify viruses into one of the five kingdoms of living organisms?
4 The figure shows five different seaweeds.
Specimen 2
Specimen 1
Specimen 3
Specimen 4
Specimen 5
a Describe One feature of EACH seaweed which is NOT present in any of the others.
b Use your answers to part a to construct a dichotomous key which can be used to
distinguish between the five seaweeds.
7
1.3 Plants
Objectives
■ To recall that all plants are autotrophs, and are Ferns
able to absorb light energy to drive photosynthesis Ferns are much better adapted to life on land than
■ To understand some of the steps in the adaptation of either mosses or algae. They have roots, stems,
plants to life on dry land complex leaves and vascular tissues. They are able
■ To recall the characteristics of the four main plant groups to produce spores for wide dispersal. However,
they do not have very thick cuticles and can only
survive in shady, humid areas. The gametes of
Plants are autotrophs ferns, like those of mosses, must swim through a
As autotrophs, plants manufacture food film of moisture to reach the site of fertilisation.
molecules from simple, inorganic sources by the An example of a fern is described below.
process of photosynthesis using light as a source
of energy. Plants all contain the light-absorbing Angiosperms
pigment chlorophyll (or similar molecules which The angiosperms or flowering plants are the
perform the same function) inside cells which most successful of plants – they have evolved into
have a definite cellulose cell wall. many species and have colonised almost every
available habitat. More than 80% of all plants are
Adaptations to life on land angiosperms (plants with enclosed seeds). Many
The first plants lived in water, but as living features of the lives of flowering plants are covered
organisms evolved, plant forms developed that elsewhere in this book (see pages 38–49, 74–81, 156
could live on land. The classification of plants into and 160–169, for example). The diagram at the top
groups follows this sequence of evolution. of the opposite page summarises these features, and
The Plant Kingdom may be divided into four emphasises the adaptations of flowering plants to
main groups (phyla): algae, mosses, ferns and a successful life on land, including warmer habitats.
seed plants.
Two groups of angiosperms
Algae and mosses can not grow far away from There are two major subgroups within the
water, but ferns and flowering plants (angiosperms) angiosperms. In one group there is a single
are much better adapted to life on land. cotyledon in the seed (see page 167) – these
are the monocotyledons. In
These sporangia have been used as
a medicine to cause violent peristalsis
the other group there are two
in humans – this is one way to Groups of cotyledons – these are the
remove tapeworms from the gut! sporangia which dicotyledons (eudicotyledons).
produce and
There are other differences
release spores
between monocotyledons and
dicotyledons, as shown in the
Frond – a complex diagram on the next page.
leaf, with
conducting tubes
Stem contains phloem

and xylem, though the
tubes are short
Young fronds are without open ends
always rolled up
Simple, true roots Rhizome – underground

for anchorage and stem that can survive
absorption when fronds die
p Each brown patch on the underside
of the leaf is made up of many sporangia,
p Ferns have complex leaves, vascular tissues and true roots.
8 They reproduce by producing spores.
which produce and release spores.
Angiosperm features adapt them for life on dry land
Flowers – the colour, pattern, shape, scent The ovary protects the ovules and developing
or nectar of the flower may attract insects, embryo, particularly from drying out.
birds or mammals. (‘Angiosperm’ means ‘enclosed seed’).
Large leaf surface allows high Fruits are formed from ripened ovaries.
rate of photosynthesis to supply Their specialised shapes, colours, smells and textures aid
energy for growth and fruit seed dispersal by wind, water and animals.
production. However, water losses
by evaporation and diffusion
through stomata are high.
Stomata with guard cells regulate loss of water vapour and

exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between plant and
atmosphere.
Vascular system transports water, ions and organic solutes.
Extensive root systems anchor the shoot systems and

absorb water and ions.
Monocotyledons and dicotyledons (eudicotyledons) – two groups of angiosperms (flowering plants)
Seed Seedling Mature leaf

One seed
leaf
Monocotyledon e.g. maize One Parallel
cotyledon veins
Dicotyledon (eudicotyledon) Two Two seed Branched

e.g. pea cotyledons leaves veins
Q
1 In what ways are ferns well adapted to life on land?
2 Seed plants are well adapted to live and to reproduce
in dry environments. What major adaptation allows
reproduction on dry land?
9
1.4 Invertebrate animals

Objectives
■ To know the difference between a vertebrate Annelids*
animal and an invertebrate animal Annelids such as the earthworm have a long
■ To be able to describe the main characteristics of four segmented body and chaetae.
invertebrate groups – annelids, nematodes, molluscs
and arthropods Single segment
Mouth can bite
■ To be able to distinguish between different classes of off pieces of
arthropods fallen leaves
■ To understand the importance of metamorphosis
in insects
Anus
Vertebrates and invertebrates

Chaetae (bristles) are found on each
All animals share one characteristic – they feed segment – used during movement.
on organic molecules (see page 28). Members of
the Animal Kingdom can be divided into two large Cross-section of
worm, showing Long, cylindrical body
groups based on whether they have a backbone as chaetae covered with a mucus layer
part of a bony skeleton. Animals with a backbone helps to stop drying out
are called vertebrates and those without a

backbone are called invertebrates. Molluscs*
Four groups of invertebrates are described here: Molluscs have a hard shell protecting a soft body
with no limbs.
Nematodes*
Hookworms are nematodes with bodies that are Shell – protects the soft body of
the snail from predators and
specialised for feeding and reproducing; often they
from drying out.
are parasites inside the gut of another animal.
Eye on tentacle
Mouth with sucking mouthparts

for drinking blood
Mouthparts to
scrape at vegetation
Has long muscles for wriggling Foot – muscle with a slimy covering so that
movements snail can move by creeping over the surface.
Long, thin body so not washed Annelid, nematode or mollusc?*

out of host’s intestine
Annelid Nematode Mollusc
Body Hard, slightly Soft, not Soft – shell helps
Body covered with mucus to resist
covering waterproof waterproof to save water
attack by host’s digestive juices
Segments Yes No No
visible
Movement Uses chaetae Wriggles but Creeps on foot
(bristles) to lives in one from place to
move from place place
Anus place to place
Feeding Herbivores Mainly Mainly herbivores –
method parasites some carnivores
10
Arthropods Insects
The arthropods are the most numerous of all e.g. housefly, mosquito
animals, both in terms of the number of different
The body is segmented, with the
species and the number of individuals in any one segments grouped into
species. The insects are arthropods that show an head thorax and abdomen.
interesting adaptation in their life cycle called Compound eyes:

metamorphosis that allows them to use the detect food Two pairs of
and avoid wings for flying
resources of their habitat to the maximum. predators
Antennae:
Apart from insects, the arthropod phylum sense
chemicals
includes three other classes: in the The adult
environment blowfly is
Crustacea Mouthparts: highly
Crabs are slightly unusual because many of their very specialised adapted for
for feeding locomotion
segments are tucked under their body. e.g. piercing by (aids dispersal)
mosquitoes and reproduction.
Hardened, serrated edge to claw:
can hold onto slippery food, and Three pairs of legs.
Metamorphosis (means ‘change
break open shells of molluscs
of body form’) allows different
Jointed limbs: flexible Eyes: important sensors stages which:
to help with feeding. in aquatic environment do not compete for the same
food sources
can be highly specialised for
different functions. The larva
is adapted for feeding and
Carapace: a thick, growth, and the adult for
Gills under shell: hardened shell for locomotion and reproduction.
allow uptake of protection against
oxygen from water predators
Arachnids
Myriapods Powerful, piercing jaws
Head and thorax are combined
Antennae: these are important Mouthparts: have hard into one body part – all spiders are predators
sense organs in the edges for biting vegetation
millipedes’ dark, damp (millipedes) or other animals Simple eyes (but more than
environment (centipedes) one pair) help to detect prey
Four pairs of legs allow chasing
prey or holding onto web
Hard exoskeleton: protection
against predators Abdomen
Many body segments:
body is flexible for
Walking legs: allow movement Spinneret which produces
movement and
over rough surfaces long, thin strands of silk.
wriggling around
and under leaves (The word arachnid comes
and stones from the Greek goddess Spider silk is so strong and thin that it
Body covering: waterproof,
Arachne who was skilled has been used to make the cross hairs
helping animal to live on land
at spinning.) in the telescopic sights of rifles.
Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. c Compare insects and spiders under the headings
All animals have one common characteristic – . ‘Number of legs’, ‘Number of body sections’,
The invertebrates are animals that do not have . Number of wings’ and ‘Type of eyes’.
, which are the most numerous of all animals. 3 Insects are the most abundant of all animals on land.
2 The arthropods include four classes – insects, arachnids, Many of them show an adaptation called complete
crustaceans and myriapods. metamorphosis. What does this term mean, and how
a List three features that all of these classes possess. does it help to explain why there are so many insect
b List three features that only insects possess. species?
11
1.5 Vertebrate animals: five classes

Objectives
Fish
■ To know the characteristics of the vertebrates
■ To understand how different classes of vertebrates show Scales Lateral line contains sense
covered in mucus help organs to detect vibration
increasing adaptation to dry land streamlining for
■ To know the five classes of vertebrate, and to provide swimming
examples of each
If asked to name an animal, most people would

probably name a mammal because these are the
most familiar animals to us. Mammals are just Operculum covering gills: gills
one class of the phylum Chordata. The chordates have a large surface area for gas Fins for movement and
are often called the vertebrates, although strictly exchange stability
speaking there are a few chordates that aren’t

Amphibians
vertebrates. Vertebrates have a hard, usually bony,
internal skeleton with a backbone. The backbone Nostrils leading
is made up of separate bones called vertebrae to lungs which
are used for
which allow these animals to move with great gas exchange
ease. Moist skin
(also used for
There are five classes of vertebrates, which, like gas exchange)
the members of the Plant Kingdom, show gradual Wide mouth as
adaptations to life on land. The classes are fish, adult amphibians
are all carnivorous Four limbs,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
with hind
limbs webbed:
Vertebrates for walking and
swimming
All have a backbone
Do they have smooth skin?
YES NO
Fish, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals
Scales on skin?
Amphibians
YES NO
Vertebrates can Fish, Reptiles Birds, Mammals

be separated into
classes based on
their skin! Are scales dry? Feathers on skin?
YES NO YES NO
Reptiles Fish Birds Mammals
12
Reptiles
Dry, scaly skin –
limits water loss
Tail can be used
for swimming,
as in crocodiles
Limbs efficient
for crawling
and climbing
Mouth has teeth or

bony ridges
to aid feeding p The crocodile has the typical dry scaly skin of reptiles, and
the eyes on the top of its head and its sharp, pointed teeth
adapt it for catching prey in water.
Birds
Forelimbs are Nostril, leading to lungs which p The heron has typical bird features of feathers and a
modified as wings are the organs of gas exchange
beak. It is well adapted to capture fish and frogs as it has
large eyes to spot its prey, a long pointed beak to grab its
prey and large feet for walking over soft, muddy ground.
Mammals are endothermic vertebrates that have

the characteristics shown in the diagram below.
Beak – very light
since no bone or A wide range of adaptations has allowed mammals
Feathers, vital for flight
and for endothermy teeth to colonise habitats as diverse as the polar wastes
(they give excellent and the Arabian desert.
insulation against
heat loss) Humans are mammals
Scales on legs – feet ideal Humans show the typical mammalian
for perching
characteristics of hair, mammary glands and a
Mammals diaphragm, for example. Humans, though, are
Pinna on ear – can be moved Whiskers are unique amongst all animals in that the adaptations
for maximum efficiency in sensitive to touch
sound detection and vibration they show allow them to modify their environment
so that it is suitable for human occupation.
As a result humans have been able to live and
Fur – body
covering which work in many habitats – no animal has a wider
allows range. Human adaptation has allowed advanced
endothermy as
a means of development of the brain, and of all the complex
keeping a activities that the brain can coordinate. The
constant body
temperature
human brain is extremely sensitive to changes in
Mouth – contains teeth temperature. Human adaptations include many
which allow mammals to that are concerned with the fine regulation of
use a wide variety of foods
(page 52) blood temperature (see page 130). Other features
that make humans very special mammals include
Penis – an organ of the male that an upright posture, freeing the hands for complex
enables efficient internal fertilisation movements including the use of tools. 13
Questions on characteristics
and classification
1 This figure shows six arthropods, each of which 2 a The binomial naming system used to identify
could carry disease organisms. all living things gives the Indian elephant a
C scientific name of Elephas maximus.
A
Which part of this name refers to the genus
and which part refers to the species?
b The list gives the names of eight members of
the cat family. The common or English name
B is followed by the binomial name.
F Bobcat – Lynx rufus
Cheetah – Acinonyx jubatus
Jaguar – Panthera onca
D European lynx – Lynx lynx
E
Leopard – Panthera pardus
Lion – Panthera leo
Iberian lynx – Lynx pardinus
Tiger – Panthera tigris
i State the common or English names of
two members of the same genus.
Key
ii name the genus that has only one
arthropod species.
1 (a) Wings present go to 2
(b) Wings absent go to 4 Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
Paper 2 Q1 November 2008
2 (a) Wings shorter than abdomen go to 3
(b) Wings longer than abdomen Musca 3 a What are you? Follow the branch points
3 (a) Abdomen long and narrow Anopheles at 1, 3, 4, 8, 9 and 11 on the next page to
(b) Abdomen short and broad Periplaneta identify yourself as a mammal.
4 (a) Has three pairs of legs go to 5 b name two additional characteristics of
(b) Has four pairs of legs Ornithodorus
mammals.
5 (a) One pair of legs shorter than the other pairs Pulex
c In what way are humans special mammals?
(b) All pairs of legs of similar length Pediculus
Use the key to identify each of the arthropods.

Write the name of each arthropod in the correct
box of the table. As you work through the key,
tick (✓) the boxes in the table to show how you
identified each arthropod.
Arthropod A has been completed for you as
an example.
1 (a) 1 (b) 2 (a) 2 (b) 3 (a) 3 (b) 4 (a) 4 (b) 5 (a) 5 (b) Name of
arthropod
A ✓ ✓ ✓ Pediculus
B
C
D
E
F
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610

14 Paper 2 Q1 May 2009
Keys and classification
LIVING ORGANISMS A key enables identification of an organism by
*the FIVE KINGDOMS observation of its characteristics. Close observation
1 allows a series of questions (the branch points in
this key) to be answered, eventually leading to
Made up of Made up of the organism being studied.
single cells many cells
2 3
Cells have an
Cells have Cells have Cells have
obvious cell wall
no obvious an obvious no cell wall
12
nucleus nucleus ANIMALS*
Cells contain chlorophyll in Cells do not contain
PROKARYOTE* PROTOCTISTANS* chloroplasts (so organism chlorophyll (so organism
e.g. Salmonella e.g. Plasmodium feeds by photosynthesis) feeds by absorption)
PLANTS*
FUNGI* e.g.
bread mould
4 13
6 7
Organism has Segmented body Soft body with Organism has No separate Stem, leaves Stem, leaves
hard exoskeleton, with chaetae no limbs – covered internal skeleton, root, stem but no roots and roots
jointed limbs, (bristles) by shell non-segmented body and leaves
segmented body VERTEBRATES MOSSES
ARTHROPODS ANNELIDS MOLLUSCS ALGAE
e.g. earthworm e.g. snail 14
Spores Seeds
5 8 produced produced
FERNS SEED PLANTS

Three body Two pairs of Two body No covering on Skin covering
segments (head, antennae segments (head– skin (smooth, e.g. oak tree
thorax, abdomen). thorax, abdomen). moist skin)
Three pairs of legs. Four pairs of legs.
Two pairs of wings. No wings AMPHIBIANS 9
Antennae e.g. frog
Scales on skin No scales on skin
INSECTS CRUSTACEANS SPIDERS
10 11
e.g. mosquito e.g. crab e.g. tarantula
Dry skin Moist
(mucus-covered skin) Feathers Fur/hair
REPTILE Gills Beak Mammary glands
e.g. lizard Fins Wings
MAMMAL
FISH BIRD e.g. human
e.g. stickleback e.g. thrush
15
1.6 Organisms are made up of cells

Objectives
■ To know that the basic unit of living organisms The light microscope
i
is the cell Cells are too small to see with the naked eye so a
■ To know that all cells have certain features in common, microscope is used to study them. Visible light passes
but that there are differences between plant and animal through a suitable specimen, and a series of lenses
cells magnify the image that is formed. A light microscope
■ To understand that the study of cells requires can give a useful magnification of about 400 times,
which means the image seen is actually 400 times larger
the use of a microscope
than the specimen. The contrast between different
structures in the image can be improved by using dyes
All living organisms are made up of units called or stains. The nucleus of an animal cell, for example,
shows up particularly well when stained with a dye
cells. Although cells may take on very specialised
called methylene blue, and plant cells often show up
functions, they have certain common features.
better when stained with iodine solution.
These are shown on the opposite page. Both
animal and plant cells have a cell surface Image viewed here
membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus. These
three features can be seen on the photograph of Series of lenses which
magnify and sharpen
a liver cell below. In addition, plant cells have
the image
a cellulose cell wall, a vacuole and may have
chloroplasts. These features can be seen on the
photograph of the palisade cell below.
Specimen (living or
prepared) on thin
glass slide
Source of visible light
A typical animal cell is about one-fortieth of a

millimetre in diameter. This is rather a clumsy term,
so scientists use smaller units: one metre (m) contains
1000 millimetres (mm), and one millimetre contains
1000 micrometres (µm). So a typical animal cell
p A cell from the inside of p A palisade cell from a is about 25 µm in diameter.
the liver, viewed using leaf, viewed using a
a light microscope light microscope
(magnified  1500 times). (magnified  500 times).
The size of a structure or an organism is measured in units of length (such as mm or m). When a diagram is made, or a photograph taken,
it may not be easy to directly show the correct size – for example, when a structure is extremely small or very large. The correct (or true) size
of an organism can be calculated using a combination of actual measurement and a known magnification.
Measured length
Magnification 5 _______________ For example, look at this poppy seed.
Actual length
Measured length
or Actual (true) length 5 _________________ Mag  50
Magnification 5 1
Actual length 5 ___ 5 ___ 5 0.1 mm
We can also use a scale line to work out magnification 50 10
Tips!
1 make sure that measured and actual lengths are given
1 mm
in the same units
2 to help remember the formula
Measured 10
Magnification 5 __________ 5 ___ 5  10 Measured
Magnification 5 _________
Actual 1 Actual
Calculating magnification and size 3 Core students can use millimetres as a unit. Extended
students may need to use millemetres and micrometres.
16
Secretory vesicles Cytoplasm of animal cells Vacuoles are small Glycogen is

containing cell products is often denser, with many and temporary. They can the storage form
such as hormones or more organelles and be involved with digestion of carbohydrates.
enzymes are much dissolved substances. (e.g. in phagocytes)
more common in or with excretion
animal cells. (contractile vacuoles may
remove excess water).
The absence of the

cellulose wall means
that animal cells may be
Animal cell features very irregular in shape.
often relate to heterotrophic The amount of cytoplasm
nutrition and high rates that can be controlled by
of metabolic activity. the nucleus is limited,
e.g. liver cell so that animal cells may
be quite small – about
25 µm in diameter.
Plant and animal cells Cell surface membrane Cytoplasm contains water and Nucleus contains the
have common features which surrounds the cytoplasm. dissolved substances such as genetic material (DNA which
which relate to maintaining It controls the entry and exit sugar and salts. Chemical makes up genes on the
the characteristics of life. of dissolved substances and reactions go on in organelles – chromosomes). This carries
separates the cell’s contents for example, proteins are made the coded instructions for
from its surroundings. in ribosomes on rough controlling the activities and
endoplasmic reticulum and the characteristics of the cell.
energy is released by (aerobic) The chromosomes only become
respiration in mitochondria. visible during cell division.
Large numbers of mitochondria
in a cell indicate a high rate of
metabolism.
The presence of the

cellulose cell wall means
that plant cells tend to be
Plant cell features
regular in shape.
often relate to autotrophic
The presence of the vacuole
nutrition.
means that plant cells
e.g. palisade cell of leaf
may be quite large –
often 60 µm (or 0.06 mm)
in diameter.
Chloroplasts contain Large permanent vacuole Starch (in the cytoplasm Cellulose cell wall
the pigment chlorophyll contains water necessary or the chloroplasts) provides structural support
(for light absorption) and to provide turgor pressure is the storage form (pressure of cell contents leads
the enzymes necessary and may store ions of carbohydrates. to turgidity) and protects against
for the production of and molecules. damage caused by osmotic
glucose by photosynthesis. intake of water. The cell wall is
freely permeable to water
and dissolved substances.
p The features of plant and animal cells allow these cells to carry out the basic processes
of life. The differences between plant and animal cells are due to the differences in
lifestyle between animals and plants, especially to their different methods of nutrition.
17
1.7 The organisation of living organisms

Objectives
■ To understand that the body of a living organism Specialised cells
is a highly organised structure Large organisms are multicellular – they are
■ To understand that cells, tissues, organs and systems made up of many cells. Different types of cell
represent increasing degrees of organisation in living have particular structures designed to help them
organisms carry out different tasks and functions – they have
become specialised. Some examples of specialised
cells, and their functions, are shown in the table.
Cell type Appearance Functions and adaptations
Animal cells
Red blood cell (page 82) Transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues where aerobic
respiration occurs. The cytoplasm is filled with the pigment
haemoglobin, which carries oxygen. The cells have no nucleus, leaving
more space for haemoglobin, and they are very flexible (they can be
forced through even the narrowest of blood vessels).
Muscle cell (page 108) Contracts so that structures can be brought closer together. Muscle
cells are long, and have many protein fibres in the cytoplasm. These
fibres can shorten the cell when energy is available.
Ciliated cell (page 114) Has a layer of tiny hairs (cilia) which can move and push mucus
from one place to another. The mucus can transport trapped dust and
microbes when it is pushed by the cilia.
Motor nerve cell (page 138) Conducts nerve impulses. The cell has a long fibre called an
axon along which impulses travel, a fatty sheath which gives electrical
insulation and a many-branched ending which can connect with many
other cells.
Other important specialised animal cells are the gametes, sperm and egg (page 172)
Plant cells
Root hair cell Absorbs minerals and water from the soil water. The cell has a
long extension (a root hair) which increases the surface area for the
absorption of materials.
Xylem vessel Transports water and supports the plant. The cell has no
cytoplasm (so water can pass freely), no end wall (so that many cells
can form a continuous tube) and walls strengthened with a waterproof
substance called lignin.
Another important specialised plant cell is the palisade mesophyll cell (page 42)
18
Specialised cells combine to form

tissues …
Cells with similar structures and functions are
massed together in tissues. Some plant and
animal tissues are shown in the tables below.
Animal tissue Main functions Plant tissue Main functions

Epithelium Lines tubes such as the gut and covers Epidermis Protects against water loss, and may
surfaces such as the skin be involved in absorption of water
Connective tissue Binds and strengthens other tissues, such and ions
as tendons Mesophyll Photosynthesis
Blood Transports substances around the body, Parenchyma Fills spaces between other plant
and defends against disease tissues and may be involved in
Skeletal tissue Supports and protects softer tissues, and storage, as in the potato tuber
allows movement Vascular tissue Transports materials through the
Nervous tissue Sets up nerve impulses and transmits them plant body
around the body Strengthening tissue Supports the plant
Muscle tissue Contracts to support and move the body
… tissues combine to form organs … Epithelial cells Smooth muscle cells

Several tissues may be combined to form an Specialised
cells
organ, a complex structure with a particular
function, such as the small intestine shown right. These cells mass together These cells mass together to form
… organs combine to form organ to form an epithelial tissue.
Tissues
smooth muscle tissue.
systems
In complex organisms, several organs work
together to perform a particular task. These Organ
organs form an organ system.
Each cell, tissue and organ in an organism has
a specialised part to play (there is division of Intestine
labour) but their activities must be coordinated.
Epithelial cell of Epithelium lining

intestine lining the intestine
Small intestine
Cell Organ:
Tissue: group of tissues, working
group of cells with together to perform
similar structures, specific functions
working together
to perform a
shared function
Digestive
Organ system:
Mitochondrion system
group of organs with related
functions, working together
Organelle to perform body functions
Organism
Human
19
Questions on cells and organisation

1 Animals and plants are made up of cells, tissues 5 Copy and complete this table by placing a tick
and organs. This list contains some cells, if the structure is present and a cross if it is not.
tissues and organs:
Structure Liver cell Palisade cell
phagocyte, sperm, epidermis, xylem, liver,
Cell surface
blood, heart, leaf, ileum, ovary, neurone, brain, membrane
stem. Chloroplasts
Make a table with these headings: Cytoplasm
Cell Tissue Organ Cellulose cell wall

Nucleus
Starch granule
Glycogen granule
Large, permanent
vacuole
6 A biology book said that ‘the structure of a cell

is closely related to its function’. Using both
Place each of the structures from the list into plant and animal examples, comment on the
the correct column. validity of this statement.
2 Arrange these biological terms in order of size 7 The following list of the characteristics of living
(from the smallest to the largest): organisms can be matched with a series of
organ, cell, organism, organelle, tissue, system. definitions of these characteristics. Match up
3 Arrange these units of length in order, starting the two lists, so that you write out the definition
with the largest and ending with the smallest: of each of the characteristics.
Characteristics: respiration, sensitivity,
kilometre, micrometre, metre, millimetre.
growth, reproduction, nutrition, excretion,
An average plant cell is 50 micrometres development
long. How many plant cells could fit into one Definitions: a change in size
millimetre? Show your working. the release of energy from
4 The table below shows the percentage of organic molecules
different cells in a human body. the generation of offspring
a Complete the table to show the percentage the ability to detect changes
of ‘other’ cells in the body. in the environment
b Use the figures in the table to draw a pie a change in shape or form
chart to show the proportions of different the supply of food
cells in the body. the removal of the waste
c The body contains about 100 000 000 000 products of metabolism
000 cells. Work out how many red blood 8 Identify these cell structures from their
cells there would be – show your working. descriptions:
a structures which contain chlorophyll
Cell type Percentage in body
b cavity that is only found in plant cells
Bone 23
c contains cellulose, and surrounds a plant cell
Red blood cell 13
d jelly-like material which fills most of the cell
White blood cell 0.5 e coloured threads found inside the nucleus
Muscle 24 f the sites of aerobic respiration
Nerve 8 g controls the entry and exit of substances
Skin 11 h carries the genetic information, and
Egg 0.1 controls the activities of the cell
20
Cell structures: cell membrane; cell wall;

chloroplasts; chromosomes; cytoplasm;
C
mitochondria; nucleus; vacuole
9 Match these cells with their adaptations and/
or functions. B
D
Cells: red blood cell; white blood cell; cell
lining bronchioles of lungs; motor nerve cell;
palisade cell; root hair cell; phloem sieve tube; E
sperm cell; egg cell
Adaptations: A
a has long extension to increase surface area
for absorption of minerals and water 12 Use words from this list to complete the
b contains haemoglobin for oxygen transport following paragraphs. The words may be used
c carries male parent’s genetic information once, more than once or not at all.
ready for fertilisation palisade cell, epidermis, tissues, excretory
d transports sugars through the body of a system, specialized, cells, blood, kidney,
plant chloroplasts, leaf, red blood cell, division of
e elongated, and transmits information from labour, xylem, phloem, nervous, systems,
the central nervous system to a muscle endocrine, organ.
f has cilia to trap and remove mucus and a Large numbers of that have the
dust particles same structure and function are grouped
g contains powerful enzymes to digest together to form , for example .
bacteria Several separate tissues may be joined
h carries female parent’s genetic information, together to form an which is a
and has food stores in cytoplasm complex structure capable of performing
i contains many chloroplasts a particular task with great efficiency. In
10 Say whether each of the following is an the most highly developed organisms these
organelle, a cell, a tissue, an organ, a system complex structures may work together in
or an organism: , for example the in humans is
a stomach responsible for the removal of the waste
b mitochondrion products of metabolism.
c cat b The structure of cells may be highly
d onion bulb adapted to perform one function, i.e. the
e a carrot plant cells may become . One excellent
f chloroplast example is the which is highly adapted
g neurone to carry oxygen in mammalian blood. If
h lung the different cells, tissues and organs of a
i brain multicellular organism perform different
j heart and circulation functions they are said to show . One
k xylem consequence of this is the need for close
l the lining of the lung co-ordination between different organs –
11 On this diagram of a liver cell, identify this function is performed by the and
a which structure carries out aerobic systems in mammals.
respiration c In plants an example of a cell highly
b which structure controls the movement of specialized for photosynthesis is the
salts into the cell which contains many . These cells are
c which structure would carry the genes located in the organ called the which
d which feature increases the surface area of also contains other tissues such as
the cell which limits water loss and which
e which structure is a food store transports water and mineral ions to
the leaf. 21
O r g a n i s at i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f o r g a n i s m s
2.1 Movement in and out of cells: diffusion

Objectives
■ To understand that the contents of a living cell must be Partially permeable membranes
kept separate from its surroundings Not all particles can diffuse through cell surface
■ To know that the cell surface membrane can act
membranes. Sometimes the particles are too big,
as a barrier to some substances which might pass or they have the wrong electrical charge on them,
between a cell and its surroundings or the chemical composition of the membrane
■ To understand the principles of diffusion, osmosis, active prevents them passing across. The diagram below
transport and phagocytosis shows a partially permeable membrane –
it is permeable to glucose and water but
impermeable to protein.
On page 16 we saw that the cell cytoplasm is
surrounded by a cell surface membrane. This Diffusion and life processes
acts as a boundary between the cell contents and Diffusion is the main process by which substances
its surroundings – it has very little strength, but it move over short distances in living organisms.
plays a vital role in regulating the materials that Some of the life processes that involve diffusion
pass in and out of the cell. Materials may pass in are shown in the diagram above right.
and out of cells by:
Living organisms have certain adaptations to
diffusion
■ speed up diffusion:
■ osmosis
■ iffusion distances are short – the membranes
D
■ active transport
in the lungs, for example, are very thin so that
■ in special cases, phagocytosis.
oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse between
Diffusion – ‘mixing molecules’ the blood and the lung air spaces.
Molecules and ions in a liquid or a gas move ■ Concentration gradients are maintained –
continuously. The movement is quite random, glucose molecules that cross from the gut
and the particles change direction as they into the blood, for example, are quickly
bump into one another. The particles collide removed by the circulating blood so that
more often when they are close together (when their concentration does not build up and
they are concentrated) and so they tend to equilibrium is not reached.
diffuse, or spread out, until they are spaced ■ Diffusion surfaces are large – the surface of
evenly throughout the gas or liquid. The random the placenta, for example, is highly folded to
movement of the particles is due to their own increase the surface area for the diffusion of
kinetic energy. When diffusion happens in living molecules between a pregnant female and the
cells, the cells themselves do not have to expend developing fetus in her uterus.
any energy for it to take place. Key
If there is a region of high concentration and a
Protein
region of low concentration, we can say that there
Glucose
is a concentration gradient between the regions.
Water
We can therefore define diffusion as:
the
■ net movement of molecules within a gas
or liquid
■ from a region of high concentration to a
region of lower concentration (down a Partially permeable membrane – some,
concentration gradient) but not all, particles can diffuse across
■ as a result of their random movement p The overall (net) movement of glucose and water molecules
■ until an equilibrium is reached. depends on their concentration gradient. Protein molecules cannot
diffuse across this membrane, even though the concentration
22 gradient suggests that they should move from right to left.
Life depends on the exchange of

materials between different cells,
and between cells and their
surroundings. For example, a
plant absorbs carbon dioxide from
its surroundings by diffusion, and
the carbon dioxide passes through
the leaf to the photosynthesising Oxygen produced by photosynthesis
cells by the same process. diffuses out of the plant into the air.
It enters the boy’s lungs as he breathes
in. The lungs are adapted to speed up
From the lungs, oxygen enters the the diffusion of oxygen into the blood,
blood by diffusion. The continual since they have thin surfaces with a
movement of the blood keeps up very large surface area.
a high concentration gradient
between the air and the blood.
Mineral ions from the soil solution

Glucose and amino acids pass are absorbed by plant roots.
from inside the gut into the blood, This process depends upon diffusion
partly by the process of diffusion. as well as on active transport.
p Many life processes depend on diffusion to move substances around. Diffusion has no ‘energy cost’
to a living organism.
How surface area affects rate of diffusion

i
In an investigation to measure the speed of diffusion, cubes of gelatin which had been stained purple with an
indicator solution were placed in dilute acid as shown in the diagram. The time taken for each cube to turn completely
orange is shown in the table.
Length of Time taken Surface area of Volume of Surface area to

side of to turn cube (total of 6 cube / mm3 volume ratio (surface
cube / mm orange / s sides) / mm2 area 4 volume)
Trough 1 20
2 41
Acid 3 76
4 104
5 188
Gelatin cubes
10 600
a C
opy and complete the table. Plot a graph of surface area to volume ratio
against time taken to turn orange. Plot time taken on the vertical axis.
b What do the results suggest about the efficiency of diffusion in supplying
materials to the centre of an organism’s body?
c Suggest methods which organisms might use to improve the supply of
materials by diffusion. Try to provide examples of these methods.
23
2.2 Movement in and out of cells: osmosis

Osmosis is a special case of diffusion
The biochemical processes in living cells always take place in a
solution. A solution is made up of a solvent (the dissolving fluid) and
a solute (the particles dissolved in the solvent). In living organisms,
the solvent is water and the solution is called an aqueous solution.
Living cells are separated from their surroundings by the partially
permeable cell surface membrane. The contents of the cell,
the cytoplasm, is one aqueous solution and the surroundings
Strong glucose Weak glucose
solution solution
of the cell, for example pond water, is another aqueous solution.
(less water = low (more water = high If the two solutions do not have the same concentrations of various
water potential) water potential) substances, molecules may move from one to the other by diffusion,
if the membrane is permeable to these substances.
The diagram on the left shows two glucose solutions separated by
a partially permeable membrane – this membrane will allow the
diffusion of water molecules but not glucose (the solute) molecules.
As a result water can move from the right, where there is a high
concentration of water molecules, to the left, where there is a lower
concentration of water molecules, by the process of diffusion. This
diffusion of water is called osmosis, and will continue until a water
Partially equilibrium has been reached.
permeable
membrane Because it is sometimes confusing to talk about water
Key ‘concentration’, biologists use the term water potential instead.
= glucose = water A solution with many water molecules has a high water potential,
and a solution with few water molecules has a low water potential.
In the diagram, a water potential gradient exists between the two
nt
ra die solutions, and water molecules can flow down this gradient from
lg
tia
ten right to left.
po
ter
Wa Osmosis can be defined as:
■ the diffusion of water molecules
■ from a region of higher concentration of water molecules to
a region of lower concentration of water molecules
■ down a water potential gradient
Water flows down a
water potential gradient – osmosis ■ through a partially permeable membrane.
Cells and osmosis

A cell is surrounded by a partially permeable membrane, and water
may cross this membrane easily. If a cell is placed in a solution of
lower water potential, water leaves the cell by osmosis. If the cell
is placed in a solution of higher water potential, water enters
by osmosis.
24
Plant cells and osmosis

If water enters a plant cell by osmosis the cytoplasm will swell, but
only until it pushes against the cellulose cell wall, as shown below.
A plant cell will not be permanently damaged by the entry of water.
If water leaves a plant cell by osmosis the cytoplasm will shrink,
but the cellulose cell wall will continue to give some support.
Plant cells rarely suffer permanent damage by the loss of water.
Water potential of surroundings
Cellulose
cell wall
Cell surface
membrane
Cell in solution of lower water Cell in solution of equal water Cell in solution of higher water
potential than cell contents – potential – no net movement potential – water enters by
water leaves by osmosis. of water; cytoplasm just osmosis. The cytoplasm pushes
The cytoplasm pulls away presses against cell wall. hard against the cell wall and
from the cell wall and the cell the cell becomes turgid (firm).
becomes flaccid (‘floppy’).
Animal cells and osmosis

Animal cells have no cell wall, just a membrane. They are likely to
suffer damage as a result of osmosis, as shown in the diagram below.
Osmosis is potentially damaging to animal cells, and animals have
mechanisms to keep the blood plasma and the body fluids at the same
water potential as the cytoplasm of cells. In mammals the kidney plays
a vital part in this process of osmoregulation (see page 124).
Red blood cell
In a solution of lower In a solution of the same In a solution of higher

water potential, the water potential as the water potential, the cell
cell loses water, shrinks inside of the cell, the takes in water, swells
and becomes crenated cell is in equilibrium and bursts (haemolysis)
The ‘ghost’ of a red blood

cell; just the membrane
is left behind p Crenated red blood cells p Red blood cells in
equilibrium
25
2.2 Movement in and out of cells: osmosis
Active transport requires energy uptake of ions by plant root hairs (page 74) and
to move materials the uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of the villi.
Molecules and ions can move from one place to To summarise – active transport:
another by diffusion, but only until an equilibrium can
■ move molecules against a concentration
has been reached. If no concentration gradient gradient but
exists between the two places, no diffusion can requires energy and
■
occur – this means that if an equilibrium has been involves protein carriers in membranes.
■
reached, useful particles cannot be absorbed by
diffusion. Active transport is a method by which Some cells use phagocytosis*
particles can cross membranes even against Some particles are too large to cross a
a concentration gradient. In active transport, membrane by diffusion or by active transport.
protein molecules in the cell surface membrane A few very specialised cells have developed
pick up and carry particles across the membrane. a method for taking up these particles – the
These protein molecules are called carriers, and particles are literally engulfed by the cell surface
when they work they use energy supplied by the membrane flowing around them. This process of
cell. Active transport is explained in the diagram phagocytosis is used by white blood cells, and is
below, and important examples of its use are the described on page 102.
Carrier protein returns

Particle recognised by
to collect more of the
carrier protein in membrane.
same particle.
Carrier
protein
t Active transport uses energy to
move substances against a
Cell surface membrane concentration gradient. The protein
Energy carriers involved in active transport are
rather like enzymes. They are able to
Respiration supplies recognise particular molecules and
Particle released into
energy to drive carrier
cell, even against a select them from a mixture. As a result
protein across membrane. active transport is specific, and the cell
concentration gradient.
can ‘choose’ which molecules it will
absorb from its surroundings.
Q
1 U sing an example, explain what is meant by a partially of , which is the movement of molecules down
permeable membrane. a . When an equilibrium is reached between the
2 What is a concentration gradient? gut contents and the blood, glucose may continue to
3 Make a list of the processes in living organisms that are be moved using the process called , which
dependent on diffusion. consumes and can move molecules a
4 How are living organisms adapted to increase the concentration gradient.
possibility of diffusion? The leaves of green plants obtain the gas ,

5 Copy and complete the following paragraphs. which they require for the process of photosynthesis,
Animal cells contain , a semi-fluid solution of salts by the process of . They also lose the gas oxygen,
and other molecules, and are surrounded by a . produced during , by the same process.
When in distilled water, the animal cells because 6 Make a table that compares diffusion with active
the cell has a water potential than the transport. Include one example of each process in your
surrounding water. Plant cells do not have this table. Under what circumstances would an organism
problem because they are surrounded by a . use phagocytosis rather than diffusion or active
In the gut, soluble food substances such as transport?
cross the gut lining into the capillaries by the process
26
Questions on diffusion and osmosis

1 Using only the information in the following passage and the
figure below, answer questions i to v.
When a plant’s cells are fully inflated by water the plant

is said to be turgid. Each cell pushes against nearby cells
and together they help to support the plant. If water is lost
and not replaced each cell loses turgor. Cells in this state
are said to be flaccid.
i What does the term turgid mean?

ii How does turgor play a part in the support of plant tissues?
The figure below shows the results of an experiment.
beaker A beaker B
10 g weight potato chip cork, secured to

dish base by plasticine
iii Which beaker is likely to contain pure water?

iv Which potato chip is flaccid?
v What would happen if the potato chip from beaker B was
placed in beaker A for 24 hours? Explain your answer.
2 A student carried out an investigation based on the one in the
diagram using a range of sugar solutions. He obtained the results
below right.
a Copy and complete the table,
and present the results in
a suitable graph.
b Use the graph to calculate the
sugar concentration inside the
potato cells. Explain your answer.
c Why is it useful to present
the results in terms of
‘percentage change’ in length?
Concentration of Length of Length of

Mean Mean Percentage
sugar solution / cylinder at cylinder after
length / mm length / mm change
mol/dm3 start / mm 24 hours / mm
0.0 50, 50, 50 54, 52, 55
0.1 50, 49, 50 53, 52, 53
0.2 50, 50, 50 51, 52, 51
0.3 50, 51, 49 49, 49, 49
0.4 50, 50, 50 47, 47, 48
0.5 50, 51, 51 45, 47, 46 27
2.3 All living things are made up

of organic molecules
Objectives
In this way living organisms can take molecules
■ To understand that the structures of living things
from their environment and rearrange them
depend on the molecules that make them up
into shapes that suit their own particular
■ To list the types of molecule found in living organisms
requirements, as illustrated below.
Hydrolysis: large molecules are

Organic molecules broken down to smaller ones by
Biological molecules are often called organic the addition of water.
molecules, since many of them were discovered
in living organisms. Chemists have found that Starch in
maize H2O
organic molecules all contain carbon and hydrogen
atoms (often along with other elements). Carbon
atoms bond strongly to other carbon atoms, so Glucose
subunits
organic molecules can be large and show a wide
variety of chain and ring structures, with many
carbon atoms bonded together. Organisms need Glycogen in
organic molecules to: rat
H2O
■ provide energy to drive life processes
provide raw materials for the growth and
■
repair of tissues.
Nutrition supplies living organisms with the Condensation: large molecules

molecules that they need. There are four main are built up from smaller ones
by the removal of water.
groups of organic chemicals used by living things:
■ carbohydrates p The carbohydrate starch in the maize is hydrolysed in
■ lipids the rat’s cells into subunits called glucose. These are then built
■ proteins up into the carbohydrate glycogen by condensation reactions.
■ nucleic acids.
The diagram on the next page shows the Q
structures of these different groups of organic 1 List the main groups of organic compounds found
molecules: note which elements they contain. in living organisms. Suggest one important
function for each group.
Basic biochemistry* 2 Some molecules such as glucose and amino acids
Living organisms also contain inorganic molecules are soluble, whereas others such as starch and fats
(such as water) and a number of ions. The study of are insoluble. Why is this physical property
the organic and inorganic molecules that make up important in living organisms?
living organisms is called biochemistry. The sum
3 Some scientists would say that nucleic acids are
of all the chemical reactions in living organisms is the most important molecules in living cells;
sometimes called metabolism. others might suggest that proteins are more
important; and some might say that life could
Large organic molecules are usually made up of
not continue without a supply of carbohydrates.
lots of similar smaller molecules called subunits.
Write a sentence in support of each of these
The subunits can be split apart by a reaction
points of view.
called hydrolysis, which uses water. They
can be joined together again, perhaps in new
combinations, by a reaction called condensation,
28 which produces water (see opposite page).
Carbohydrates (page 52) Lipids (page 52)

Monosaccharides are the Lipids are formed by the
simplest carbohydrates, for condensation of three
example, glucose. Glucose is soluble molecules of fatty acid
so it is easily transported in blood with one molecule of
and dissolves in the cytoplasm glycerol.
of cells. Monosaccharides are the
main source of energy for many Glycerol Fatty acids
cells.
Hydrolysis Condensation Hydrolysis Condensation
Polysaccharides are formed

Fats (which are solid at room
from many monosaccharide
temperature) and oils (which
molecules – for example, starch
are liquid at room
and glycogen are two
temperature) are insoluble in
polysaccharides both made of
water. As a result they are
many thousands of glucose
excellent stores of energy, and
molecules. Polysaccharides are
form barriers between watery
insoluble, so they are good stores
environments, such as
of energy and can form important
between a cell and its
structures such as cellulose cell
surroundings.
walls.
Some contain only carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
All organic molecules

contain the elements
C O carbon and hydrogen. The
simplest organic molecule
H C O
is methane, CH4. More
H C OH complex organic molecules
Some also contain nitrogen (N) also contain oxygen. The Some also contain nitrogen (N)
H C H biological function of a
and sometimes sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P)
molecule depends on its
shape and structure.
Proteins (page 52) Proteins are made up of long Nucleic acids (page 194)
chains of subunits called amino
In DNA these chains are coiled
acids, joined together in
around one another to form a
particular sequences which are
double hellix. The sequence
coded for by genes. The 20 of bases forms a code which
different amino acids can be carries the genetic information.
joined together in a vast This code is passed fom one
number of different orders, and generation to the next and
some proteins are thousands of instructs a cell or an organism to
amino acids long. The sequence carry out a particular task.
of amino acids determines the
shape of the protein molecule –
Hydrolysis Condensation
some are long and thin (such as
keratin, the protein in hair and
nails), whilst others are more
egg shaped or spherical.
The function of proteins depends on
this shape eg. the active site of
enzymes, and the binding site of
antibodies. Other important functions
of water are described on pages 54–5.
Amino acids are soluble so they
are easily transported in living
organisms, and can take part in
reactions in the watery
cytoplasm of the cell.
29
2.4 Testing for biochemicals

Objective
This is known as the emulsion test:
■ To describe simple chemical tests for the molecules of
living organisms 2 cm3
■ of ethanol are added to the unknown
solution, and the mixture is gently shaken.
■ The mixture is poured into a test tube
Scientists often need to know whether or not
containing an equal volume of distilled water.
a particular type of molecule is present in a
■ If a lipid is present, a milky-white emulsion
solution. For example, a doctor might try to
is formed.
detect glucose in a urine sample (glucose in the
urine suggests the patient has diabetes), or an
environmental scientist might test for starch
in the outflow from a food factory. There are
a number of simple chemical tests that can be
carried out on biological solutions. Some of these
tests are described on the opposite page.
A special test for lipids

An important feature of fats and oils is that
they are insoluble in water. This means that you
cannot make an aqueous solution of a fat or oil on
which to carry out a biochemical test. However,
the fact that lipids are insoluble forms the basis of
a physical test.
p A milky emulsion shows that a lipid is present
Q
1 a What is the difference between a fat and an oil?
b Both lipids and carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. How do they differ from one another?
c Draw a diagram to show a molecule of fat. Suggest why it is possible to have many kinds of fat.
2 Here are the results of a series of tests on biological solutions.
Suggest, giving your reasons, which of these solutions might be:
a the washings from a laundry d urine from somebody who has sugar diabetes
b milk e sweetened tea.
c crushed potato solution
Solution Colour after testing with reagent:

Iodine solution Benedict’s reagent Biuret reagent Benedict’s reagent after
acidification and neutralisation
A Blue-black Clear blue Clear blue Clear blue
B Straw yellow Orange Purple Orange
C Straw yellow Clear blue Clear blue Orange
D Blue-black Clear blue Faint purple Clear blue
E Straw yellow Orange Clear blue Orange
3 Describe the two types of control which are used in food tests and explain why they are needed.
30
Testing for vitamin C: using DCPIP

Vitamin C takes the colour out of a blue dye called DCPIP.
The number of drops of

VITAMIN vitamin C solution needed
C to make this happen depends
on how concentrated the
vitamin C solution is.
So
few drops: strong vitamin C solution
many drops: weak vitamin C solution
A control is needed to make sure

that results are valid.
To show that the test is working
properly, a solution that is known
to contain the substance is tested
(for example, the Biuret reagent is
used with a solution known to
contain protein). This should give
a positive result.
To show that the test solutions are
not contaminated, each test should
be carried out on a sample of water.
This should give a negative result.
To test for protein, To test for starch, a few drops To test for glucose (a reducing
a few drops of Biuret reagent of iodine solution are added to sugar), 2 cm 3 of Benedict’s
are added to 2 cm3 of the 2 cm3 of the unknown solution, reagent are added to 2 cm 3 of
unknown solution, and the and the mixture is gently shaken. the unknown solution, and the
mixture is gently shaken. A deep blue-black colour is a mixture is heated in a boiling
A mauve/purple colour is a positive result (starch is present). water bath for 2–3 minutes. An
positive result (protein orange/brick-red colour is a
is present). positive result (glucose is present).
When making comparisons between

different solutions – for example, to
compare the glucose content of different
urine samples – it is important to carry
out all tests under the same conditions.
For example, a series of Benedict’s tests
should be performed:
on equal volumes of unknown solutions
using equal volumes of Benedict’s solution
with all mixtures heated to the same temperature
for the same length of time.
31
2.5 Enzymes control biochemical

reactions in living organisms
Objectives
of these extracellular enzymes include the
■ To appreciate that biochemical reactions in living
digestive enzyme lipase (which breaks down fats
organisms must be controlled
to fatty acids and glycerol) and amylase, which
■ To understand how enzymes can act as biological
converts starch to maltose during germination
catalysts
(see page 168). Enzymes are specific – most
■ To list and explain the factors that affect enzyme
enzymes work on one kind of substrate only. For
activity
example, proteases break down proteins but have
■ To list some examples of human exploitation
no effect on carbohydrates or lipids, and lipases
of enzymes
break down lipids but do not affect proteins or
carbohydrates.
Enzymes are biological catalysts
The sum of all the chemical reactions going on
within a living organism is known as metabolism. The mechanism of enzyme action
i
Anabolic reactions build up large molecules (the lock and key hypothesis)
from smaller ones, and usually require an input An enzyme is a protein, folded into a complex three-
dimensional shape. The active site is the part of the enzyme
of energy. Catabolic reactions break down large
that allows it to act as a catalyst, as shown below.
molecules into smaller ones, and often release
energy. The condensation of glucose molecules Molecules
of substrate
into the polysaccharide glycogen is an example of Active site
anabolism, and this happens in cells of the liver
and skeletal muscle. The breakdown of glucose Enzyme
into carbon dioxide and water by respiration is Substrate molecules
an example of catabolism, and this also occurs The enzyme fit exactly into the
molecule is
in cells of the liver and skeletal muscle. What active site of the
now free to enzyme to form an
determines whether glucose molecules are built up bind with more enzyme-substrate
into glycogen or broken down into carbon dioxide molecules of complex. The active
substrate. site brings the
and water? The answer is enzymes. Enzymes are
Each enzyme substrate molecules
proteins that function as biological catalysts – molecule may closer together.
(catalysts speed up reactions without themselves be used many Product
being changed by the reaction). The molecules thousands The substrates now
of times. react to form a
that react in the enzyme-catalysed reaction are
molecule of product,
called substrates, and the molecules produced in which leaves the active
the reaction are products. Different enzymes are site.
involved in anabolic and catabolic reactions, and
so the presence or absence of a particular enzyme No enzyme
Energy of reaction
controls what will happen to a particular molecule. Enzyme present
Enzymes and cells Substrates
Enzymes are synthesised in living cells. Most

Products
enzymes work inside the cell – examples of these
intracellular enzymes are catalase (which Time
breaks down harmful hydrogen peroxide in liver
 The enzyme lowers the energy needed
cells) and phosphorylase (which builds glucose
for the reaction, and the reaction is then
into starch in plant storage cells). Other enzymes
much more likely to take place.
are made inside cells and then released from
the cell to perform their function – examples
32
Factors affecting enzyme activity pH

Temperature pH also affects enzyme activity.
Temperature affects the activity of enzymes. Changing the acid or base conditions around an
The enzyme activity increases with a rise in enzyme molecule affects its three-dimensional
temperature, up to a point. This is because: shape and can denature the enzyme.
■ a higher temperature speeds up the movement Each enzyme has its own optimum pH, as
of substrate molecules, so that when they shown in the graph below, which depends on the
collide with the enzyme they have more energy environment in which the enzyme is working –
and are more likely to bind to the active site pepsin is an enzyme that works in the stomach,
■ the enzyme molecules themselves also and has an optimum pH around pH 2.0 (very
gain in energy as the temperature rises so acidic), whereas amylase works in the mouth and
that they begin to vibrate. Eventually the small intestine and has an optimum pH around
enzyme molecules vibrate so much that 7.5 (slightly basic).
they become denatured – they lose their
three-dimensional shape and can no longer Optimum pH
bind to their substrate. Because of this, high
temperatures reduce enzyme activity.
Enzyme activity
pH extremes may
Each enzyme has an optimum temperature,
denature the enzyme
which is a balance between these two effects,
as shown in the graph below. Most human
enzymes have an optimum temperature around
37°C, whilst for most plants the optimum is
rather lower at around 25°C.
pH
Denaturation is usually irreversible, and living
cells make great efforts to keep the conditions
Activators and inhibitors
suitable for their enzymes to work.
Some molecules change the likelihood of an
enzyme being able to bind to its substrate.
Activators make this binding more likely – for
Increased heat energy Optimum temperature
causes more collisions
example, chloride ions are essential for the
between enzyme and At high temperatures activity of salivary amylase. Inhibitors make
the enzyme may lose
Enzyme activity
substrate. it more difficult for the enzyme to bind to the

its active site – it is
denatured. substrate – for example, cyanide ions block the
active sites of enzymes involved in respiration.
Humans exploit enzymes
Because enzymes are specific, and can be used
over and over again, they are very useful in the
Temperature / ˚C fields of industry, food preparation and medicine –
p An enzyme-catalysed reaction gets faster, reaches a maximum an enzyme from snake venom can break down
rate and then slows down again as you increase the temperature blood clots, for example.
Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph about 2 Enzyme action is explained by the lock and key
enzymes. hypothesis (see box opposite). The example shows an
Enzymes are which speed up the biochemical enzyme that catalyses a condensation reaction – two
in living organisms. The enzymes themselves are small molecules are joined together to make a larger
not changed in these reactions, that is they are one. Redraw the diagram to show the action of an
biological . enzyme catalysing a hydrolysis reaction, and give
Enzymes are – each one controls only one type of an example of such an enzyme.
reaction. They are by high temperatures and by
extremes of pH.
33
2.6 Enzyme experiments and the

scientific method
Objectives Catalase is an enzyme that catalyses the
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide:
■ To understand how enzymes can work as biological
catalysts
hydrogen peroxide oxygen  water
■ To understand and apply the scientific method
Catalase is present in potato tissue. Discs of

What is the scientific method? potato are put into a solution of hydrogen
When scientists are faced with a problem, they peroxide. The catalase breaks down the
tackle it using the scientific method. This starts off hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen, and
the oxygen passes into the manometer. The
with an observation; for example, a farmer might
changing level of the manometer fluid shows
notice that all his cows have stopped producing
how much oxygen is being produced, and gives
milk. The next step is to produce a hypothesis, a
a measure of the activity of the enzyme. The rate
possible explanation for the observation (perhaps
of oxygen production is measured at different
the cows’ diet has been changed). Following
temperatures.
this hypothesis, predictions are made, such as:
adding more protein pellets to the cows’ feed will An identical control experiment is also set up,
increase their yield of milk. Then experiments are in which the input variable (the temperature) is
designed and carried out to test whether or not not changed. This confirms that the changes in
the predictions are true. The data (results of the temperature, and not an unknown variable, are
experiment) are analysed and conclusions drawn. causing the changes in enzyme activity. A control
These conclusions will allow the experimenter to experiment ensures that the experiment is a fair
accept or reject the original hypothesis. test, and that the data collected is valid.
If the experimenter suspects that an error
An illustration of the scientific method has been made, part of the experiment may
In an experiment, apparatus is used to measure
be repeated. Taking a series of results and
the effect of changing one factor (variable) on the
calculating the mean gives more accurate
value of a second factor (variable). For example,
results than taking just one set, as any single
the experiment illustrated below is designed to
inaccurate result then has less effect on the
test the hypothesis: temperature affects the activity
overall results.
of catalase.
Manometer
The temperature is varied by Other variables are fixed

the experimenter – this is the (controlled), such as:
independent (input) Variety of potato (a categoric variable –
variable. Temperature is a it can be one of several different sorts)
continuous variable – it can Number of potato discs (a discrete
have any value over a variable – it can be any whole number)
continuous range. The volume Size of potato disc
of oxygen released in a fixed Concentration of (continuous
length of time is measured – hydrogen peroxide variables)
this is the dependent pH
(outcome) variable. Volume
is also a continuous variable.
Hydrogen peroxide solution Potato discs

34
Dealing with data: Put units in the

column heading, not
Raw data
independent
Manipulated data
derived from the raw data.
recording results beside each number. variable in left- For example, the mean of
Raw data are gathered in a hand column three readings would be
manipulated data.
table during the experiment.
They may then be manipulated
Time taken to produce Rate of oxygen
(converted into another form), Temperature / °C 5cm3 of oxygen / s production / cm3 per s
and are often displayed as a 20.00
graph to allow the experimenter 26.25
to draw conclusions from the
–
results.
30.75
Present numerical data Do not leave blanks:

■ in decimal form use – for a missing
■ to the same number value and 0 for zero.
of decimal places
■ as true numbers,
e.g. 0.7 not .7
p Results are recorded in a table during the experiment. Give an informative title,
such as: The effect of temperature on the activity of catalase.
Drawing a graph Join the points with a smooth curve if

you predict a smooth, gradual change.
A graph is a visual Use straight lines if not.
representation of data Dependent
which often helps to make a variable
on y-axis 24
Rate of oxygen production / cm3 per s
relationship more obvious.

22
Evaluating an experiment
20
Scientists often look back at the
18 Mark points with or
results of their experiments and
the methods used to gather 16
them. This evaluation process
14
is an important part of the Scales on axes in equal increments,
12 cover all the plotted points, and
scientific method because the make best use of the space.
scientist needs to be sure that 10
the techniques and apparatus
Axes should be linear
used have given the most reliable 5 10 15 20 25 30
and if possible unbroken.
results before he or she draws If a break is necessary to Temperature / ˚C
make best use of the
conclusions from them. scale, show it like this.
Independent variable on x-axis
p Rule in the axes in black. Again, give an informative title.
Q
1 Using the apparatus shown opposite, a Temperature / °C Time taken to evolve Rate of oxygen
student investigated the effect of 10 cm3 of oxygen / s release / cm3 per s
temperature on the activity of the 15 40
enzyme catalase. Here are the results: 25 20
a Copy and complete the table by
35 5
calculating the rate of oxygen
45 20
release.
b Present the data in the form of a 55 40
graph. 65 120
c Explain the shape of the graph. 75 No gas evolved
35
Questions on enzymes and

biological molecules
1 A student investigated the effect of changing pH c Calculate the rate of oxygen production at
on the rate of reaction of a digestive enzyme. pH 8. Show your working.
a Define the term enzyme. d Plot the rate of oxygen production against pH.
The table shows the results of this investigation. e i Using data from the graph, describe the
changes in the reaction rate between
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
pH 4 and pH 8.
rate of reaction / 10 15 9 6 3 1 0 ii Explain the change in the reaction rate
arbitrary units
between pH 6 and pH 8.
b Plot the results as a line graph. Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
c Suggest where in the human digestive system Paper 3 Variant 1 Q3 May 2008
this enzyme would have been most active. 3 A protein is used to hold other chemicals onto
d The investigation at pH 3 was repeated but the the clear plastic backing of photographic film,
enzyme was boiled before its use. Suggest how as shown below.
and why the results would have been different.
Paper 2 Q7 May 2007
chemical of photographic film clear plastic
2 Catalase is an enzyme found in plant and held in a layer of protein backing
animal cells. It has the function of breaking
Trypsin is an enzyme which will digest the
down hydrogen peroxide, a toxic waste product
protein so that the coating on the photographic
of metabolic processes.
film is removed and the film becomes clear.
a State the term used to describe the removal
The table shows the results obtained by two
of waste products of metabolism.
students who investigated the effect of pH on
An investigation was carried out to study the
the activity of this enzyme. They made up the
effect of pH on catalase, using pieces of potato
solutions, set up the experiment and timed how
as a source of the enzyme.
long the enzyme took to digest the protein and
Oxygen is formed when catalase breaks down
clear the film.
hydrogen peroxide, as shown in the equation.
pH time for the protein to be digested / mins
catalase
hydrogen peroxide ⎯⎯→ water 1 oxygen student 1 student 2
2 12.0 14.0
The rate of reaction can be found by measuring
4 8.0 9.0
how long it takes for 10 cm3 oxygen to be
6 2.0 3.0
collected.
b i State the independent (input) variable in 8 0.5 1.0
this investigation. 10 8.0 9.0

ii Suggest two factors that would need to be a i Plot the results obtained by student 2 in
kept constant in this investigation. the form of a suitable graph.
The table below shows the results of the ii Describe and explain the effect of pH on
investigation, but it is incomplete. the activity of the enzyme.
pH time to collect 10 cm3 rate of oxygen b i Suggest reasons for the difference in the
oxygen / min production / cm3 min1 results for the two students.
4 20.0 0.50 ii If you were to carry out this investigation,
5 12.5 0.80 describe what steps you would take to
6 10.0 1.00 ensure that your results were as reliable
7 13.6 0.74 and valid as possible.
36 8 17.4
4 a The bar chart opposite 70

shows the percentage of 60
each of the main elements
50
in the human body.
Percentage
Convert this data into: 40
i a table ii a pie chart. 30
Which do you think is the
20
better way of showing the
data? Explain why. 10
b These elements are mostly 0
Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Calcium Phosphorus Iron/
present in the body as part
others
of compounds.
The proportions of the main groups of Compound Approximate percentage
compounds in a human body are shown in in the body
the table. Fats 14%
i Which is the most abundant compound? Proteins 12%
ii Which compound contains most of the Carbohydrates 1%
nitrogen in the body? Water 70%
iii Which compound contains most of the
oxygen?
iv Which compound contains most of the Four test tubes were set up:
A at B at C at D at
carbon? 30 °C 20 °C 20 °C 20 °C
v The total of these compounds does not
add up to 100%. Suggest another organic
compound that forms a proportion of the Boiled
remainder. Saliva Saliva cooled Water
saliva
vi Try to find out which structure(s) in the
1% 1% 1% 1%
body contain most of the calcium. starch starch starch starch
5 a The properties of enzymes were The tubes were shaken. They were immediately tested for starch
investigated using the simple experiment by adding one drop of iodine solution to one drop of the mixture
in a specimen tube. The test was repeated at intervals.
shown opposite.
Which of the following conclusions are valid Time of test for starch
A B C D
from these results?
i The enzyme reaction occurs more quickly
at 30°C than at 20°C.
0 minutes
ii The enzyme in saliva is inactivated by
boiling. All turned blue-black
iii Saliva contains an enzyme which digests
starch. A B C D
iv Boiled saliva contains an enzyme which

digests starch.
10 minutes
b What is the purpose of tube D?
c How could you increase the validity of
No change Turned blue-black
these results?
d What is the product of starch digestion present A B C D
in tubes A and B after 20 minutes? Describe a
simple biochemical test for this substance.
20 minutes
No change Turned blue-black
37
2.7 Photosynthesis and plant nutrition

Objectives
■ To understand that plants, like all living Chloroplasts are energy transducers
organisms, must receive nourishment Plants can absorb and use light energy because
■ To know the basic definition for photosynthesis
they have a green pigment, chlorophyll,
■ To know word and symbol equations for photosynthesis
contained in chloroplasts in some of their cells.
■ To remember that a plant body has organs that are well
Chlorophyll allows the energy in sunlight to
suited to carry out particular functions drive chemical reactions. Chloroplasts act as
energy transducers, converting light energy into
chemical energy.
Plants need food
Plants, like animals, require raw materials Defining photosynthesis
for building tissues and as a source of energy. Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy,
They manufacture everything they need out trapped by chlorophyll, is used to convert carbon
of simple ions and compounds available in dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
the environment. The building up of complex These equations summarise photosynthesis:
molecules from simpler substances (synthesis)
requires energy and enzymes. The enzymes light energy
carbon dioxide  water ⎯⎯⎯→ glucose  oxygen
chlorophyll
are in the plant’s cells, and the energy comes
from sunlight. The process is therefore called
light energy
photosynthesis: this could be defined as the 6CO  6H O ⎯⎯⎯→ C6H12O6  6O2
2 2
chlorophyll
basic process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy
These equations are simplified, and show only
from light. An outline of plant nutrition is shown
glucose as a food product of photosynthesis. In
in the diagram below.
fact plants can make all of their food compounds
by photosynthesis and other chemical processes.
q Plants are autotrophic (self-feeding) – they take simple substances from their
environment and use light energy to build them up into complex food compounds
SUN
Oxygen – a waste product released to the atmosphere
The plant makes complex food compounds which may be

used for energy, growth, repair and reproduction. They include:
glucose contain carbon, hydrogen
Light energy starch and oxygen (C, H, and O).
amino acids contain nitrogen as
and proteins well as C, H and O
Carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere nucleic acids – contain phosphorus as well as C, H, O and N
lipids – contain C, H and O
Animals depend on plants

Autotrophic nutrition provides:
a supply of complex food compounds which can be
Water from the soil eaten by heterotrophic organisms, including animals
Minerals such as nitrate, a supply of oxygen which is essential for aerobic
phosphate and respiration in all organisms, including animals.
magnesium from the soil
38
Some of the glucose produced is stored in the plant cells as starch.

The experiment below shows how a starch test can be used to
demonstrate the conditions needed for photosynthesis.
Testing leaves for starch
To demonstrate that
some factor is necessary
for the production of Ethanol
starch, the plant must
have no starch to begin Boiling water
with. The plant is placed in Leaf
Leaf Warm water
a dark cupboard or box
for 48 hours. It uses any
starch that is already in its
(a) Leaf is boiled in water for about 2 minutes. (b) Leaf is warmed in ethanol until leaf
leaves and is now
Purpose: to break down cell walls and to stop is colourless. Purpose: to extract the
destarched.
the action of enzymes within the leaf. Also chlorophyll, which would mask
allows easier penetration by ethanol. observations later. (Chlorophyll dissolves
in ethanol but not in water.)
Leaf Warm water
(c) Leaf is dipped into warm water (briefly). (d) Leaf is placed on white tile and iodine
Purpose: to soften the now brittle leaf, and solution added. Purpose: iodine shows
allow penetration by iodine solution. the presence (blue-black) or absence
(orange-brown) of starch; colours are
shown against the white tile.
A B C
Airtight
seal around
Black White A B C
leaf stalk
paper
(I)
clipped
onto both (II)
Soda lime (I) Variegated
sides of leaf
leaf Green
Hydrogencarbonate
solution (II)
Q
T hese questions are about the diagram above. T he students’ teacher asked for some further tests to be
3
1 Before testing for starch, the leaf is warmed in ethanol. completed before accepting their results as valid.
The ethanol turns green. Why is this? a How could the students show that there was no starch
2 A group of students wanted to investigate the conditions in the leaves at the start of the experiment?
needed for photosynthesis. They set up the three b The teacher suggested that the black paper attached to
experiments shown as A, B and C. Each of the plants was the leaf in experiment A prevented the leaf from
given the same light conditions. absorbing gases, and that was why no starch had been
a What does the result of experiment A suggest? produced in the covered area.
b Soda lime removes carbon dioxide from the How could the students disprove this theory?
atmosphere, and hydrogencarbonate slowly releases it. 4 What additional experiment could be set up to show that
What do the results of experiment B suggest about the formation of starch by photosynthesis depends on the
carbon dioxide and starch formation? activity of enzymes? (There is a clue given in one part of
c What is the purpose of experiment C? the diagram above.)
d From experiments A, B and C, list the factors necessary
for starch formation by photosynthesis.
39
2.8 The rate of photosynthesis

Objectives
■ To understand a quantitative method of investigating
Tracing photosynthesis
i
photosynthesis
The rate of photosynthesis can be estimated by measuring
■ To perform an exercise in experimental design
how much carbon dioxide a plant absorbs. This is done
using a radioactively labelled form of carbon dioxide,
14
CO2. Labelled carbon dioxide is absorbed by the leaf
Measuring photosynthesis cells and converted into labelled carbohydrates in
The most straightforward way of showing exactly the same way as ‘normal’ carbon dioxide. A
whether or not photosynthesis has occurred is to Geiger counter is used to detect how much radioactive
test for the presence of starch. Starch is a product material has been incorporated by the plant in a fixed
of photosynthesis and the blue-black colour of length of time – the rate of photosynthesis. This method
the iodine test is a simple method for detecting is useful for studying the rate of photosynthesis in a
‘real-life’ situation – in the middle of a crop field, for
it. Unfortunately this is an ‘all-or-nothing’ test,
example – where it is not possible to collect and measure
that is, the colour is just as dark with a small volumes of oxygen.
amount of starch as it is with a large amount. The Using radioactive tracers can also provide information
iodine test is said to be qualitative – it only shows about other compounds that plants make following
whether or not starch is present. To find out how photosynthesis, and about how plants transport food
quickly photosynthesis is going on, we need to use substances from one place to another in the plant.
a quantitative test.
The basic equation for photosynthesis is:

carbon light energy glucose
⎯⎯⎯→
 water chlorophyll  oxygen
dioxide (starch)

This shows that as well as starch, there is another

product of photosynthesis – oxygen. It is quite
easy to measure amounts (volumes) of oxygen,
and so the production of oxygen can be used as a
Simple estimation of
quantitative test for photosynthesis.
photosynthesis
Stopwatch used to count

Gas collects the number of bubbles
in a fixed time.
60
45 15
30
Analysing the design of Light source

an experiment
The simplest apparatus for measuring oxygen release is Test tube

shown in the next column. This method depends on
counting the number of oxygen bubbles given off in a fixed Pondweed
length of time.
Apparatus that can be used to measure the volume of
Plasticine support Funnel
oxygen released in a fixed length of time is shown on the
lifts funnel off Beaker
opposite page. When looking at this, remind yourself of bottom of beaker.
the principles of experimental technique.
40
Measuring the rate of photosynthesis

The volume of oxygen released
in a fixed length of time can be
used to calculate the rate of
Scale
photosynthesis. This is the
dependent (outcome)
variable.
There are other

variables that must be
fixed (controlled) so that
they do not influence the
The light intensity
results, and the experiment
can be varied by the
remains a fair test.
experimenter: this is
the independent e.g. Water temperature
(input) variable. (continuous)
Concentration of
hydrogencarbonate
in vessel (continuous)
u A more accurate method for Wavelength of light
measuring the rate of (continuous)
photosynthesis. This apparatus Species of plant used
Light intensity is (categoric)
can be used to investigate the an example of a Number of leaves on
effect of light intensity on the rate continuous variable. plant (discrete)
of photosynthesis.
Q
1 W
hat important assumption about the bubbles is being photosynthesis, and decided that they could use the
made, when using the method shown on the page same apparatus.
opposite, to measure the rate of photosynthesis? d What would be the input variable in this
2 Using the apparatus above, Samantha and Jane investigation? How could the two students change
obtained the results shown in the table. this variable?
a Plot this information in the form of a graph. e What would be the fixed variables in this
investigation?
Light intensity / Volume of oxygen
arbitrary units released / mm3 per minute f The students decided to repeat their experiment,
and then to pool their results with the results of
1 7
other students in the same class. Why was this
2 14
pooling of results important?
3 21
g The teacher said that if the students were going to
4 28 pool their results then they must remove the plants
5 34 from the apparatus and weigh them. Why should
6 39 they do this?
7 42 h State the input, outcome and fixed variables in an
8 44 investigation into the effect of temperature on the
9 45 rate of photosynthesis.
10 45 3 This question is about the box ‘Tracing photosynthesis’
on the opposite page.
b At what light intensity did the plant produce a What important assumption is being made when
25 mm3 of oxygen per minute? using the rate of uptake of 14CO2 as a measure of
c What levels of light intensity had the greatest effect the rate of photosynthesis?
on the rate of photosynthesis? How could this b Why is it important that radioactively labelled
information be useful to a grower of greenhouse carbon dioxide, 14CO2, is treated by leaf cells in
tomatoes? exactly the same way as ‘normal’ carbon dioxide?
Samantha and Jane wanted to investigate whether the c Which process might release 14CO2 from the plant?
wavelength of the light would affect
41
2.9 Leaf structure and photosynthesis
Objectives
■ way of delivering water to the leaf
a
■ To understand how the structure of the leaf is adapted ■ a system for the removal of glucose so that it
for photosynthesis
can be transported to other parts of the plant
■ To recall the structure of a palisade cell
■ an efficient means of absorbing light energy.
■ To understand how whole plants can be adapted to
make the most of light energy The diagram below shows how the structure of
the leaf meets these requirements.
Features of the leaf

In order to photosynthesise efficiently a leaf needs:
■ method for exchange of gases between the
a
leaf and its surroundings
W axy cuticle reduces water loss. It is thicker on the upper Upper epidermis – a complete covering which is usually one cell thick.
surface since this surface is usually more exposed to the It is transparent to allow the free passage of light, and has the major
warming rays of sunlight. function of preventing the entry of disease-causing organisms such as
bacteria and fungi.
Palisade mesophyll – tall thin cells arranged in columns and

separated by very narrow air spaces. Cells contain many
chloroplasts, and the dense packing of these cells allows the
absorption of the maximum amount of light energy.
Vein – the transport system in and out of the leaf. The xylem
vessels deliver water and mineral salts, and the phloem sieve
tubes carry away the organic products of photosynthesis,
such as glucose.
Spongy mesophyll – these cells are rather loosely packed,

and are covered with a thin layer of water. The air spaces
between them aid the diffusion of gases through the leaf.
The air spaces are saturated with water vapour so water
diffuses out of the leaf.
Stomata – these minute pores allow the When a plant has plenty of water, the guard cells become turgid. The cell wall on
entry of carbon dioxide and the exit of the inner surface is very thick, so it cannot str etch as much as the outer surface. So
oxygen. They are mainly present in the lower as the guard cells swell up, they curve away from each other, opening the stoma.
epidermis. This surface is less exposed to
Closed Open
the Sun’s radiation so that evaporation of
water is kept to a minimum. The stomata
can be closed when no carbon dioxide
intake is needed (in the dark, for example). Flaccid Turgid
Thick
guard cell guard cell
cell wall
When a plant is short of water,
the guard cells become flaccid, Stoma Stoma
closed open Thin
closing the stoma.
cell wall
p Leaf structure is a compromise between maximising photosynthesis and minimising water loss
42
This diagram shows how leaf, palisade cell and chloroplast are adapted for
photosynthesis
Leaf blade has a large surface to trap light
and is thin so that light can penetrate
Cells of the upper Palisade cells are packed together and filled
epidermis do not with chloroplasts. Best site for photosynthesis
Interior of leaf have chloroplasts. since light penetrates, carbon dioxide and
magnified x300 Light passes easily water are delivered and chlorophyll is present.
with a light through them.
microscope Chloroplasts can move
within the cell to make
best use of available light
Waxy cuticle is
Leaf stalk
transparent
holds leaf
in the best
position to
receive light
Cell wall and cell

membrane are
CO2 from freely permeable
the air to CO2 and water
Xylem
(carries water
Vascular and minerals) Thin layer of
bundle Phloem water on cell
(carries away sucrose, surface can
made from glucose) dissolve CO2
Single palisade  Chloroplasts

cell magnified are the site of
Lower epidermis x800 with
Spongy cells have few photosynthesis
a light
chloroplasts. Large
microscope
spaces between them
Water from Stomata are pores allow easy diffusion of
the soil that allow CO2 to water and CO2 through
diffuse into the leaf. leaf to palisade cells.
2 Light energy reaches the

4 Oxygen is released
chlorophyll molecules.
as a waste product.
Membrane contains the

chlorophyll molecules
that can trap light energy.
7 Carbon dioxide can diffuse

into the region between
the green membranes.
5 Glucose is often stored
1 Water is a raw material as starch grains.
for photosynthesis.
3 Light energy splits the 6 Hydrogen and carbon Key
water molecules into dioxide react to form
1 µm Water
oxygen and hydrogen. glucose, catalysed by
Carbon dioxide
The hydrogen reduces enzymes.
Oxygen
the carbon dioxide to
Hydrogen
form glucose - this part
of photosynthesis is Glucose
catalysed by enzymes.
Q
1 Work out the magnification of the single chloroplast.
Show how you reached your answer.
43
2.10 The control of photosynthesis

Objectives
The need for each of these requirements or
■ To understand that photosynthesis is affected factors is outlined in the diagram below.
by a number of different factors
If any of these factors is in short supply, the rate
■ To appreciate that photosynthesis is affected
of photosynthesis will be less than its maximum
most by the factor that is in shortest supply –
the limiting factor possible rate. One factor can cause a ‘bottleneck’
■ To know that an understanding of limiting
in the overall process as shown at the top of the
factors can be used in the efficient growth of page opposite. (This factor is called the limiting
greenhouse crops factor.) The limiting factor is the one which
controls the rate of the overall process because it
is the factor nearest to its minimum value. The
Requirements for photosynthesis limiting factor varies at different times and under
The process of photosynthesis depends upon: different conditions.
the
■ availability of light ■ I n Britain, during the summer, light and
the presence of a pigment to absorb
■ temperature may be ideal for photosynthesis
the light but the carbon dioxide concentration may be
a supply of carbon dioxide and water
■ the limiting factor.
a temperature suitable for enzyme activity.
■
Availability of light – light provides the energy that drives

photosynthesis (by splitting water molecules).
The light energy absorbed by a plant depends on:
the intensity of the light source
the wavelength of the light
the length of time (duration) that the light is available.
Chlorophyl is essential for the absorption of light energy.

The synthesis of chlorophyll requires magnesium ions,
which must be supplied from the soil (see page 74).
Temperature affects the rates of enzyme activity.

A 10˚C rise in temperature can cause a doubling in the
Carbon dioxide concentration has a rate of enzyme activity (although higher temperatures
major influence on the rate of cause denaturation). This is important both in leaves
photosynthesis since it is the substrate (enzymes involved directly in photosynthesis) and in roots
that is in shortest supply (there is almost (enzymes systems involved in active transport of mineral
always enough water for photosynthesis). ions – see page 74).
Good greenhouse effect! Poisons and photosynthesis

Burning fossil fuels: Photosynthesis may be inhibited by poisons, e.g.
raises carbon dioxide concentration paraquat (a weed killer) prevents light energy
raises temperature. being used to convert carbon dioxide to sugars
Both of these factors increase the rate sulfur dioxide (in acid rain) damages the palisade
of photosynthesis (see page 40). cells of the leaf.
Well balanced plants! Plants are autotrophic

(’self-feeding’) and can carefully regulate their food
Water availability – a shortage of water production. Plants need nitrate to be able to convert
closes stomata (see page 80) which limits glucose from photosynthesis into amino acids. If there
carbon dioxide uptake. There is always enough is a shortage of nitrate, the plant will reduce its rate
water as a substract for photosynthesis. of photosynthesis since it will need fewer sugars to
make amino acids.
p Factors affecting photosynthesis

44
25 ˚C
Rate of reaction e.g. how much
oxygen released per minute
15 ˚C
3 If the bottleneck is widened, in this case by raising the

temperature, more substrate molecules can be converted
to product.
Concentration of carbon dioxide
Enzyme
Product
Substrate
2 As the concentration of substrate is increased, a second

1 The rate of the reaction, i.e. how many molecules of product ( ) limiting factor acts like a ‘bottleneck’. No matter how
are formed, is limited by the number of available substrate (carbon many molecules of the substrate ( ) are available, the
dioxide) molecules ( ), since they can all pass through the enzyme number of molecules of product ( ) formed is limited by
‘channel’. The reaction will go faster if more substrate becomes how quickly the enzymes ( ) can work. In this example the
available – in this situation substrate concentration is the temperature might be the limiting factor, since enzymes
limiting factor. work less quickly at lower temperatures.
p Limiting factors control the rate of reactions in living organisms
■ uring any 24-hour period, light will be the

D warm up the air, for example. However, in an
limiting factor from dusk to dawn. enclosed environment such as a greenhouse,
■ During a British winter, plants may not it is possible to control the factors affecting
photosynthesise on a bright, sunny day photosynthesis and so get the maximum yield
because temperature is the limiting factor. from crops. This requires an understanding
of the principle of limiting factors – it is no
The availability of water is rarely a limiting factor
good simply increasing the light availability
for photosynthesis, since there are so many other
by having lights on in dull weather without
physiological processes in plants that depend on
making sure that carbon dioxide concentration
water that these processes will usually halt in a
and temperature are adequate, for example.
water shortage before photosynthesis does.
A greenhouse grower will also try to use
Controlling the limiting factors strains of plants selected for their high yield
In an open field, there is very little that farmers (see page 218), control any potential pests and
can do to speed up photosynthesis – they will probably use automatic systems to control
cannot change the degree of cloud cover or the factors that might limit the crop yield.
Q
1 L ist the three most important factors that control the 4 What is a limiting factor? Which limiting factor is most
rate of photosynthesis. likely to affect photosynthesis:
2 The burning of fossil fuels can both help and hinder a on a cloudy, spring day
photosynthesis. Explain this statement. b on a bright, sunny day in winter
3 Which ion deficiency is most likely to affect c in the middle of a crop field on a sunny, warm
photosynthesis? Why? July day?
45
2.11 Photosynthesis and the environment

Objectives
■ To understand that plants both photosynthesise Demonstrating gas exchange
and respire The overall change in carbon dioxide levels
■ To understand that these processes affect the
in the atmosphere can be demonstrated using
composition of the atmosphere hydrogencarbonate indicator, as shown in
■ To appreciate that photosynthesis plays an important the diagram below. Carbon dioxide produces
part in the carbon cycle a weak acid, carbonic acid, in water and this
indicator is sensitive to the changes in pH
caused by the acid.
Photosynthesis and respiration
From the equation for photosynthesis (see In the dark, the rate of respiration greatly
page 38) we know that this process removes exceeds the rate of photosynthesis – the plant
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and at the cells are living on the sugars they manufactured
same time releases oxygen. This is the opposite of during previous periods of photosynthesis. As
the light intensity increases after dawn, there
the exchange of gases in respiration:
comes a point where the rates of respiration and
glucose  oxygen carbon dioxide  water photosynthesis exactly balance one another and
there is no net uptake or loss of carbon dioxide
Green plants both photosynthesise and respire: or oxygen. This is called the compensation
■ i f photosynthesis exceeds respiration (in the point, and at this point the glucose consumed
light) plants will, overall, remove carbon by respiration is exactly balanced by the glucose
dioxide and add oxygen produced during photosynthesis. Beyond the
■ if photosynthesis is less than respiration (in the compensation point the plant begins to gain
dark) plants will, overall, remove oxygen and glucose, as photosynthesis exceeds respiration.
add carbon dioxide.
Experiment to demonstrate the effect of light intensity on the

balance between photosynthesis and respiration
Colour of hydrogencarbonate indicator solution As carbon dioxide concentration

decreases, the indicator solution
Even source turns purple.
of light
Black paper Tissue Boiled

cover paper leaf
cover pH rises
(less acidic)
Processes going on in living plant cells pH falls

(more acidic)
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
Respiration Respiration
No
Respiration O2 CO2 living cells
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis
As carbon dioxide concentration

increases, the indicator solution
turns orange–yellow.
p Hydrogencarbonate indicator reacts

46 to changes in carbon dioxide in the air
The products of photosynthesis substrate for photosynthesis. An atom of carbon in

Plants manufacture all of their food requirements, carbon dioxide could be taken in by a plant, built
starting from the glucose molecule. The diagram up to a complex food molecule, and then eaten by
shows some of the products that the plant makes. an animal which breaks it down to carbon dioxide
again. Thus atoms are recycled between simple
These products are available to the plant, and to
and complex molecules, through the bodies of
any organism that eats the plant. An animal that
plants, animals and other living organisms. The
eats plant material will use most of it to obtain
carbon cycle is described simply in the diagram at
energy by respiration. The carbon dioxide released
the bottom of the page, and more fully on page 232.
as a waste product is then available for plants as a
Carbon
dioxide
Oxidation in Energy, which is used to
respiration drive all of the other
Water (page 106) reactions
Photosynthesis Sucrose, the transport form

of carbohydrate
Condensation Starch, a storage form

Glucose
(page 28) of carbohydrate
Cellulose, a structural form

of carbohydrate (in cell walls)
Mineral ions Nitrate (and
(see page 74) sulfate) Fats, for long-term energy storage,
Reduction and
oils, part of cell membranes
Amino acids and proteins

(including enzymes)
Nitrate (and Nucleic acids (including DNA)

phosphate) which carry information for
protein synthesis
p Plants produce all their food molecules from the products

of photosynthesis by metabolic reactions
Carbon dioxide Simple, inorganic

in the atmosphere
Q
1 Name an indicator that can be used to measure
Photosynthesis
carbon dioxide concentrations in solution. What
(autotrophic colour change would you predict for this indicator in
feeding) the presence of an actively photosynthesising plant?
Explain your answer.
2 What is meant by the term compensation point?
Why is it important that a grower of greenhouse
Respiration
crops should understand this term?
Food Food 3 ‘Photosynthesis provides plants with sugars’ – is this
molecules molecules true, and is it the whole story?
in plant Heterotrophic in animal 4 Plants take up carbon dioxide, which they convert to
feeding Complex, organic carbohydrate. Explain how it is possible for the plant
to take in the same molecule of carbon dioxide more
p Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle – carbon is recycled than once.
between simple inorganic and complex organic compounds
47
2.12 Plants and minerals

Objectives
Minerals are taken out of the soil by plants, and are
■ To know that plants require minerals such as
also washed out by rain. In natural, uncultivated
nitrate and magnesium
soils there is a balance between the formation and
■ To know the functions of minerals in plants
the loss of mineral ions, as shown below.
■ To appreciate how information about plants’ mineral
requirements can be obtained In cultivated soils the ground is prepared and then
the crop is harvested. There are few plant remains
left to decompose and replace the minerals taken
Plants need a number of minerals. The plant up into the plant body. Levels of minerals such
uses minerals to make food molecules such as as nitrate and phosphate fall, so farmers add
amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids out of
these back in the form of fertilisers. These may
the carbohydrates made by photosynthesis (see
be natural fertilisers, such as sewage sludge,
page 39). Plants absorb minerals from the soil in
animal manure or compost, or they may be
the form of ions. The mechanism of ion uptake is
artificial fertilisers. The most common artificial
described on page 74. Here we shall consider why
fertiliser is NPK fertiliser which contains three
the ions are required, and how scientists might
main nutrients – nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and
work out the function of each different mineral
potassium (K). The role of some of these minerals,
nutrient.
and the effect on the plant of mineral deficiencies,
Minerals in soil is shown in the diagram on the opposite page.
The minerals present in soil depend on the type of Providing these minerals is one of the most
rock beneath the soil and on the decomposition important aspects of preparing soil for agriculture.
of animal and plant remains lying on the soil.
Addition Removal
Carried in by
Uptake by plants to
flooding rivers
build food molecules
Decomposition of animal
and plant remains In cultivated soils, removal
(pages 232, 234) by these two processes is
Minerals in the soil
so great that minerals must
be added as fertilisers.
Breakdown of bed rock by
weathering, plant roots Leaching as ions dissolve
and burrowing animals in rainwater running
through the soil
p Minerals are added to the soil and also removed by natural processes
48
Magnesium is absorbed from Leaves turn

the soil as magnesium ions pale green Nitrogen probably has the
(Mg2+). Magnesium forms part or yellow greatest effect on plant growth.
of the chlorophyll molecule. Farmers use expensive NPK
Deficiency causes chlorosis – fertilisers to replace nitrogen
the leaves turn yellow, removed from the soil when
Roots crops are harvested.
usually from the bottom of normal
the plant first.
Nitrogen is absorbed from the Leaves Problems with fertilisers

soil as nitrate ions (NO3– ) or pale Excessive use of fertilisers can cause
ammonium ions (NH4+ ).
Because nitrogen is required Lower
problems of eutrophication (see page 267).
for so many food molecules, leaves The fertiliser runs off into nearby streams,
especially proteins (including dead
rivers and lakes and boosts the growth of
enzymes), deficiency causes Roots only
severe symptoms. The whole slightly
algae. As algae die they are decomposed
plat is stunted, with a weak affected by bacteria, which use all of the oxygen
stem and yellowing, dying
leaves. dissolved in the water for aerobic
p Plant growth and mineral deficiencies
respiration. As a result the water becomes
oxygen-deficient, and larger animals such as
fish and insects die.
Plants and minerals – investigation
The apparatus shown on the right can be used to Plant – a cereal such as grass
investigate the effects of mineral deficiencies on plant is usually chosen since growth
is rapid
growth. Cereal plants of equal age and size are grown in a
series of culture solutions. One of the solutions contains all
known mineral nutrients in the correct proportions; each of
the others is missing a single mineral. All the vessels are
placed in identical conditions of temperature and light Cotton wool
support for plant
intensity, and the plants are allowed to grow for equal
lengths of time. Glass vessel with
1 Why is the vessel surrounded by black paper? black paper cover
2 The bubbled air supply provides oxygen to the roots.
Why might this be important in mineral uptake?
3 What is the independent variable in this investigation,
and what is the dependent variable?
Culture solution –
4 Suggest some fixed variables, and state how you would minerals dissolved
attempt to control them. in distilled water
5 Cereal plants such as grasses are useful in this sort of
investigation, since many identical plants can be
obtained from a single clump. Why is this important in
providing valid data?
6 The plant nutrients used in this investigation are Air supply – provides oxygen
supplied as salts. How could you make up a culture to roots, and bubbles keep
solution that is only lacking a single element? culture solution well mixed
49
Questions on photosynthesis
and plant nutrition
1 When a strip of filter paper is soaked in cobalt b Suggest two possible reasons for the result
chloride solution, it is pink when damp and obtained for the strip attached to the upper
turns blue when dry. surface of the leaf in experiment 3.
The figure shows strips of dry cobalt chloride c Suggest how the student could improve the
paper on the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf, reliability of this experiment.
pressed between dry glass slides. d Suggest how the student could show that the
concentration of water vapour coming out of
elastic cobalt chloride a leaf is greater than its concentration in the
band paper
atmosphere.
cobalt Cambridge O Level Biology 5090
chloride Paper 2 Q3 May 2007
paper glass slide
leaf 2 Copy and complete the following paragraphs.
a The cells of green plants absorb water by
. Plant cells rely on water for , as a
leaf, slides and cobalt chloride
paper shown in section medium for biochemical reactions, as a
and as a raw material for .
glass slides
b Water is obtained by plants from the
leaf attached
to plant
soil solution. The water enters the plant
through its . These structures are well
A student used this method to investigate the adapted to the absorption of water. There
time taken for strips of cobalt chloride paper are growing on their epidermis which
to turn from blue to pink. The experiment was greatly increase the over which water
performed five times. The results are shown in absorption can take place. In addition to
the table. water, these structures also absorb such
experiment time (in minutes) taken for paper as which is required for the synthesis
number to change from blue to pink of chlorophyll and which is required
upper surface lower surface for the manufacture of amino acids and
1 10 3 proteins. These substances are absorbed
2 13 4 by a process called since it requires a
3 4 3 supply of energy.
4 11 4 c Water is used as a transport medium for
5 12 3 both ions and sugars. Mineral ions are
transported within the main water flow
a i State the most likely conclusion that
through the plant in the tissue. Sugars
could be drawn from the results of
are transported in the living cells of the
experiments 1, 2, 4 and 5.
. These specialised tissues are grouped
ii Suggest an explanation for the results of
together into bundles.
these experiments
3 a i Name the two raw materials needed by
for the upper surface of the leaf,
plants for photosynthesis.
for the lower surface of the leaf.
ii Name the gas produced by photosynthesis.
50
b The figure below shows a leaf, with white Hydrogencarbonate indicator (bicarbonate
and green regions, that is attached to a indicator) changes colour depending on the pH
plant. The plant had been kept in the of gases dissolved in it, as shown below.
dark for 48 hours and then a lightproof,
black paper cover was placed over part of concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved
the leaf. high low

white region
B green region 1 pH 7 pH 14
C
indicator indicator indicator
yellow pinky red purple
A D
After six hours the colour of the indicator in all
four tubes had changed.
a i Predict the colour of the indicator in each
position of lightproof tube after six hours.
black paper cover
on both sides of leaf ii Suggest the reason for the change in
colour of the indicator in each of tubes
attachment
to plant A and D.
b The figure below shows a fifth tube, E, set up
at the same time and in the same conditions
The plant is left under a light for 24 hours. After
as tubes C and D.
this time the leaf is removed from the plant and
is tested for the presence of starch.
i Which chemical reagent is used to show the
sunlight
presence of starch?
ii Record the colour you would see, if you had
carried out this test, in each of the areas A,
B, C, and D.
iii Explain the results for areas B and D.
E
Paper 2 Q4 May 2008 Suggest and explain the possible colour of the
4 The figure below shows four test-tubes that indicator in tube E after six hours.
were set up and left for six hours at a constant
Paper 2 Q6 May 2009
warm temperature.
lightproof box
sunlight sunlight
water
shrimp
pond
pond water
weed
with indicator
A B C D
51
2.13 Food and the ideal diet:

carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
Objectives
Balanced and adequate diet
■ To understand why organisms require food
fat
■ To list the constituents of an ideal diet
■ To know the functions of each component
of an ideal diet protein
carbohydrate
Food
All living organisms are made up of molecules,
organised so that they can carry out the An adequate diet provides sufficient energy for the performance
of metabolic work, although the ‘energy’ could be in any form.
characteristics of life. Food supplies them with:
A balanced diet provides all dietary requirements in the correct
■ olecules that are the raw materials for repair,
m proportions. Ideally this would be 1/7 fat, 1/7 protein and 5/7
growth and development of the body tissues carbohydrate.
■ molecules that can be oxidised in respiration, In conditions of undernutrition the first concern is usually
and act as a source of energy provision of an adequate diet, but to avoid symptoms of
malnutrition a balanced diet must be provided.
■ elements and compounds that enable the raw
materials and energy to be used efficiently.
CARBOHYDRATE
All living organisms need food, but some, green
plants in particular, can make their own organic
molecules. These organisms are said to be PROTEIN
autotrophic (or ‘self feeding’). Green plants use a

form of autotrophic nutrition called photosynthesis FAT
to supply them with all the organic molecules they
need (see page 38). Other organisms cannot make WATER
their own food, and must take in food molecules
from their surroundings. These molecules have been VITAMINS
made by another organism, so living things that
feed in this way are said to be heterotrophic (or
MINERALS
‘other feeding’). Humans, like all animals, are totally
dependent on other organisms for their food.
FIBRE
A balanced diet
The total of the molecules or nutrients that
we need is called the diet. A balanced diet Q
provides all the nutrients, in the correct amounts, 1 G ive three reasons why living organisms need food.
needed to carry out the life processes. If the 2 Write one sentence to explain the difference
diet does not provide all the nutrients in the between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
correct proportions, a person may suffer from 3 What is a balanced diet?
malnutrition (see page 60, for example). 4 Which are the main energy foods for humans?
5 State four functions of proteins, using particular
Food can be analysed to find out what chemicals
examples to illustrate your answer.
it contains, using quite simple chemical
techniques (see page 30). A balanced diet should
contain the correct proportions of carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, vitamins and minerals, water
and dietary fibre. We shall look at each in turn.
52
Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins: three food types

Good source Functions in humans Comments
Carbohydrates
Rice, potatoes, wheat (e.g. pasta) and other A source of energy. Glucose is oxidised in Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth and
cereals provide starch. Food sweetenings, respiration (see page 106) to release small intestine and absorbed as glucose.
such as those in desserts, sweets and soft energy for active transport, cell division, Refined sugars are absorbed very rapidly,
drinks, and preservatives provide refined muscle contraction and the manufacture of giving a sudden boost of ‘energy source’.
sugars, such as sucrose (cane sugar) and large biological molecules. Excess Starch is digested and absorbed more slowly,
glucose. carbohydrate can be stored as glycogen giving a steady supply of energy source:
(see page 132) and as fat. starches are called slow release
carbohydrates.
Lipids
Meat and animal foods (eggs, milk, cheese) Fats and oils are an important source of Fats and oils are digested in the small
are rich in saturated fats and cholesterol. energy (see page 52). They are especially intestine and absorbed as fatty acids and
Plant sources such as sunflower seeds and valuable as an energy store because they glycerol. Some lipids contain saturated
peanuts are rich in unsaturated fats. are insoluble in water. They also provide fatty acids and others contain unsaturated
insulation – electrical insulation around fatty acids (with at least one carbon–carbon
nerve cells (see page 138) and thermal double bond). The body can store unlimited
insulation beneath the skin (page 131) – and amounts of fat, contributing to obesity (see
form part of cell membranes. Steroid page 60). The incorrect balance of saturated
hormones, including sex hormones, are and unsaturated fatty acids, or an excess of
made from cholesterol. cholesterol, can cause diseases of the
circulation (see page 92).
Proteins
Meat, fish, eggs from animals, and legumes Many functions, including Digested in the stomach and small intestine,
(peas and beans) and pulses from plants. One ■ catalysts (enzymes) (page 32) and absorbed as amino acids. 20 different
of the best sources of protein is the soya bean. ■ transport molecules, e.g. amino acids are needed to make up all of the
This contains very little fat (unlike most animal haemoglobin (page 82) different proteins in the human body. Some of
sources) and so is suitable for people with ■ structural materials, as in muscles these must be supplied in the diet as the body
health problems caused by fat (see page 92). (page 108) cannot make them – these are the essential
Soya beans can be flavoured and textured to ■ hormones, such as insulin (page 132) amino acids. Proteins from animal sources
make them taste and feel like meat – this ■ in defence against disease, as antibodies usually contain all 20 amino acids, but plant
textured vegetable protein is used as (page 104) proteins often lack one or two of the essential
‘artificial’ meat. Mycoprotein is also a amino acids. Deficiency of protein causes poor
low-fat substitute for meat. growth – in extreme cases may cause
marasmus or kwashiorkor.
Essential amino acids – cry baby

i
One factor that determines how comfortable babies
feel is the supply of a ‘pleasure chemical’, called
serotonin, in the brain (see neurotransmitters, page 137). 100
An essential amino acid called lysine is needed to make 80
Percentage
serotonin. Lysine is in short supply in some artificial

60
milks. Babies fed on these milk substitutes can’t
40
manufacture enough serotonin, they feel uncomfortable
20
and they cccrrryyy! Natural mother’s milk contains
an adequate supply of lysine. 0
es ilk as an
s e ur at gs ef ns se
ato M Pe Be Ric flo he Eg Be bea hee
Vegetarians must ensure that their diet contains a wide ot e e w
P hit hol our ya C
range of protein sources since very few plants contain W W fl So
all the essential amino acids. An ideal vegetarian meal Key
containing all the essential amino acids is baked beans
% protein in the food % essential amino acids in the protein
on toast (which also contains a high proportion of
dietary fibre).
p The protein values of some common foods
53
2.14 Food and the ideal diet: vitamins,
minerals, water and fibre
Objectives
■ To list the constituents of an ideal diet
■ To know the functions of each component of an
ideal diet
Vitamins and minerals

Vitamins and minerals are essential for the
body to be able to use the other nutrients
efficiently. They are needed in only very small
amounts. There are many different vitamins
and minerals, and they are usually provided in
the foods of a balanced diet.
Vitamins
Water-soluble Food source Symptoms of deficiency Comments
C (ascorbic acid) Cherries, citrus fruits e.g. limes, Scurvy – production of fibres in Vitamin C also seems to protect
lemons, oranges, and fresh green the body is affected. cells from ageing.
leafy vegetables
Fat-soluble Food source Symptoms of deficiency Comments
D (calciferol) Liver, dairy products, eggs, Rickets – bones are soft and may Can be made by the body, just
fish liver oil bend, because vitamin D is needed under the skin, but only if there is
for the absorption of calcium. plenty of sunlight.
Minerals
Food source Symptoms of deficiency Comments
Iron Red meat, liver, some leafy Anaemia – iron is needed to Iron is added to foods when metal
vegetables, e.g. spinach produce haemoglobin for red utensils are used in cooking – the
blood cells. A shortage causes amount of iron in a piece of beef
weakness as oxygen needed for is doubled when the meat is
respiration cannot be transported minced in an iron mincer ready for
efficiently. making burgers!
Calcium Milk, cheese and fish Several problems Calcium shortage causes rickets,
■ weak bones and teeth the same deficiency disease
■ poor clotting of blood caused by insufficient vitamin D.
■ uncontrolled muscle
contractions (‘spasms’).
Water
Water forms about 70% of the human body.
Two-thirds of this water is in the cytoplasm
of cells, and the other third is in tissue fluid
and blood plasma. Humans lose about 1.5
litres of water each day, in urine, faeces,
exhaled air and sweat – this must be replaced
54
by water in the diet. It is obtained in three Summary of a balanced diet

main ways:
Fats, oils and
■ s a drink
a sweets group
■ in food, especially salad foods such as Eat sparingly
tomatoes and lettuce Milk, yogurt and

cheese group
■ from metabolic processes (think back to the 2–3 servings Meat, poultry,
equation for aerobic respiration – water is fish, pulses, eggs
one of the products). and nuts group
2–3 servings
Vegetable group
A loss of only 5% of the body’s water can lead 3–5 servings
to unconsciousness, and a loss of 10% would
Fruit group
be fatal. We shall look further at how the body 2–4 servings
conserves water on page 125. Bread, cereal, rice
and pasta group
Fibre 6–11 servings
Dietary fibre is the indigestible part of food,
largely cellulose from plant cell walls, which
provides bulk for the faeces. Plenty of fibre in the
diet stretches the muscles of the gut wall and helps
push the food along by peristalsis (see page 66). A
shortage of fibre can cause constipation, and may
Key
be a factor in the development of bowel cancer.
Fat (naturally occurring and added to food)
Sugars (added to food)
p Food guide pyramid: choosing to eat these amounts of

different kinds of foods each day provides a balanced diet
Q
1 T able 1 shows the daily energy needs of different Use the following data and the formula to work out
people. Table 2 shows the energy content of four foods. the number of joules released from 1 gram of food
a What is the daily energy need for an active which caused the rise in temperature of the water.
8-year-old boy? Mass of water 5 20 g
b How many grams of Food 3 would meet the energy Temperature rise 5 18 °C
needs of an office worker? Mass of food 5 2 g
c How much more energy does a labourer need than
a male office worker each day? Show your working. Person Occupation Daily energy
d i From the foods given in Table 2, which ONE need / kJ
would be the best for the labourer to eat? Give a Active girl aged 8 years Schoolgirl 8 000
reason for your choice. Active boy aged 8 years Schoolboy 8 400
ii If the labourer ate only the food you have Woman Office worker 9 500
suggested in your answer to i, what is the least Man Office worker 10 500
amount he should eat to meet his daily energy
Active girl aged 15 years School girl 11 800
need? Show your working.
Active boy aged 15 years School boy 14 700
e The heat energy in foods can be measured
Man Labourer 18 900
experimentally by burning food under a known mass
of water. The temperature rise of the water is p Table 1
recorded. The number of joules received by the water
from 1 gram of food can be calculated using the Food 1 2 3 4
following formula: Energy content / kJ per 100 g 3 800 130 1 050 400
Heat gained by water from Y grams of food
mass of water 3 temperature rise 3 4.2 p Table 2
5  ___________________________________
        J per g
Y
55
2.14 Food and the ideal diet: vitamins, minerals, water and fibre
Processed foods contain other Calcium / vitamin Vitamin D / protein

D added to milk added to bread
substances*
Natural foods contain mixtures of carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water. Vitamin C
to fruit juices
Many foods consumed in the developed world
also contain other substances. These ‘additional’
Vitamin D and E added
substances fall into two main categories: to margarine
■ f ortifiers: these are substances added to
increase the nutrient value of the food p Fortification adds extra nutrients to processed foods
(‘fortification’ means ‘strengthening’);
■ additives: substances with no nutrient All food packages in European Union countries
value but which are added to improve the must carry a full list of additives so that
appearance, flavour, texture and/or the storage consumers know exactly what they are getting
properties of the food. when they buy a processed food.
Food additives may be natural or synthetic.

Ingredients
Flavourings and flavour enhancers Whole wheat, malted barley extract, sugar, salt, niacin,
(usually E600 numbers) iron, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), folic acid
most common food additives
Allergens
some are natural (e.g. vanilla),
some are artificial (e.g. propyl Contains gluten and wheat
pentanoate – pineapple flavour) Nutrition
flavour enhancers make existing
Typical values per 37g serving per 100g
flavours stronger, by stimulating
the taste buds (e.g. MSG – with 150ml of
monosodium glutamate) semi-skimmed milk
Energy 831kJ 1427kJ
197kcal 336kcal
Colouring (E100 numbers) Protein 9.4g 11.8g
added to improve colour which Carbohydrate 32.7g 68.0g
may have been lost during of which sugars 9.0g 4.7g
cooking (e.g. peas become paler)
or by dilution Fat 3.1g 1.9g
may be natural e.g. carotene of which saturates 1.7g 0.6g
(E160) from tomatoes Fibre 3.8g 10.1g
may be synthetic e.g. tartrazine Sodium 0.18g 0.27g
(E102) from coal tar
cannot be added to baby foods
Niacin 5.9mg 15.3mg
% RDA 33 85
Thiamin (B1) 0.5mg 1.2mg
Additives may be dangerous % RDA 36 85
Prevention of spoilage –
Preservatives (E200 numbers) For example Riboflavin (B2) 0.8mg 1.4mg
inhibit growth of fungi or tartrazine (E102) – linked % RDA 49 85
bacteria e.g. sulfur dioxide to hyperactivity and poor
concentration in children Folic Acid 73mg 170mg
(E220) controls the
sulfur dioxide (E220) – % RDA 36 85
browning of potatoes
Anti-oxidants (E300 numbers) may cause sensitivity in Iron 4.5mg 11.9mg
slow down deterioration caused asthma sufferers % RDA 32 85
by atmospheric oxidation e.g. monosodium glutamate
(E621) – may cause
per 37g serving with 150ml of semi-skimmed milk
vitamin C (ascorbic acid – E300)
vomiting, migraine 197 calories 3.1g fat 0.5g salt
added to fruit drinks
and nausea *RDA = recommended daily allowance
Guideline daily amounts for average adults
Improvement of texture All additives

Women Men
thickeners alter have an E (European) number Calories 2000 2500
the consistency of food must be pre-tested on animals Fat 70g 95g
e.g. cellulose E460 Salt 5g 7g
stabilisers prevent
components of emulsions
p Nutrition information from a packet of breakfast cereal
separating out e.g. Xanthan
E415 with yoghurt
56
What about residues?* ■ ertilisers: nitrates and phosphates may leach

F
Additives are used to improve food quality, as into water supplies (see page 268). This has
described above. Residues, on the other hand, caused problems (blue baby syndrome in
are added to increase food production. Because which babies’ blood does not become properly
of their widespread use, or because of poor food oxygenated) in babies fed on reconstituted
production techniques, these substances may powdered milk.
remain in food presented to humans. Some ■ Antibiotics: used to prevent infection of
chemicals which may remain as residues, and cattle and poultry. May lead to the selection of
which cause concern for human health, are: antibiotic-resistant strains of microbes (see
page 248).
Pesticides:
■ may become concentrated in food
■ Hormones: oestrogen is used to boost
chains, causing harm to the top consumers
the growth rate of chickens. This may
(including humans) – see page 266.
cause human males to develop feminine
characteristics.
Q
1 Table 1 shows the composition and energy content of four common foods.
Food Energy content / Composition per 100g

kJ per g
Protein / g Fat / g Carbohydrate / g Vitamin C / mg Vitamin D / mg Iron / mg
A 3700 0.5 80 0 0 40 0
B 150 1.2 0.6 7 200 0 0
C 400 2.0 0.2 25 10 0 8
D 1200 9.0 1.5 60 0 0 0
p Table 1
a Which food would be best to prevent rickets?
b Which food would be best for a young person training for cross-country running?
c Which food would be most needed by a menstruating woman?
d Which food would be the most useful to a body-builder?
e Which food would be most dangerous for a person with heart disease?
2 Breast milk contains all the nutrients a baby needs except for vitamin C and iron. However, the baby has
sufficient iron stored in its liver for the first months of its life. The first milk a breast-fed baby receives is called
colostrum. After a few days, normal breast milk is produced. Table 2 compares the composition of colostrum
and normal breast milk.
Nutrient / g per 100 cm3

Fat Protein Sugar
Colostrum 2.5 8.0 3.5
Normal breast milk 4.0 2.0 8.0
p Table 2
a Use data from Table 2 to describe how the amounts of fat, protein and sugar are different in colostrum and
normal breast milk.
b A baby feeding on normal breast milk drinks one litre of milk per day. Calculate how much protein the baby
receives per day. Show your working.
c Suggest a suitable fruit juice a mother could give her baby to provide vitamin C.
57
2.15 Food is the fuel that drives the

processes of life
Objectives
To suction pump
■ To know that food has an energy value
Thermometer
■ To know how to calculate the energy value of different
foods
■ To understand that different people have different
demands for energy
Measuring the energy in food Lid
Energy is released from food by respiration, Water

which is an oxidation process, similar in some
Stirrer
ways to combustion – if food is combusted
(burned), it releases energy, mainly as heat. We Coil – heat from
the food is
can work out the energy value of any particular transferred to
type of food by assuming that respiration releases the water
the same amount of energy in total as combustion through this.
does. The energy value is found using a food Crucible

calorimeter or bomb calorimeter, shown in containing food
the diagram opposite. A weighed sample of
Heat-proof base
food is completely burned in an atmosphere of
oxygen. The heat released by this combustion is
transferred to a known volume of water, which
rises in temperature as a result. The energy value To heating element Oxygen in here
for igniting the food
of the food can be calculated as follows:
temperature
  
        
3    
  volume of
    
energy value of food rise / °C water / cm3
    5 __________________________
           
       
in calories per gram mass of food sample / g
Units of energy
i
  energy value in
  
  
       The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). The amount of
energy value in calories per gram energy contained in food is measured in either joules (J)
       

  
    _________________
 
         4.2
kilojoules per gram 1000 or calories (cal).
1000 J 5 1 kJ (kilojoule) 1000 cal 5 1 kcal (kilocalorie)
A calorie is an older unit of energy that is still often
Energy values of different foods used. A calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise
The three main energy-providing organic the temperature of 1 cm3 of water by 1 °C.
molecules found in food are fats, carbohydrates 1 calorie 5 4.2 joules
and proteins. Each has a different energy value: Joules and calories are small amounts of energy so
kilojoules and kilocalories are more frequently used
Fats 39 kJ per g to describe the energy values of foods. In popular
Proteins 20 kJ per g nutrition guides, the calories referred to are actually
Carbohydrates 17 kJ per g kilocalories and are often spelt Cal, with a capital C.
Carbohydrates provide most of our energy, not The energy content information given on the packaging
of many foods has been calculated by burning a sample
because there is most energy available per gram in
of the food in a food calorimeter.
carbohydrates, but because we eat more grams of
carbohydrates than of proteins or fats.
58
Our energy requirements

dynamic
The total of all the chemical reactions in the body energy requirement
     
           BMR  activity  action
is called metabolism. It is driven by the energy per day of food
from respiration, so the amount of energy needed
depends on how many metabolic reactions a The bar chart below illustrates the energy demands
person is carrying out. The amount of metabolism for different people. Three factors affect the body’s
depends on three factors: energy requirements – age, sex and occupation.
The
■ processes required simply to stay alive. 20 000
These processes include breathing, excretion, 18 000
Energy demand / kJ per day

16 000
thinking and keeping a constant body 14 000
temperature. The energy consumed in one day 12 000
by these processes is called the basal metabolic 10 000
8000
rate (BMR). The BMR is different for males and
6000
females, and gets less as a person gets older. 4000
The amount of activity or exercise – this
■ 2000
0
requires muscular work and extra temperature ng g ng
r r r t g
pi in ni ke ke ke an in
e ay n or or or gn ed
regulation. This energy demand can be very sle pl ru w w w re tf e
; 8; ; ce ad ce ;p as
little (in a sedentary office worker, for example) rn 17 ffi ro ffi 25 re
bo ; o ; ; o b
w 25 25 60 25
;
or very great (in a road worker, for example). Ne
Age / years; activity
The amount of food eaten – eating food means
■
extra work for the digestive system and the
Key
liver. The energy demand simply caused by p Energy requirements for Male Female
eating is called the dynamic action of food. different people
Energy in food
A class of students used the apparatus shown here to investigate the
energy content of a peanut.
They first recorded the temperature of the water (T1) and weighed the nut. Boiling tube
The nut was held in a Bunsen burner flame until it caught fire, and then
placed under the boiling tube.
The students recorded the maximum temperature the water reached (T2),
and then repeated the experiment twice more. A typical set of results
from one pair of students is shown in the table at the bottom of the page.
20 cm3
of water
Burning peanut
Q
1 a Copy and complete the table of results. d Can you suggest any improvements to the
b Add a further column and include the energy value apparatus so that the students’ value might be
of the peanut in kJ per g. closer to the ‘professional’ one (24.5 kJ per g)?
c Calculate the mean energy value of the peanut as Redraw the apparatus showing your suggestions.
found by these students. Why is the mean value e What features of the method helped to improve the
more valid than any single value that they validity of the results? How could the students have
obtained? treated the results differently to improve their
validity further?
T1 / °C T2 / °C T2  T1 / °C Volume of Energy transferred Mass of nut / g Energy value /

water / cm3 to water / kcal kcal per g
22 78 0.45
22 74 0.52
21 75 0.47
59
2.16 Balancing energy intake and energy

demand: problems causing malnutrition
Objectives to help the body survive periods without food. Our
food intake should not be so great that we store an
■ To understand that different people have different
unhealthy amount of fat. A person whose fat storage
demands for energy
is beyond a healthy limit is said to be obese.
■ To understand that energy intake must be balanced by
energy use The ‘ideal’ body mass differs from person to
person, and depends on height and age. A
person who is obese is at risk from a number
Malnutrition means literally ‘bad feeding’. This of life-shortening diseases, including diabetes,
‘bad feeding’ could include: breathing difficulties, atherosclerosis
eating
■ too much of all foods, so having a (narrowing of the arteries) and arthritis.
balanced diet but consuming more than is Obesity is one of the most widespread results of
needed malnutrition in the western world.
■ having too little food
1.9
■ eating foods in the wrong proportions, for
Height / m
1.8
example, gaining too many kilojoules from fats
1.7
and too few from carbohydrates. 1.6
Too much energy

40 50 60 70 80 90
The need for energy is related to age, sex and Body mass / kg
Men
activity.
If the diet contains more energy than the body 1.8
1.7
Height / m
needs, the excess will be stored as glycogen or

1.6
fat; if it contains less energy than the body needs,
1.5
then the body’s own tissues will be broken down 1.4
to be respired. The diagram below shows the
40 50 60 70 80 90
importance of an energy balance. Women Body mass / kg
Key
Gain in
body mass Underweight Ideal body mass Obese Very obese
Demand exceeds Loss in
intake body mass p The ideal body mass should fall within the range shown
in these charts (designed for adults who have reached their
Intake exceeds
demand full height)
Losing body mass

The energy balance diagram shows that to lose
Lunchtime body mass, it is necessary to reduce energy intake
below energy use. This can be done in two ways:
■ y eating less ‘high-energy’ food, which will
b
A ‘couch
‘ h potato’
t t ’ has
h a poo
poor An athlete must take care that
diet and takes little exercise. a balance is achieved between reduce the energy intake
exercise and eating.
■ by taking more exercise, which will increase
the energy use.
Storing excess food: overnutrition
The body can store a limited amount of glycogen, The best approach is to combine both methods,
which allows the body to continue working even controlling the diet and also taking more exercise.
if the last meal was some time ago. However, the Many people who rely on diet alone have great
body can store an almost unlimited amount of fat difficulty in controlling their body mass.
60
Malnutrition can also mean t This child has kwashiorkor.

The absence of protein means
undernutrition: too little food
that muscle development is
In the developing countries of the world, many
very slow, and the limbs have a
people have diets which are neither adequate
stick-like appearance. The
nor balanced. In other words, they do not receive swollen abdomen is caused
enough energy to drive metabolism, nor do they largely by water from the blood
take in the nutrients they need for growth and plasma remaining behind in the
development. These people, often children, suffer body tissues. The liver is also
from many deficiency diseases – shortage of iron swollen because it is working
means they are often anaemic, and a limited hard to make the proteins
supply of vitamin C means that many of them have needed by the body from an
scurvy, for example. The most obvious signs of inadequate dietary supply.
their malnourished state, however, are often caused
by protein deficiency. There are two extremes of
protein deficiency – kwashiorkor and marasmus.
Kwashiorkor
In kwashiokor, the child may not have received
enough of its mother’s milk (often because another
child has been born) and may be forced onto a diet
that is too high in carbohydrate (often maize). As
a result the child may eat enough ‘energy’ food,
but because the diet is poor in protein when its
body should be developing quickly, the mental and
physical development of the child may be impaired.
t Marasmus is caused
Marasmus
by insufficient levels of
In marasmus, the child has symptoms of general
all nutrients in the diet
starvation – there is not enough ‘energy’ food nor
enough protein. All the body tissues waste away, and
Dangers of an unbalanced diet
the child becomes very thin with a wrinkled skin.
High blood pressure
Causes and treatments Too much salt in the diet can
cause water to be drawn into
Kwashiorkor and marasmus are both serious the blood and blood pressure
conditions. They are common in countries where to rise, eventually damaging
drought conditions have led to poor harvests, or delicate blood vessels (page 88)
including those in the brain.
where people have left their homes because of civil
war. Aid offered to these people must include both Tooth decay
energy foods and the nutrients needed for growth. A diet with a high content of
acidic, sugary foods can cause
Powdered milk is often provided, because it is damage to tooth enamel and
light and easy to transport. However it must be dentine (see page 65).
rehydrated with clean water otherwise water-borne Coronary heart disease
diseases such as cholera may result. Too much saturated fat and
cholesterol can cause blockage
Malnutrition in the developed world to blood vessels supplying oxygen
to heart muscle (page 92).
As well as the problem of obesity, caused by taking
in more energy than is needed for the body’s Constipation and bowel cancer
metabolism and activity, there are other problems Too little fibre means that faeces
Don’t forget obesity!
are not passed as regularly as they
caused by an unbalanced diet for many people Too many kilojoules – the
should be – the person is constipated.
most common problem of
in developed countries. These problems, and the nutrition in the developed
Bacteria can work on some of the
trapped faeces and release chemicals
‘unbalanced diet’ that causes them, are outlined in world (see page 55)!
that cause colon (large bowel) cancer.
the figure.
61
2.17 Animal nutrition converts food

molecules to a usable form
Objectives
must be changed into a form that can cross the
■ To know that the process of nutrition involves several
gut wall and then be transported to the places
stages
where they will be used or stored. The processes of
■ To know the basic layout of the human alimentary canal
nutrition are described in the diagram below.
The alimentary canal is highly specialised in
Definition: nutrition is the taking in of nutrients
humans. The food molecules are converted to a
which are organic substances and mineral ions,
usable form in a clear sequence, with each part
then absorbing and assimilating them.
of the gut being adapted to carry out particular
Nutrition involves a sequence of functions. The layout of the alimentary canal is
processes shown in the diagram opposite, and we shall see
Living things obtain food molecules from the how its organs work in the next few pages.
environment. These molecules are not usually
exactly the same as the biological molecules the Q
organism needs to carry out its life processes. 1 L ist, in their correct sequence, the processes that
The processes of nutrition convert the food make up nutrition.
2 What is the difference between the following?
molecules into a form that can be used by the
a chemical and mechanical digestion
organism. In humans and many other animals,
b absorption and assimilation
these processes take place in the alimentary canal
c egestion and excretion
(sometimes called the gut). The alimentary canal
3 Why are the epiglottis and the soft palate important
is a specialised tube running from the front of the in efficient feeding?
animal (starting at its mouth) to the rear (ending at 4 Name three glands that add juices to the alimentary
its anus). While the food is inside the tube it is not canal.
available to the body tissues. The food molecules
Nutrition begins when food
and drink is taken into the
body through the mouth – ingestion.
Mouth
The teeth and tongue break the Food
food into small pieces without
chemical change to the food molecules –
mechanical digestion.
Enzymes break down large, insoluble
molecules in the food to small,
water-soluble molecules – chemical digestion.
Digestive
Small digested food molecules enzymes
and ions cross the wall of the
intestine into the bloodstream Gut
Digested
or lymph – absorption.
food
Digested food is moved into the cells of
the body, where they become part of the
cells and are used for energy, growth and
repair – assimilation.
Anus
Faeces
Dietary fibre and other

indigestible substances pass
out through the anus – egestion.
Some excretory materials are
u Nutrition is a sequence of
added to egested substances
processes involving ingestion, and expelled from the body as
62 digestion, absorption and egestion faeces during defaecation.
Mouth – here food enters

the alimentary canal. It is
converted to a bolus of
food – produced by teeth,
tongue and saliva during
Salivary glands – three
mastication (see page 64)
pairs, produce saliva and
– ready for swallowing.
pour it into the mouth
through salivary ducts. Ileum – longest part of the
small intestine, where
Oesophagus – muscular digested food is absorbed
INGESTION
tube which helps food move into the blood and

to stomach by peristalsis. lymphatic system.
Liver – produces bile, which

helps to neutralise acidic Diarrhoea is the loss of watery
chyme and also emulsifies faeces. This occurs if water is
fats. Important in assimilation. not reabsorbed by the walls
of the small and large intestine.
DIGESTION
Cholera is a bacterial disease

Stomach – muscular bag
that affects water reabsorption.
which stores food for a The bacterium releases a toxin that
short time, and mixes food
increases loss of water and
with acidic digestive juices chloride ions into the small
to form the creamy liquid intestine.
called chyme. prevents reuptake of water
and chloride ions.
Gall bladder – stores
A person suffering from diarrhoea
ABSORPTION
bile before pouring it

can be treated by ORT (oral
into the duodenum
rehydration therapy) – drinking a
through the bile duct.
mixture of water and mineral salts.
Duodenum – first part of
the small intestine, where
semi-liquid food is mixed
Large intestine – (wider
with pancreatic juice and
than the small intestine).
bile.
The colon is part of the
EGESTION
large intestine. It reabsorbs

Pancreas – produces water from gut contents;
pancreatic juice (contains also absorbs some vitamins
enzymes, mucus and and minerals.
hydrogencarbonate which
neutralises acidic chyme)
which is poured into the Rectum – stores faeces before
small intestine thr ough the expelling them at a convenient
pancreatic duct. time.
Anus – exit for faeces;

defaecation is controlled
by two anal sphincters.
Constipation (the inability to
expel the faeces) can result if
there is not enough fiber in
the diet. The faeces become
too dry and hard to pass easily
out of the rectum.
63
2.18 Ingestion provides food for the

gut to work on
Objective
■ To understand the part played by teeth and the tongue The teeth in the skull
in preparing food for the alimentary canal
Mastication produces a bolus

The first stage in processing food for use by the Upper jaw
organism is taking the food into the gut. Once the

Incisors – for
food has been caught or collected, and perhaps
cutting and biting Lower jaw
cooked or processed in some other way, it is placed
(mandible)
in the mouth. Here it is cut up by the teeth, and
Canine – for Premolars – for Molars (third one is
the pieces are mixed with saliva by the tongue. holding and chewing and crushing hidden) – for chewing
This cutting and mixing is called mastication cutting and crushing
(chewing), and produces a ball of food called a
Side view of the four types of tooth
bolus. The bolus is swallowed and passed on to the
next parts of the gut. The teeth play an important Crown
role in chewing, and it should be no surprise that:
Root
■ t he structure of a tooth is closely related
to its function
■ there are different types of teeth adapted Incisor Canine Premolar Molar
to deal with all types of food. Surface view of the lower jaw
Human teeth and their function
The structure and function of a human tooth are 3 molars
shown in the diagram below. This type of tooth is
called a molar, found towards the back of the jaw.
The diagram above right shows the four different 2 premolars 1 canine
types of human teeth, and the part each of them
2 incisors
plays in mastication.
Enamel – the hardest

Dentine – forms the major part of the tooth. Harder
tissue in the body. Produced
than bone and made of calcium salts deposited on a
by tooth-forming cells and Crown framework of collagen fibres. The dentine contains a
made of calcium salts. Once
series of fine canals which extend to the pulp cavity.
formed, enamel cannot be
renewed or extended. Neck
Gum – usually covers the junction between enamel
Cement – similar in and cement. The gums recede with age.
composition to dentine,
but without any canals. Periodontal membrane – bundles of collagen fibres,
Root
It helps anchor the tooth anchoring the cement covering of the tooth to the
embedded
to the jaw. jawbone. The tooth is held firmly but not rigidly. The
in jawbone
periodontal membrane has many nerve endings
which detect pressures during chewing and biting.
Pulp cavity contains:

tooth-producing cells Vitamin C deficiency impairs production of
blood vessels collagen fibres, including those in the
nerve endings which periodontal membrane, so that the teeth become
can detect pain. loose and may fall out – a classic symptom of
scurvy (see page 54).
64
Two sets of teeth

Humans, like other mammals, have two sets of teeth during
their life. The first set is the milk dentition, which begins to grow
through the gums one or two teeth at a time at around five months
old. By about 18 months most children have a set of 20 teeth –
there are fewer molars (‘cheek teeth’) than in an adult since the
jaw is too small to hold any more. Between the ages of seven and
Decay begins in enamel – no pain. twelve years these milk teeth fall out and are replaced by larger
adult teeth. Eight new cheek teeth are added, with a further four
(the wisdom teeth) appearing at the back of the jaw by about the
age of 17 years. The individual now has the complete adult or
permanent dentition of 32 teeth.
Western-style malnutrition may cause dental decay

i
A diet that provides too much energy can cause obesity (see page 60). Much
Decay penetrates dentine and
of this energy-rich food will be in the form of refined sugars such as sucrose
reaches pulp – severe toothache.
(cane sugar) which is used to sweeten many foods. These sugars may also
be used by bacteria in the mouth to carry out their own life processes.
The bacteria produce a sticky matrix which traps food particles and forms a
coating of plaque on the teeth. The bacteria in the plaque convert sugars in
the food to acids. These acids remove calcium and phosphate from the enamel,
allowing bacteria to reach the softer dentine beneath. This is the start of
dental decay or dental caries. The dentine decays rapidly and the pulp
cavity may become infected. The tooth will need dental treatment, as shown
in the diagrams on the left.
Dental decay, and the gum disease that often goes along with it, can be
prevented by:
Bacteria now infect pulp and ■ eating food with a low sugar content
may form abscess at base of ■ regular and effective brushing of teeth at least twice a day to prevent the
tooth – excruciating pain.
build-up of plaque – plaque begins to reform after about 24 hours
■ if brushing is not convenient, finishing a meal with a crisp vegetable or
fruit, followed by rinsing with water.
Fluoride*
The mineral fluoride can be added to drinking water. Tests have shown that
this mineral reduces the risk of dental decay, although some people say
that they should not be forced to consume it.
■ If tooth decay is reduced, costs of dental care will fall and general health
will be improved.
BUT
Decayed part of tooth ■ Some people develop grey or brown spots on their teeth when they use
is drilled out by a dentist.
fluoride.
Q
1 How do we know that a tooth is a living structure?
2 Imagine yourself on a British warship several hundred years ago. Explain,
simply, why the sailors were losing their teeth.
3 a What is dental caries?
b How does it begin?
Hole is filled with amalgam or c Suggest two ways in which caries can be prevented or reduced.
plastic, and may be coated with plastic.
65
2.19 Digestion prepares useful food

molecules for absorption
Objectives
the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase
■ To know that digestion converts large insoluble
to work. The starch is not usually all converted
molecules into smaller, soluble molecules
to maltose in the mouth since the food does not
■ To understand that enzymes catalyse the breakdown
remain there for very long.
of food
■ To list examples of enzymes involved in digestion Passing to the stomach
of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and to know where Mastication produces a bolus of food, as we saw on
they perform their tasks page 64. The tongue pushes the bolus to the back of
■ To understand that undigested food must be expelled the mouth, and it is then swallowed (see opposite
from the gut page) and enters the oesophagus. The oesophagus
or gullet is a muscular tube leading from the mouth
The diet contains three types of food molecule to the stomach. The bolus is forced down the
in large amounts – carbohydrates, proteins and oesophagus more quickly than can be explained by
fats. When ingested, these molecules may be gravity alone. (It is even possible to swallow food
too large to cross the gut wall and too insoluble when standing on your head!) Waves of muscular
to be transported in the watery blood plasma. contraction push the bolus down towards the
Digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble stomach, as shown in the diagram below. These
food molecules into small, water-soluble waves of contraction are known as peristalsis, and
molecules. Digestion uses mechanical (chewing) they occur throughout the length of the gut. The
and chemical (enzymatic) processes. reason why fibre is important in the human diet
is that without it the gut contents are very liquid,
Digestive enzymes and the muscles of the gut cannot squeeze the food
In digestion, food molecules are broken down by along by peristalsis.
hydrolysis reactions (breakdown with water),
catalysed by a series of enzymes. There are Cross-section of gut showing muscle layers
different enzymes for the hydrolysis of each food
type; each enzyme works in different regions of Longitudinal muscles
the gut. The basic process of hydrolysis is the (running down length
of gut wall)
same for all the food molecules (see page 28):
Circular muscles
large, insoluble small, soluble (running around
enzyme
the gut wall)
molecule molecules
water
Longitudinal section of gut showing peristalsis
Carbohydrate digestion begins in Bolus Bolus is
moved along
the mouth the gut.
The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary
amylase (a carbohydrase). This enzyme catalyses
the conversion of the insoluble polysaccharide
starch to the soluble simpler sugar called maltose:
amylase Circular Circular Gut wall

starch maltose muscles muscles
relax contract
water
p Peristalsis is a wave of muscular contraction that moves
The saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates food along the gut. Mucus lubricates the bolus, helping it to
66 the food, and hydrogencarbonate, which provides move along.
Protein digestion begins in the stomach

The swallowing reflex
i
The stomach is a muscular bag with a lining that
It is important that the bolus of food travels down the
contains digestive glands. These glands produce
oesophagus and not down the trachea (windpipe), or
three important secretions: it might block the trachea and prevent breathing. A
■ ucus, which protects the walls of the stomach
m flap of muscle, the epiglottis, is forced across the top
from attack by gastric (stomach) juices of the trachea whenever food is swallowed, ensuring
food does not enter the trachea. We don’t have to think
■ pepsin, a protease or protein-digesting enzyme
about this swallowing reflex, but it can be overruled if
■ hydrochloric acid, which provides the
we try to eat and talk at the same time!
acidic conditions needed for the action of At the bottom of the oesophagus, just where it joins
pepsin and denatures the enzymes in harmful the stomach, is a ring of muscle called the cardiac
microorganisms ingested with food. sphincter. When the bolus reaches this sphincter, the
ring of muscle relaxes to allow the bolus through into
Inside the stomach the food is churned up with the stomach. If the stomach contents pass upwards
the gastric juices. The long protein molecules are through this sphincter and make contact with the wall
broken down by hydrolysis to smaller molecules of the oesophagus, they cause a burning sensation
called amino acids, as shown in the diagram below. known as ‘heartburn’. This can be treated using an
alkaline (‘antacid’) solution.
Bolus Soft palate
protease
+
hydrochloric
acid
Nasal passage
+ water
Hard palate
Mouth cavity
Protein Amino acids Food

Tongue
The pH in the stomach is too low (too acidic) Epiglottis
for the action of amylase, so the digestion of Oesophagus
Trachea
carbohydrate comes to a halt whilst the food is in
the stomach. The churning action of the stomach
muscles mixes the food into a creamy liquid
called chyme. Once the food is sufficiently liquid,
it squeezes past a ring of muscle at the foot of the
stomach, the pyloric sphincter, and enters the
duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.
pyloric sphincter
u This X-ray was taken

after the patient swallowed
a barium meal. The barium
makes the stomach show
up on the X-ray. Food is Food bolus is moved
passing through the pyloric down the oesophagus.
sphincter.
67
2.19 Digestion prepares useful food molecules for absorption
Digestion of food molecules is Water and digestion

completed in the small intestine The digestive juices are largely made up of water –
The liquid chyme contains partly digested food this is one of the major requirements for water
molecules. The digestion of these food molecules within the body. This water is the solvent for the
is completed in the small intestine, using digestive biochemical reactions of digestion and is also
juices which contain: used in the hydrolysis reactions that split up the
■ e nzymes from the pancreas large, insoluble food molecules. The juices also
■ enzymes from the intestine wall contain mucus which protects the wall of the gut
■ bile from the liver.
from being digested by its own enzymes.
The enzymes from the pancreas carry out three Egestion removes undigested food
tasks – amylase completes the conversion of Food may contain some molecules that cannot
starch to maltose, trypsin (another protease) be digested by the enzymes of the human gut.
completes the breakdown of proteins to amino Examples include substances in plant cells, such
acids, and lipase converts fats to fatty acids and as the cellulose in cell walls and the lignin in
glycerol. These enzymes work best at around pH 8 wood. These make up ‘dietary fibre’ (page 54).
(slightly alkaline conditions), and the juice from Water is first absorbed from the gut contents that
the pancreas also contains hydrogencarbonate remain after digestion, and this indigestible food
which neutralises the acid coming through from is then expelled. This process is called egestion.
the stomach. Some excreted materials, such as salts in the bile,
may be added to the indigestible foods to form
Lipase is helped in its action by bile, which is made
the faeces. The faeces are stored temporarily in
in the liver and stored in the gall bladder from
the rectum. When full, the rectum sets off a reflex
where it is released when needed. Bile emulsifies
action which causes its muscles to contract and
the fats – it converts them from large globules into
squeeze the faeces out through the anus. Humans
much smaller droplets, giving a greater surface area
have a sphincter at the anus which can prevent
for the lipase to work on, as shown in the diagram.
this defaecation happening at an inconvenient
Bile also contains hydrogencarbonate to help time! The control of this sphincter has to be
neutralise the acid from the stomach. Enzymes learned, and babies simply fill their nappies when
on the wall of the small intestine include maltase, the rectum is full.
which completes the breakdown of maltose to
glucose. All the starch has now been converted
to glucose. The table opposite lists the digestive
juices and their actions.
Bile salts
in bile
Large fat globule – Many small fat droplets –

relatively small surface area relatively large total surface area
p Emulsification of fats provides a larger surface for lipase to act on

68
Region of gut Digestive juice Enzymes Substrate Product(s) Other substances Function of
in juice other substances
Mouth Saliva from Salivary amylase Starch Maltose Hydrogencarbonate Alkaline (pH 7.5)
salivary glands environment
for amylase
Stomach Gastric juice from Pepsin (protease) Proteins Amino acids Hydrochloric acid Acidic (pH 2)
glands in wall of environment for
stomach pepsin; kills bacteria
Small intestine Pancreatic juice Pancreatic amylase Starch Maltose Hydrogencarbonate Neutralises chyme:
(duodenum) from pancreas Trypsin (a protease) Protein Amino acids alkaline environment
Lipase Emulsified fats Fatty acids for enzymes
and glycerol
Bile from liver None Bile salts Emulsifies fats –
(stored in gall converts globules
bladder) to smaller droplets
Hydrogencarbonate Neutralises chyme
Small intestine Intestinal juice Maltase on the Maltose Glucose
(ileum) from cells on villi surface membrane
of the epithelium
lining the small
intestine
p The human digestive juices and their actions: note how starch and proteins are broken down in several stages catalysed
by different enzymes
Q
1 In 1822 Alexis St Martin, a Canadian fur trapper, was added. The vial was corked and kept under controlled
wounded in his left side by a shotgun blast. Luckily the conditions. A similar piece of beef was suspended on a
accident occurred close to an army fort where one of string into the man’s stomach.’
the surgeons, William Beaumont, was able to treat St i Suggest one condition around the vial that
Martin. The wound healed very slowly, and left a small Beaumont would have kept constant.
hole in the side of the young man. Beaumont realised ii What control experiment should Beaumont have
that this gave him a unique opportunity to study what performed?
was happening in his patient’s stomach. iii Why did Beaumont use ‘boiled, salted beef’?
c After two hours, Beaumont recorded the following
results: ‘Beef in vial – the cellular texture seemed to
be entirely destroyed, leaving the muscular fibres
loose and unconnected, floating about in fine, small
shreds, very tender and soft. Beef in stomach – I
drew out the string, but the meat was all completely
A
digested and gone.’
Use your knowledge of digestion to explain the
B
difference between the changes in the vial and
those in the stomach.
2 The liver produces a liquid which is added directly to
C
the partly digested food in the small intestine.
a Name the liquid.
D
b Describe how it helps digestion.
3 Describe, in the correct sequence, how the protein and
a Which letter on the outline above represents starch in a ham sandwich are broken down
the most likely position of the hole? ready for absorption.
b Beaumont described one of his investigations as 4 Digestive juices contain enzymes, water and some
follows: ‘Juice was extracted from the stomach and other substances. Name two of these other substances.
placed in a small vial. A solid piece of boiled, State which digestive juice contains them, and state
recently salted beef weighing three drachms was what function they perform.
69
2.20 Absorption and assimilation make

food available
Objectives
The lining of the ileum is folded into hundreds of
■ To understand that digested food in the gut
thousands of tiny finger-like structures, the villi,
is still ‘outside’ the body
which project out into the liquid digested food. The
■ To know how the small intestine is adapted to the
structure of a villus, and its adaptations to increase
function of absorption of digested food
absorption, are shown in the diagram below.
■ To understand the part played by the liver in the
assimilation and distribution of absorbed foods Following absorption in the small intestine, the
contents of the gut are little more than water and
indigestible matter. Most of the remaining water
Absorption of the products of digestion is reabsorbed into the bloodstream from the
Enzymes in the gut convert large, insoluble colon, part of the large intestine. Some minerals
molecules to small, soluble molecules. These and vitamins are also absorbed here.
digested food molecules are transported across the
lining of the gut into the blood or lymph, a process The liver and assimilation
called absorption. They can then be distributed to Digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream.
the parts of the body where they will be used. Each type of absorbed food has a particular
Most absorption happens from the ileum, the function in the body, so it is important that food
lower part of the small intestine. The ileum is very molecules of the right type are available at the right
well adapted to perform this task: time in the right place. The liver ‘sorts out’ digested
food molecules, and all foods absorbed into the
■ I t is very long, about 6 m in an adult human,
capillaries of the villi are sent first to the liver.
so food takes a long time to pass through it, and
there is enough time for absorption to occur.
■ The surface of the ileum is highly folded,
which gives a much larger surface area for
absorption than a simple tube would.
Epithelium – only one cell thick so that there

is a short distance for absorption by active tr ansport
Each villus has tiny Basement and diffusion.
foldings called membrane
microvilli on its
Goblet cell – produces mucus which protects gut
surface which
lining against digestion by body’s own enzymes.
increase cell surface
area 20 times.
Nucleus
Capillary – transports glucose (from carbohydrate
Goblet breakdown) and amino acids (from protein breakdown).
Mucus cell
Lacteal – transports fatty acids and glycerol (the

products of fat breakdown by the enzyme lipase).
Section of ileum Longitudinal muscle layer
Gland – lined with cells which produce

Circular
digestive enzymes including maltase.
muscle
layer
Vein – delivers absorbed products to
Villi the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
Artery – delivers blood to villi.

One villus
70
The liver has many functions – at least 500 A combination of transamination and deamination
different biochemical reactions go on inside its makes sure that there is always a ‘pool’ of amino
cells. These functions include: acids available for use by the cells of the body.
■ anufacture of bile, which is important for the
m As a result of these and other activities, the liver
digestion of fats provides ideal concentrations of food molecules
■ storage of glucose as glycogen for the working of the body tissues. Each type of
■ interconversion of glucose and glycogen, which tissue uses food molecules for different purposes –
keeps the glucose concentration constant for for example, muscle cells manufacture muscle
the working tissues of the body (see page 132) protein, bone cells take up calcium and phosphate
■ interconversion of amino acids – the liver can to make bone, and all cells use glucose to release
convert some amino acids into others that energy by respiration. The processes of moving
the body might require in a process called food molecules into the cells where they are used
transamination is called assimilation.
The amino acids can be built up to proteins,
including plasma proteins such as fibrinogen
Alcohol and the liver
i
■ excretion of excess amino acids – the amino
part of the amino acid is removed in a process The liver receives all the molecules that the gut absorbs
from food. As well as useful molecules such as glucose
called deamination (see page 124) and
and amino acids, this may include harmful molecules
excreted in the urine as urea such as drugs or poisons. Alcohol is a drug (a molecule
that affects the normal working of the body – see page 152)
excess amino acid oxygen
which passes quickly to the liver after being absorbed
from the stomach and ileum. The cells of the liver convert
this alcohol to another substance which does not pass
through to the rest of the body’s circulation. Unfortunately,
ammonia sugar acid
in working to protect the other tissues, the liver is likely
to harm itself. The substance produced from alcohol
carbon can be dangerous to liver cells in high concentrations
energy
dioxide and can cause a serious disease called cirrhosis of the
via
liver. If the liver is damaged by excessive alcohol
respiration
consumption, then the whole body is affected. For
example, the blood glucose concentration cannot be
urea water
controlled efficiently if the liver has been damaged.
Alcohol has other effects on the body – these are described
on page 154.
to kidney for removal Q

1 In what way is the blood supply to the liver unusual?
■ removal of old red blood cells from the 2 Name two substances stored in the liver, and two
circulation and storage of the iron they contained that are converted to different substances.
■ breakdown of alcohol and other toxins, called 3 How is the structure of the villus adapted to its
detoxification. function?
4 What are goblet cells? Where else do you think they
might be found apart from in the gut?
5 Some microorganisms infect the gut lining so that
water cannot be absorbed. What effect(s) might this
have on the infected person?
71
Questions on animal nutrition and health

1 Saliva may contain an enzyme, amylase, that Plan A Plan B
acts on the substrate, starch.
a Describe how you would carry out a test to
show the presence of Upper Upper
i the substrate,
ii the product of the action of amylase
on starch.
A student carried out an investigation to find
the effect of pH on the activity of amylase on Lower Lower Key
the breakdown of starch. Indicates
The student carried out a second experiment decay has
occurred
but added 1 cm3 of dilute sodium chloride (salt)
solution to the amylase and starch.
The two women live in different towns. In
The results are shown in the table.
one town the natural drinking water contains
pH time taken for breakdown of starch / seconds fluoride salts, but there are no fluoride salts in
first experiment – no second experiment – the drinking water of the other.
salt added salt added a Which woman lives in the town with
3.5 600 450 fluoride in the drinking water? Support your
4.0 65 50 answer with numerical data.
4.5 90 60 b Suggest other reasons for the difference in
5.0 150 100 the number of decayed teeth between the
6.0 300 200
two women.
c Why is it important that both plans are from
b i Using the information in the table, women, and each is aged 27?
construct a graph of the results using one d Explain why decay is more likely in the
set of axes. cheek teeth.
ii Describe the effects of pH and of adding e How would these plans have been different
salt on the activity of amylase on the if they had been taken when the women
breakdown of starch. were 10 years old?
c Describe how you would ensure that
3
The table below shows the effect of pH on
your results were as reliable and valid as
the time taken for the complete breakdown
possible if you were to carry out the above
of a starch solution in the presence of an
investigation.
enzyme.
Cambridge O Level Biology 5090
Paper 6 Q1 May 2009 pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0
2 The diagrams below show plans of the teeth in time taken / 20.00 15.00 8.00 4.00 1.25 1.25 3.00 8.00
the upper and lower jaw. Plan A is from a 27- min
year-old woman called Hannah; plan B is from rate of
reaction
a 27-year-old woman called Caitlin.
a Copy and complete the table. Assume that
the rate of reaction is the same as 1/time taken.
b Plot the results in the form of an appropriate
graph.
c What is the optimum pH for this enzyme?
d Name one region of the gut where this
pH would be found. How is this pH kept
constant?
72
e Suggest two chemical tests that could be manufacture the connective tissues that hold
carried out on samples of the solution to body structures together – thus skin damage
show that starch is being broken down. is difficult to repair. The recommended daily
f In this experiment pH is the input amount (RDA) of vitamin C is the amount
or independent variable, and rate of required to prevent scurvy, but many scientists
reaction is the outcome or dependent believe that vitamin C has other functions in
variable. Suggest three fixed variables the body and that this RDA is probably too low.
which must be kept constant if these Higher doses of vitamin C help the immune
results are to be valid. system to fight off viruses, prevent cells
4 a The table below lists some of the food ageing, and prevent anaemia by increasing the
materials that need to be digested, the absorption of iron from food.
enzymes that carry out the digestion and 6 The table below shows the energy value of a
the end products. Complete the table. number of products from the Mars company.
a Copy and complete the table to show the
food material digestive enzyme end products
energy value of each product in kJ per 100 g
of digestion
(take care – some energy values are shown for
starch simple sugars
25 g; others are for whole bars or packets).
amino acids
b Draw a bar chart showing the products in
fat lipase
descending order of energy value (the one
b Amino acids and glucose are carried in the with the highest energy value on the left).
blood from the intestine to the liver. c For a 50 g portion which product would be:
Describe the processes that occur in the liver i the least fattening
when there is an excess of these materials ii the most fattening?
arriving in the blood. d A Mars bar weighs 65 g. What is its energy
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 value in kilojoules?
Paper 2 Q3 May 2008 e While sitting watching television, a boy of 15
5 During the 16th and 17th centuries, sailors uses about 6 kJ per minute.
were as likely to die from the disease scurvy i How long would it take him to use all the
as from enemy action. A chance observation energy obtained from the Mars bar?
that sailors who were transporting citrus fruits ii What is he using this energy for?
did not develop scurvy led Admiral Nelson to f While playing football the same boy uses, on
insist that all British ships should carry plenty average, 30 kJ per minute. How long would
of limes on long voyages. (This is why British it take him to use up the energy obtained
sailors were called ‘Limeys’.) from the Mars bar?
Clearly limes and other citrus fruits contained a g A football match lasts for 90 minutes. If the
substance that prevented scurvy, but it was not boy ran for half of the game, would he have
until the middle of the 20th century that this used more energy or less than the Mars bar
substance was shown to be ascorbic acid (also provided? How could his body cope with
called vitamin C). At that time an American any difference between energy demanded
surgeon called John Crandon carried out an and energy supplied?
experiment on himself: name of product energy value / kJ energy value / kJ
1 He cut himself with a sterile scalpel – the cut per 25 g, unless per 100 g
healed in 3 or 4 days. otherwise stated
2 He had no vitamin C in his diet for 3 months – Bounty, 60 g 490
a similar cut took 3 months to heal. Maltesers 504
3 He had no vitamin C for 6 months – a cut Mars 454
would not heal at all. Milky Way 490
Do you think that Crandon’s results were valid? Minstrels, 49 g 870
How could this experiment have been improved? Snickers 504
We now know that long-term deficiency in Treets, 42 g 1040
vitamin C makes it difficult for the body to Twix 504 73
2.21 Uptake of water and minerals

by roots
Objectives
Minerals have a number of individual functions
■ To understand that water may enter and leave
and together have a great effect on the water
cells by osmosis
potential of the plant tissues. Minerals from
■ To understand that dissolved substances may enter and
the soil are absorbed in the form of ions, for
leave cells by diffusion and active transport
example, magnesium enters the root as Mg2
ions and nitrogen enters as nitrate NO3 ions. If
Plants need water and minerals the soil solution contains higher concentrations
Plants need to obtain certain raw materials from of these ions than the root hair cell cytoplasm,
their environment. The roots of the plant are the ions can enter by diffusion (see page 22).
adapted to absorb both minerals and water from However, plants can continue to take up ions
the soil. Water is essential to support the plant, even if the concentration gradient is in the
as a reagent in many biochemical reactions and wrong direction, that is, if the concentration of
also as a transport medium (see page 236). The the ions is higher inside the cell than in the soil
diagram below shows how water enters the plant solution.
through root hair cells.
Leaves have a large surface area for photosynthesis. When the stomata are Root hair cells have an
open, water is lost by evaporation from spongy mesophyll cells (see page 80). enormous surface area.
This helps them absorb
Roots have an enormous surface area and water and minerals from
penetrate between the particles of soil. the soil. The photograph
shows root hair cells
magnified 300.
1 Water is drawn up the xylem to replace The root hairs are very
water lost at the leaves. This upward flow delicate and easily
of water is the transpiration stream (see damaged.
page 78). When plants are transplanted they recover much more
quickly if the r oots are kept in a ball of soil or compost
so that the root hairs are not disturbed.
Note: Water movement through the plant occurs in the

sequence 1–2–3–4: it begins with loss from the leaves,
and is completed with water absorption from the soil
solution.
2 Water (with any substances dissolved in it) is 3 Water crosses the living cells of 4 Water enters root hair cells by
forced to cross the membrane and cytoplasm of the cortex by (a) osmosis through osmosis, from the thin film of water
cells. The cell walls contain a waxy material the cells and (b) ‘suction’ through surrounding the particles of soil. The
which makes them impermeable to water. This the freely permeable cellulose cell soil water has a higher water
allows the membranes of the cells to select walls. Almost all of the water moves potential than the cytoplasm of the
which substances can enter the xylem and be across the cortex by route (b). root hair cell, so that water moves
distributed through the body of the plant. down a water potential gradient
(see page 24).
p Uptake of water by root hair cells

74
Osmosis: a reminder
i Active transport: application
i
A cell’s membrane controls the entry and exit of materials To increase crop yields, farmers may drain fields that
to and from the cell (see page 22). A typical plant cell are liable to flooding. If the soil is not waterlogged,
such as that found in the mesophyll layer of the leaf has more oxygen in soil air spaces is available to the plants,
a high concentration of solutes. As a result water will so the rate of aerobic respiration in root cells is faster.
enter a plant cell by osmosis from an environment with This provides more energy for active transport, so that
a high water potential, until the water inside the cell forces the growing plants will more quickly absorb mineral
the cell membrane up against the cellulose cell wall. ions present in the soil. Farmers may also cover their
When a plant cell contains plenty of water, the internal fields with black polythene. This absorbs heat and helps
pressure of the cell contents against the cell wall to raise the soil temperature, so that seed germination
supports the cell. The cell is said to be turgid, and and ion uptake by young roots will be faster.
turgidity helps support the plant. If the plant does not
have a good supply of water, the cells lose their turgidity
and slowly collapse. The cells are said to be flaccid
and the plant is wilted.
Q
1 D oes a solution containing many molecules of
Experiments on the uptake of ions also show that: dissolved sugar and amino acids have a high or a low
■ t he cells can select which ions enter from the water potential? Explain your answer.
2 Define osmosis in terms of water potential.
soil solution
3 How does the strength of the cellulose cell wall help
■ any factor that affects respiration, for example
plants to support themselves?
lack of oxygen or low temperature, can reduce
4 A scientist investigated the uptake of magnesium
the uptake of ions. The diagram below shows ions by the roots of young cereal plants. He made
some results that support these observations. the following observations:
The explanation of these observations is that a The rate of uptake was increased by raising the
temperature, so long as it did not exceed 40 °C.
the root hair cells use active transport to
b Uptake stopped if the roots were treated with
carry out the selective uptake of ions against
cyanide, an ion that prevents respiration.
a concentration gradient, using energy from
c Ions were taken up even if they were present at a
respiration (see page 26). lower concentration in the solution around the
roots than in the root cells themselves.
‘Plateau’ suggests that active
transport of ions is limited by d If ion uptake continued for some time, the
some other factor that limits concentration of sugars in the root cells
respiration, such as decreased.
temperature.
What conclusions can be drawn from each of these
observations?
Rate of ion uptake
Ion uptake by active transport –

energy is supplied by respiration
so ions are taken up more quickly
when more oxygen is available.
Ion uptake by diffusion – no

energy is required so process
is not affected by the low
concentration of oxygen
that limits respiration.
 Ion uptake depends
Oxygen concentration in soil on respiration
75
2.22 Transport systems in plants

Objective
■ To appreciate that water and dissolved substances are Moving vital substances from sources
transported around the plant in specialised transport to sinks
tissues The transport tissues are arranged in the stem and
root as shown opposite, to offer:
■ t he most efficient transport of materials from
Xylem and phloem
sources (where they are taken in or made) to
Substances need to be transported for long
sinks (where they are used or stored)
distances throughout a plant’s body – sugars, for
■ the most effective support in air (the stem) and
example, are produced in the photosynthesising
soil (the root).
cells of the leaves and may need to be transported
to storage cells in the roots. The water and ions The transport functions of xylem and phloem
absorbed by the roots may be required by cells have been investigated in a number of ways, as
at the growing tip (the meristem) of the shoot. shown in the diagram below.
These long-distance transport functions are
carried out by two specialised plant tissues – the
xylem and the phloem. These are tubes running
through the plant, collected together in groups in Transport of the products of photosynthesis
the vascular (transport) bundles, as shown in the Aphids (greenfly) are serious pests of many crops. They
diagram opposite. can take food meant for the growing regions of plants
by inserting their mouthparts (the stylet) into the
plant tissues.
Tracing xylem
Procedure
1 Cut a piece of celery
and stand it in a
coloured solution
(suitable stains include
eosin [red] and methylene
blue [blue!]).
If feeding aphids are anaesthetised with carbon dioxide
2 Leave for a few hours. their bodies can be ‘flicked away’ from the plant
surface, leaving the stylet in place. The contents of the
3 Carefully (CARE! SHARP phloem, the sap, will slowly leak out of the stylet and
SCALPELS) cut off about can be analysed. The results show that the phloem
5 cm of the celery, and transports sucrose (sugar), the main product of
use a hand lens to look photosynthesis.
for the stain. The coloured
solution has been carried
up the xylem.
Application: aphids eat
themselves to death!
Many insecticides kill useful
Extension: You could also try: insect species as well as pests.
a Carefully (using the scalpel) scrape away the outside tissues Systemic insecticides are
of the celery to trace the xylem. What happens as the stem sprayed onto the plant and
branches to the leaves? absorbed into the phloem
b Use a pale-coloured (e.g. white) flower, such as a carnation. tissues, so they only kill aphids.
You can change its colour, just as florists do!
76
Direction of transport varies with the seasons!

Sucrose is transported from stores in the root to leaves in spring, but to stores
in the root from photosynthesising leaves in the summer and early autumn.
Whatever the time of year the movement of sugars and amino acids
Stem – vascular bundles are arranged (translocation) is from source to sink. In other words, sucrose and amino acids
in a ring with soft cortex in the centre, are translocated from the region where they are made or absorbed to the
helping to support the stem. region where they are stored or used.
Phloem
Vascular
Xylem bundle
Cambium
NOTIC
E
Sugar
can mo
and do ve up
wn ph
at the loem
same ti
me.
Cortex – cells become

turgid and help to
support non-woody
parts.
Epidermis – protects against

infection by viruses and bacteria,
and dehydration.
Root – root hairs are extended cells of

the epidermis.
Epidermis – protects
against infection by
fungi.
Phloem Together form

a strong central
Xylem rod.
Cortex (pith) can act as a

winter store for starch.
p The transport tissues xylem and phloem are arranged in vascular bundles.
They transport water and dissolved substances around the plant.
Q
1 N ame the two vascular tissues in flowering plants. 4 Why must sugar be transported to sinks such as
Which tissue divides to form the vascular tissues? growing points and roots?
2 What is a source? Suggest two examples in a 5 Many dyes are water soluble. Xylem vessels reach up
flowering plant. from roots to flower petals. How could these two
3 Why does the direction of sugar transport vary from observations be useful to a florist?
season to season?
77
2.23 Transpiration: water movement

through the plant
Objectives
■ To recall that water movement through a plant begins Evaporation from leaves
with water loss from the leaves Water evaporates from the parts of a plant that
■ To understand that water is lost from leaves via the
are exposed to the atmosphere – for example, the
stomata, through which the exchange of gases between whole shoot system of a terrestrial plant and the
the leaf and the atmosphere also occurs upper leaf surfaces of a floating aquatic plant.
■ To describe how the leaf surface most involved in water The greatest loss of water takes place through the
loss can be identified stomata (singular stoma), minute pores on the
■ To understand how environmental conditions can affect leaf surface (see page 42). There are usually more
water movement through plants stomata on the lower surface of leaves than on the
upper surface.
Water movement through a plant begins with the diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf and evaporation from
the leaf surface (spongy mesophyll). 98% of the water taken up by a plant is lost to the atmosphere by transpiration.
Leaf cells have a layer of

moisture to aid diffusion of
carbon dioxide into the cells.
Water evaporates into internal

air spaces from surfaces of
leaf cells.
Stomata allow the uptake of CO2 for

Water diffuses through stomata down
photosynthesis. When stomata are open,
water potential gradient.
water evaporated from the spongy mesophyll
can diffuse out of the leaf down the water
1 Transpiration – water evaporates from leaves potential gradient.
and lowers the water potential in the leaf tissues.
2 Water moves from xylem to enter leaf tissues

down water potential gradient.
3 Water moves up the stem in the xylem as a

column of water due to the tension caused
by water loss from the leaves and the cohesion Wilting occurs if water loss exceeds
between the water molecules. water uptake – cells become flaccid,
the tissues become limp and the
plant is no longer supported.
4 Water uptake occurs by osmosis from the soil

solution (high water potential) into the root Flaccid Wilted
cells (lower water potential). cell plant
Flooding of soil with salt water lowers the water potential of the
soil solution and prevents osmosis – no water uptake by roots.
78
The lower surface is less exposed to the warming Leaf structure may reduce
effects of the Sun’s radiation, which would speed transpiration
up the evaporation rate. Loss of water from the Thick, waxy cuticle reduces
evaporation from epidermis
leaf is shown in the diagram on the opposite page. Stomata may be sunk into pits
Water cannot diffuse into the leaf through which trap a pocket of humid air
Leaves may be rolled with the
the stomata, because the air spaces inside the stomata on the inner surface close
leaf are completely saturated. Instead, water to a trapped layer of humid air
must be absorbed from the soil solution and
drawn up through the plant (see page 74). This Humid
air
flow of water through the plant to replace the
losses by evaporation from the leaf is called the Leaves may be needle shaped to
reduce their surface area
transpiration stream, shown in the diagram on
the opposite page.
Since water is lost through the stomata to the
atmosphere, transpiration is affected by leaf Atmospheric conditions may
affect transpiration
structure and by conditions in the atmosphere Wind moves humid air away from
(see opposite). These factors can be investigated the leaf surface and increases
using the potometer shown below. transpiration
High temperatures increase the
water-holding capacity of the air
and increase transpiration
Low humidity increases the water
potential gradient between leaf
and atmosphere and increases
transpiration
High light intensity causes
stomata to open (to allow
photosynthesis) which allows
transpiration to occur
Using A bubble potometer
Reservoir of water – connected Water uptake Water used in

to capillary tubing if the tap is
building of
opened. This is used to prevent
the air bubble entering the plant, protoplasm (1%)
and to move the bubble back
along the capillary tube. Water used in
Water ‘lost’ by photosynthesis
Rubber tubing connects the Capillary tube must transpiration (98%) (1%)
cut shoot to the potometer. be kept horizontal
The tube should be greased to prevent the bubble
moving due to its Graduated scale allows
and wired to prevent any
low density compared bubble movement/water
leakage of air into
with water. uptake to be read.
the apparatus.
Air bubble – inserted by
removal of tube from water.
Movement corresponds to water
uptake by the cut shoot.
Procedure
1 The leafy shoot must be cut, the apparatus filled and the shoot fixed to the potometer,
all under water to prevent air locks in the system.
2 Allow plant to equilibrate (5 min) before introducing air bubble. Measure rate of End of tube
bubble movement at least 3 times, and use reservoir to return bubble to zero each (to beaker of water).
time. Calculate mean of readings. Record air temperature.
3 Rate of water uptake per unit area of leaves can be calculated by measuring leaf area.
p The bubble potometer measures water uptake (water loss by transpiration

plus water consumption for cell expansion and photosynthesis)
79
O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S
2.24 The leaf and water loss

Objectives
can take in carbon dioxide as a raw material for
■ To understand that stomata are opened to allow
photosynthesis. Plants can open and close the
carbon dioxide to enter the leaf, and that this allows
water vapour to diffuse out of the leaf stomata, which helps to minimise water loss
whilst allowing photosynthesis to continue. The
■ To describe adaptations of leaves to reduce water
losses position and operation of the stomata is explained
on page 42, which also shows the adaptations of
the leaf to photosynthesis.
Stomata and water loss
Water is lost by evaporation and diffusion Adaptations of plants
from the leaf surface. This water loss happens The diagrams opposite show how plants may be
because the stomata need to open so the leaf adapted to the availability of water.
Investigation of water loss from leaf surfaces
Cobalt chloride paper is blue when dry, and pink when wet. in a drying atmosphere for 48 hours, and reweighed at
It is handled with forceps to avoid dampness from the fingers intervals. Some typical results from this investigation are
affecting its colour. The paper is attached to the upper and shown in the table.
lower leaf surfaces using microscope slides. The paper
attached to the lower surface of the leaf turns pink, showing Leaf Initial Final Percentage
that water is lost mainly from the lower surface. This number mass / g mass / g change in mass
technique gives a qualitative (non-quantitative) comparison.
1 4.2 4.1
Measuring the mass changes of leaves can be used to give a 2 4.6 4.4
quantitative comparison of water loss from different leaf
3 3.9 2.5
surfaces. A number of leaves are smeared with Vaseline as
shown in the diagram below. They are weighed and then left 4 4.1 2.5
Similar leaves from same species of plant
Both surfaces Only lower Only upper Neither

smeared surface smeared surface smeared surface smeared
p These measurements are made on leaves which have been detached from the plant. It is difficult to measure water loss from the
leaves of an intact plant, but relatively simple to measure water uptake using a potometer (see page 79).
Q
Questions 1 to 4 refer to the investigation above. 3 Why was it important that leaves of the same species
1 Copy the table above. Calculate the percentage were used?
change in mass for each leaf. 4 How could the results be made more reliable or valid?
2 Why did leaf 3 lose a greater proportion of its mass
than leaf 2?
80
Adaptations of plants to reduce water loss in different Q

environments
1 The diagram shows a leaf of marram grass, a plant
Cacti are well adapted to hot, dry environments (deserts) they that grows in dry, windy environments on sand
are xerophytes dunes. The photograph shows a
transverse section of marram grass
Green stem carries
leaf as seen under a microscope.
out photosynthesis.
a Copy the diagram of the
leaf, and draw a line to show
Leaves reduced to
spines to reduce the direction in which a
surface area for water transverse section is cut.
loss (and deter grazing b The positions of several stomata
animals).
are labelled on the photograph. If
sufficient light is available, oxygen is
released from the leaf through the
stomata.
Stomata are sunk in
grooves to avoid drying i Name the process that produces oxygen.
winds. ii Which gas is consumed during this process?
iii Name and define the process by which the
Swollen stem stores
water.
oxygen moves from leaf to atmosphere.
c When the stomata are open, water vapour will also
be lost from the leaf’s internal surfaces. Use the
diagram and the photograph to suggest three
Shallow roots absorb ways in which the structure of the marram grass
water from lightest leaf helps to reduce water loss.
rainfall. d Give three reasons why plants require water.
e Why is it particularly important that a plant
Deep roots penetrate to
growing in sand dunes should reduce water loss?
very low water table.
Epidermis Hairs
Stomata
Aquatic (pond) plants have leaves with:
little lignin in the xylem, since the
leaf is supported by the water
a very thin cuticle, since water
conservation is not a problem
stomata on the upper surface to
allow CO2 uptake from the
atmosphere.
These plants are hydrophytes.
Wilting and leaf fall

When water is in short supply, plants may reduce water loss by:
wilting – leaves collapse are stomata close to reduce heat Vascular Thick waxy
absorption and evaporation/ bundle cuticle
diffusion of water
leaf fall – in very severe conditions,
e.g. when water is frozen during 2 Copy and complete the following paragraph.
winter, plants allow the leaves to fall The movement of water through the plant begins at
off so that no water loss can occur.
the leaf surface, and a stream of water called
No photosynthesis can take
place, but the plants can remove the is drawn up through the plant to replace
chlorophyll from the leaves for these losses. The gas is required for
storage before allowing leaves to fall.
photosynthesis, and enters the leaves through pores
called . These pores allow the loss of to
Modern Christmas trees are bred so that the needles don’t the atmosphere, and leaves show many adaptations
fall – a disadvantage in a natural habitat, but good news when to reduce this loss. These adaptations include ,
clearing up after Christmas!
and .
81
2.25 Transport systems in animals use

blood as the transport medium
Objectives
Large complex organisms, such as humans, have
■ To understand why animals need a circulatory system
a small surface area in relation to their relatively
■ To know that a transport system has four components
large volume. As a result, cells near the centre of
■ To know the structure and functions of the components
the body are some distance away from contact
of the blood
with the atmosphere, and may also be some
distance from the gut where food is digested. Cells
All living organisms require energy, which is inside such large organisms cannot gain enough
released from food and oxygen in the process of oxygen and glucose by diffusion alone.
respiration (page 106). All living cells in the body
(for example in the brain, liver, kidney and muscle) A mass flow system
need energy, and so glucose and oxygen must be To supply oxygen and glucose, as well as other
transported throughout the body. In some small substances, large organisms have a specialised
animals (especially those with a flat body such transport system. This system, called the blood
as the flatworm in the photograph), substances are system in all vertebrate animals, is an example of
transported in and out of the body, and from one a mass flow system. A mass flow system carries
tissue to another, by the process of diffusion. large volumes of fluid to all parts of the organism.
A system like this has four parts:
■ A medium – the fluid that flows in the system
and carries materials around the body. This is
the blood.
■ A system of tubes that carries the fluid from
place to place. These are the arteries and
veins.
■ A pump that supplies pressure to keep the
fluid moving through the tubes. This is the
heart.
■ Sites of exchange that allow materials
p The flatworm is very thin and has a high surface area to
delivered by the blood to enter the tissues that
volume ratio. Its volume is made up of working cells that
need various substances including oxygen, which can diffuse
need them. These are the capillaries.
in across the large surface. The distance from the surface to  A whale has a large surface area, but its volume is too
all the cells is small. large for materials to be moved to and from its body cells by
diffusion. The blue whale has a circulatory
system made up of 4000 dm3 of blood,
pumped through 50 000 km of blood
vessels by a heart the size of a small car.
The blue whale’s heart beats about

30000 times a day. What is its heart
rate in bpm (beats per minute)?
A shrew has a heart rate of about
900 bpm, a human of about 60 bpm
and a horse about 40 bpm. Including
the value for the blue whale, what
pattern can you see relating size and
heart rate?
82
Blood is the circulatory medium Blood cells are first formed in the bone marrow
The average adult human has about 5 dm of 3 of long bones such as the femur (thigh bone),
blood, which contains a number of blood cells although they may go on to other parts of the
suspended in a watery liquid (plasma). If a body before they become fully developed. The
sample of blood taken from the body is allowed to structure and function of different types of blood
stand, and a chemical added to prevent it clotting, cell are shown in the table below.
it will separate into layers as shown opposite.
If a drop of blood is placed on a microscope slide
and stained with a special dye, these different types Plasma: 55% of volume
of cell can be seen, as the photograph below shows.
White blood cells

Cells: 45% of volume and platelets
Red blood cells
A 1 cm3 drop of blood contains:
5 000 000 000 8 000 000 250 000 000

(5 thousand million!) white blood platelets
red blood cells cells
p The red blood cells sink to the bottom, and the white
p Red blood cells are pink, white blood cells have purple- blood cells and platelets settle on top of the red blood cells,
stained nuclei, of several different shapes (platelets are rather like a layer of dust. The plasma forms a clear, straw-
not visible) coloured layer at the top.
Cell type Appearance Function How the structure is suited to the function
Red blood cells Transport oxygen from Contain haemoglobin, an iron-containing pigment
(erythrocytes) lungs to all respiring tissues. which picks up oxygen at the lungs and lets go of
Prepare carbon dioxide for it at the tissues.
transport from all respiring Have no nucleus, leaving more space for haemoglobin.
tissues to lungs. Cells are small and flexible, so can squeeze through
narrow capillaries.
White blood cells Remove any Irregular shaped nucleus allows cell to squeeze
(phagocytes) microorganisms that invade through gaps in walls of capillaries.
the body and might cause Enzymes in cytoplasm digest microorganisms
infection. The phagocyte once engulfed.
engulfs the microorganism Sensitive cell surface membrane can
(see page 102). detect microorganisms.
White blood cells Produce antibodies – Large nucleus contains many copies of genes for the
(lymphocytes) proteins that help in the control of antibody protein production.
defence against disease
(see page 104).
Platelets Cell fragments involved Can release blood-clotting enzymes (see page 102).
in blood clotting.
83
2.25 Transport systems in animals use blood as the transport medium
Functions of the blood

The table on page 83 shows that one function of red blood cells
is the transport of the respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon
dioxide, between the lungs and the respiring tissues. The plasma
also has transport functions. This watery liquid carries dissolved
food molecules such as glucose and amino acids, waste materials
such as urea, and some control molecules such as hormones.
Because the plasma is largely water, it has a very high specific
heat capacity (see page 236). This means that the plasma is able
to distribute heat around the various parts of the body.
Defence against disease is another important function of the
blood. The different roles of the blood are summarised below.
Functions of the blood

Regulatory functions – homeostasis
Blood solutes affect the water potential of the blood, and thus the water potential
gradient between the blood and the tissue fluid. The size of this water potential gradient
is largely due to sodium ions and plasma proteins. The blood solute level regulates the
movement of water between blood and tissues.
Water plays a part in the distribution of heat between Too much alcohol in the
heat-producing areas such as the liver and areas of blood can cause water to
heat loss such as the skin. leave brain cells, causing
the pain and sensation of
Blood also helps to maintain an optimum pH thirst called a hangover!
in the tissues.
Protective functions
Platelets, plasma proteins (e.g. fibrinogen) and many other plasma factors (e.g. Ca2+ ions)
protect against blood loss and the entry of pathogens by the clotting mechanism.
White blood cells protect against disease-causing organisms:

phagocytes engulf them
lymphocytes produce and secrete specific antibodies against them.
Transport functions
Soluble products of digestion/absorption (such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins
and minerals) are transported from the gut to the liver and then to the general circulation.
Waste products of metabolism (such as urea, creatinine and lactate) are transported from
sites of production to sites of removal, such as the liver and kidney.
Respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) are transported from their sites of uptake
or production to their site of use or removal.
Hormones (such as insulin) are transported from their sites of production in the glands to
the target organs where they have their effects.
Support function
Erection of the penis is achieved by filling large spongy spaces with blood. The penis
becomes soft when blood flows out more quickly than it flows in.
84
The blood detectives

i
A scientist who specialises in the study of blood is called ■ AIDS may be detected in its early stages by the presence
a haematologist. A haematologist can tell a great deal of antibodies to the human immunodeficiency virus
from a tiny sample of blood. For example: (HIV) in the plasma – the affected person is HIV
■ Anaemia, an inability to transport enough oxygen, positive. In the later stages of the disease, the number
can be detected by noting a lower than normal number of white blood cells is very much reduced.
of red blood cells. ■ DNA fingerprinting, which can be important in
■ Sickle cell anaemia shows some red blood cells criminal investigations, can be carried out on nuclei
shaped like sickles, as the photograph below illustrates. extracted from white blood cells.
■ Leukaemia, a cancer of white blood cells, can ■ Diabetes may be detected by a high glucose concentration
be detected by high numbers of oddly shaped white in the plasma.
blood cells. ■ Eating disorders may be detected by higher than
normal concentrations of urea in the plasma.
p Using modern techniques of biochemistry, a p Sickle-shaped red blood cells show the
single drop of blood can yield information about person has sickle cell anaemia. A sickle is a long
all the conditions described above hooked tool used for cutting crops.
Q
1 Why do large organisms require a transport system? b Which person would be the most likely to become ill
2 A sample of human blood is collected and placed in a if exposed to a virus? Explain your answer.
tube and centrifuged. The blood separates into two c Which person’s blood is least likely to clot efficiently?
distinct layers. Explain your answer.
a What are the two layers? d Which person is likely to have an iron deficiency in
b Suggest one dissolved food substance found in the her diet? Explain your answer.
upper layer. Choose a substance for which there e These three samples were all taken from 23-year-old
is a simple chemical test. Describe the test for women. Explain why this makes comparisons
this substance, and state what a positive result between them valid.
would be. 5 Use words from this list to complete the following
c There is a third, rather thin, layer between the two paragraphs. The words may be used once, more than
main components. What is this layer made of? once or not at all.
3 ‘The structure of a cell is closely related to its function.’ Is epidermis, tissues, specialised, cells, blood, red blood
this statement correct for blood cells? Explain your answer. cell, division of labour, organ
4 The table shows the cell composition of three samples
Large numbers of . that have the same structure and
of blood.
function are grouped together to form ., for example
Sample from . Several separate tissues may be joined together to
Cell count / Jill Jenny Jackie form an . which is a complex structure capable of
number per mm3 performing a particular task with great efficiency.
Red blood cells 7 500 000 5 000 000 2 000 000 The structure of cells may be highly adapted to perform
White blood cells 500 6000 5000 one function, i.e. the cells may become . One
Platelets 250 000 255 000 50 excellent example is the . which is highly adapted
to carry oxygen in mammalian blood. If the different
a Which person is most likely to have lived at high cells, tissues and organs of a multicellular organism
altitude recently? Explain your answer. perform different functions they are said to show . 85
2.26 The circulatory system

Objectives
at these on page 88. In humans (and in many
■ To understand that the blood is directed around
other animals), the main artery is called the aorta
the body in a set of vessels
and the main vein is called the vena cava. The
■ To know the structure and function of arteries
structure and functions of arteries and veins are
and veins
shown in the table below.
■ To understand why humans have a double circulatory
system The human double circulation
■ To know the names of the main arteries and veins in the The human circulation is outlined at the top of
human body the page opposite. The arrangement is called a
double circulation because the blood passes
through the heart twice for each complete circuit
Blood vessels – arteries and veins of the body. The blood flows to the lungs under
Blood flows around the body in a system of
high pressure (so a large volume of blood flows
tube-like blood vessels, arranged in such a way
past the lung surfaces in a short time). Then,
that they all eventually lead back to the heart.
having picked up oxygen at the lungs, the blood
The blood flows away from the heart in vessels
receives another ‘boost’ of pressure from the
called arteries, and it flows back towards the
heart to drive it out to the tissues, where the
heart in vessels called veins. Joining the arteries
oxygen is needed.
and veins are the capillaries, and we shall look
Structure
Type of Transverse section Longitudinal section Adaptations of structure to function
vessel (‘cut across’) (‘cut along’)
Artery Thicker n Carries blood away from the heart to the tissues.
outer wall n Blood is at high pressure.
n Blood is rich in oxygen, low in carbon dioxide (except in the
pulmonary artery).
n Elastic walls expand and relax as blood is forced out of
the heart. This causes the pulse that you can feel if you press
an artery against a bone, for example in the wrist.
n Thick walls withstand the high pressure of blood. Rings
Narrow
of muscle can narrow or widen the artery and control the
Thick layer central blood flow in it according to the body’s needs.
of muscle tube Smooth lining so
and elastic (lumen) no obstruction to
fibres flow of blood
Vein Thin Flap of watch n Carries blood from the tissues to the heart.
outer wall pocket valve n Blood is at low pressure.
n Blood is low in oxygen, high in carbon dioxide
(except in the pulmonary vein).
n Valves prevent the backflow of blood. Blood is at low
pressure, but nearby muscles squeeze the veins and help push
blood back towards the heart.
n Large diameter and thin walls reduce resistance to the flow of
blood.
Thin layer
of muscle
Wide central and elastic
tube (lumen) fibres
p The structure and functions of arteries and veins
86
High pressure – both ventricles pump out blood at high pressure, but the ‘body’ circuit has a
pressure about 5x that in the ‘lung’ (pulmonary) circuit. This is because blood in the body circuit
Pulmonary artery – unlike other has so far to travel, and there are many branches in the circuit to take the high pressure blood.
arteries, this vessel carries
deoxygenated blood which also has
a high carbon dioxide concentration. Too high! If pressure in the pulmonary
Head artery is too high, tissue fluid or plasma
can leak into the lungs. This sometimes
The heart (see also page 90) happens to climbers at high altitude.
Right Left Arms

atrium atrium
Pulmonary vein – unlike other
veins, this vessel carries oxygenated
Right Left blood. It has the highest oxygen and
ventricle ventricle Lungs lowest carbon dioxide concentration
in the circulation.
Aorta – the main artery of the

This wall (the septum) separates
Heart body; supplies oxygenated blood,
oxygenated blood from
at high pressure, to the organs and
deoxygenated blood.
tissues of the body.
Vena cava – the main vein of the

body; returns deoxygenated blood
Hepatic artery – carries
at low pressure from organs and
oxygenated blood to the liver.
tissues to the heart. Liver
Hepatic portal vein – carries

Hepatic vein – returns blood with blood containing variable amounts
a regulated, optimum concentration of the absorbed products of
of food substances to the circulation. digestion from the digestive system
Digestive system to the liver.
Renal vein – blood with reduced

urea concentration is returned to the Renal artery – carries oxygenated
circulation. blood with a high concentration of
urea to the kidneys.
Kidneys
Key
Blood at low pressure

Q
Blood at high pressure
Legs 1 State two differences between
arteries and veins, and say how
Capillaries link arteries and veins. these differences are related to
They are present in all organs and the functions of these blood
tissues and are the site of exchange vessels.
of materials between blood and
tissue fluid (see next page).
2 Look at the diagram above.
Follow the path of the red
blood cell in the renal artery
Ventricle Atrium around the circulation and back
to the renal artery. How many
Gills times does it pass through the
heart? List the blood vessels
and chambers of the heart that
the cell passes through.
Other organs
Fish have a single circulation – blood flows through the heart

only once for each complete circuit of the body:
but there is
rapid fall in velocity and pressure as blood leaves the gills
pressure too low for efficient kidney
function as in mammals.
87
2.27 Capillaries: materials are exchanged

between blood and tissues, and
tissue fluid is formed
Objectives
every body cell is near to a capillary. The capillary
■ To understand that substances carried in the blood
beds are adapted to their function of exchange of
must leave the circulation to reach the tissues
substances in a number of ways:
■ To know that materials are exchanged between
■ the walls of the capillaries are only one cell
tissues and blood in the capillary beds
thick – substances do not have very far to
■ To know how the structure of the capillaries is suited
to the transfer of materials between blood and tissues diffuse through them
■ the capillaries are highly branched so they
cover an enormous surface area, giving more
Tissue fluid leaves the capillaries ‘space’ for diffusion to occur
To reach the cells that need them, dissolved ■ the capillary beds are constantly supplied with
substances carried in the blood must leave the fresh blood, keeping up the concentration
blood vessels and enter the tissues. At the same gradients of dissolved substances between
time, waste materials produced by the tissues blood and tissues. Without these concentration
need to enter the blood to be carried away. gradients diffusion could not occur.
Dissolved substances move between the blood and
tissues by diffusion across the walls of very fine The diagram shows how materials are
blood vessels called capillaries. Networks or beds exchanged between the blood and the tissues,
of capillaries extend through all the tissues, so
and how tissue fluid is formed.
Artery – delivers oxygenated blood, Cells of tissue Vein – carries away deoxygenated blood,
rich in nutrients and at high pressure. Need: oxygen and nutrients such as glucose low in nutrients and at low pressure. Has
Can be narrowed or widened to control and amino acids. high concentration of waste products.
blood flow (for example, during Produce: wastes such as carbon dioxide and
exercise). Continuous supply of blood some useful products such as hormones.
keeps up the concentration gradients
of substances between the blood
plasma and the tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid
formed from plasma
contains no blood
cells or plasma
proteins.
Capillary has:
wall only one cell thick
very large surface area.
Formation of lymph
Useful substances Substances

move out from plasma – collected from
formation of tissue fluid. cells
Capillary walls are about 1 µm

thick. The central tube (lumen) Remember how substances cross membranes
may only be the same diameter
as the red blood cells, so they Diffusion is: Osmosis is:
have to squeeze through the the movement of molecules the movement of water
capillary in single file as they down a concentration gradient down a water potential gradient
unload their oxygen. until equilibrium is reached. across a partially permeable membrane.
88
Problems with the return of tissue fluid

The diagram below shows in detail how tissue fluid is formed and
returned to the blood. This tissue fluid is essential for the transport
of dissolved substances between blood and cells. If anything goes
wrong with this return of tissue fluid, the tissues swell up.
In elephantiasis, for example, a parasitic worm lodges in the lymph
vessels in the groin and causes fluid to build up in the legs.
Tissue fluid is formed Tissue fluid is returned to the blood: x must

Artery when blood plasma is be the same as y + z or the water balance in
squeezed out of the capillaries. the body will be affected.
Tissue fluid returns to
the capillaries by
osmosis – if the blood
plasma has a high water
potential (the concentration
of solutes such as glucose x cm3 of fluid
and plasma protein is too
low), water cannot return
quickly enough. The tissues
swell up with fluid. If the
body is short of plasma y cm3 of fluid z cm3 of fluid
proteins, as in malnourished
children affected by
kwashiorkor (see page 61),
the body swells up.
Substances diffuse between cells and tissue fluid –

Vein if the blood contains the correct concentrations of
vital substances, the tissue fluid and cells will automatically
receive the correct balance.
Lymph vessels collect lymph

from around the body and
return it to the blood, close Lymph node – as lymph
to the heart. Blockage of the returns towards the blood
lymph vessels can produce vessels it is ‘filtered’ through
severe swelling of tissues lymph nodes. These contain
and organs on the side of cells called lymphocytes that
the blockage furthest from can remove any harmful
the heart. microbes that have infected
the body (see page 104).
Elephantiasis – the lymph vessels
Swollen glands caused by
are blocked by swellings caused
inflammation of lymph
by parasitic worms.
nodes.
Q
1 This diagram represents a group of body cells and some parts
of the circulatory system. The arrows show movement of fluids. B
a Name the fluids contained in spaces A, B and C. A
C
b Name two substances that the cells remove from the fluid in B.
Suggest two substances that the cells might add to the fluid in B. D
c Describe how the fluid in C is returned to the circulation. Blood
capillary
d Give a reason why the process shown at D might be Lymph
vessel
inefficient. What would be the result of this for the body?
How could it be corrected?
89
2.28 The heart is the pump for the

circulatory system
Objectives
■ To know that the blood is pumped around the A double pump
circulatory system by the action of the heart The heart is divided into two sides, each of which
■ To know that the heart is a muscular organ with four
acts as a pump. The right side of the heart pumps
chambers deoxygenated blood coming from the tissues out
■ To understand how the flow of blood through the to the lungs. The left side pumps oxygenated blood
circulation is maintained coming from the lungs out to the tissues. A much
greater pressure (about five times as much) is
needed to force blood out to the extremities of the
The heart of a mammal pumps blood through
body than is needed to drive blood to the lungs.
the circulatory system. It provides the pressure
Because of this, the left side of the heart is much
that forces the blood through arteries, capillaries
more muscular than the right side (page 87).
and veins. The pressure is generated by the
squeezing of the walls of the heart against the Even though the two sides of the heart generate
incompressible fluid blood. The heart walls can different pressures, they work in the same way and
squeeze the blood because they are made of have the same parts, as shown in the diagram below.
muscle, and the muscle contracts rhythmically.
Aorta – the main artery of the body; Pulmonary vein – returns

carries oxygenated blood out to the oxygenated blood from the lungs.
Pulmonary arteries – carry tissues. Blood pressure is at its highest A vein from each lung join together
deoxygenated blood to the lungs. in the aorta, and the strongest pulse before entering the left atrium.
is felt here.
Left atrium – receives oxygenated
Semilunar valves – prevent
blood returning from the lungs. Atria
blood running back into the
have thin walls since they need only
ventricles when pressure falls
pump blood to the ventricles.
during relaxation.
Two flaps of bicuspid valve –

when this valve is closed and the
Vena cava – the main vein of
ventricle contracts, the blood must
the body; returns deoxygenated
leave through the aorta.
blood from the head and lower
body to the right atrium.
Chamber of left ventricle.
Right atrium – receives Wall of left ventricle – thick

deoxygenated blood from the and muscular since it must force
vena cava. The pacemaker is blood through the arteries to all
found in the wall of the right the tissues of the body.
atrium.
Think about it! The left ventricle
Three flaps of tricuspid valve – can push out about 70 cm3 of blood
prevent blood flowing back with each beat, and in a normal healthy
from ventricle to atrium during person at rest the heart beats 70 times
contraction. per minute. How much blood is pumped
out of the heart per hour? How much
Tendons which are tightened to
per day?
make sure that the valve does
not turn inside out when the
ventricle walls contract.
Key
Deoxygenated blood Blood at low pressure

Chamber of right ventricle. Oxygenated blood Blood at high pressure
Wall of right ventricle – less Septum – wall between

muscular than left ventricle since left and right sides of the heart.
it need only force blood along the This separates oxygenated and
pulmonary arteries to the lungs. deoxygenated blood.
90
Note that:
■ The atrium receives blood at low pressure Artificial pacemakers – help for i
from the veins (coming from the lungs or the heart
tissues). The beating of the heart is controlled by the natural
■ The ventricle pumps blood at high pressure pacemaker in the wall of the right atrium. If this
pacemaker is damaged, pumping goes on automatically
out to the arteries (to the lungs or tissues).
at about 30 beats per minute. This is less than half the
■ Valves make sure that the blood flows in the
normal rate, and is only enough to keep a very inactive
right direction. person alive.
An artificial pacemaker can help people whose natural
The beating of the heart is controlled
pacemaker does not work well. This artificial pacemaker
by a pacemaker is made up of a box containing batteries and an electronic
In a healthy person the heart beats about 70 times timing device. It is placed in a cavity under the muscle
a minute during normal levels of activity. This rate of the upper chest as shown below, and a wire is fed
is enough to supply blood containing oxygen and down a vein into the right ventricle. The timing device
nutrients to tissues. sends a small electrical charge which triggers the
beating of the heart. This is set to give a basic rate of
The muscular walls of the heart differ from 72 beats per minute. The latest pacemakers can sense
other muscles in that they never become tired or changes in breathing, movement and body temperature,
fatigued, because each contraction of the heart is and make exactly the right adjustments to heart rate.
immediately followed by a relaxation. Even when The battery in the pacemaker is usually replaced every
year or so, under local anaesthetic.
the heart is beating at its fastest during severe
exercise (see page 116), the period of relaxation
Vein
allows the muscle to recover so it does not fatigue.
The pattern of contraction and relaxation is kept Battery-powered
going by electrical signals sent from a region of the pacemaker under
muscle of chest
heart called the pacemaker. This is a specialised
piece of tissue in the wall of the right atrium. It is
sensitive to the swelling of the heart wall as blood
enters the heart from the main veins. The signals
from the pacemaker make sure that:
■ the atria contract just before the ventricles, so
that blood flows from atria to ventricles
Electrode inside
■ the heartbeat is fast enough to meet the right ventricle
demands of the tissues for oxygen and
nutrients, and for the removal of wastes.
p An artificial pacemaker
If the pacemaker does not work as well as it
should, an artificial electronic pacemaker can be
fitted inside the chest (see box on the right).
Q
1 a Name the chamber of the heart that receives blood 2 A doctor listening to the heartbeat through a
from the lungs. stethoscope hears two sounds as the blood flows
b Explain what happens to the blood in the ventricles through the heart: ‘lup-dup lup-dup lup-dup’.
when the muscle in the ventricle walls contracts. a From your knowledge of the working of the heart,
c The muscle around the atria is thinner than the suggest how these two sounds are produced.
muscle around the ventricles. Suggest a reason b The doctor records 72 beats per minute. How long a
for this. period would there be between two consecutive
‘lup’ sounds? Explain your answer.
91
2.29 Coronary heart disease

Objectives
such as carbon dioxide, the blood returns to the
■ To know that the heart muscle requires a supply
circulation through coronary veins which pour
of oxygen, glucose and other nutrients
blood into the vena cava. The coronary circulation
■ To know that the heart muscle has its own blood supply
is shown below left. The activity of the heart can
through the coronary arteries
be checked in a number of ways:
■ To understand that factors such as lifestyle, diet and
family history may affect the efficiency of the coronary making
■ an ECG (electrocardiogram). There
arteries should be a regular pattern of the flow of
■ To know that coronary heart disease is one of the major electric current through the heart muscle.
causes of death in the developed world
The supply of blood to the heart muscle Any irregularity

could be a sign
Heart muscle contracts to push blood through the of heart disease.
vessels of the circulation. This contraction is work,
and it requires energy. The energy is made available

by aerobic respiration, so the working cells of the
heart need glucose and oxygen for respiration. measuring
■ pulse rate. This should be regular,
allowing for exercise or activity. Any unusual
The blood passing through the chambers on the
changes could indicate problems in the heart’s
left side of the heart carries oxygen and glucose,
nervous system.
but the heart cells cannot use these because the
heart sounds. The regular ‘lub-dup’ sound of
■
muscular walls are very thick and the blood is
the heart is caused by the heart valves closing
too far away. The heart muscle has its own blood
in sequence (cuspid then semilunar). Leaking
supply, delivered to capillary beds in the walls
valves can make the sound less clear.
of the heart through the coronary arteries. The
coronary arteries branch off from the aorta, Coronary heart disease
just where the aorta leaves the left ventricle. If any of the coronary arteries become blocked,
The heart therefore has a high-pressure supply the supply of blood to the heart muscle may be
of blood loaded with oxygen and glucose. Once interrupted. The heart muscle cells are deprived
these useful substances have been removed by of glucose and oxygen, and poisonous wastes such
the heart muscle cells and replaced with wastes as lactic acid build up (see page 108). Part of the
heart muscle stops contracting, causing a heart
attack. This can be damaging or even fatal, since
other tissues in the body no longer receive their
supplies of oxygen and nutrients if the heart
stops beating.
Left coronary What causes the coronary arteries to become
artery
blocked? A healthy coronary artery may be
narrowed by atheroma so that blood flow through
it is restricted. This person has coronary heart
disease (CHD).
The risk of developing CHD is increased by:
poor diet – high levels of cholesterol or
■
saturated fatty acids in the blood
Right coronary artery
poor lifestyle – smoking, lack of exercise, stress
■
p The coronary arteries branch off the aorta, supplying the genetic factors – being male; having a family
■
surface of the heart with oxygenated blood at high pressure history of heart disease.
92
Anyone with a genetic risk of developing heart If a doctor suspects that a patient has CHD, an
disease should obviously take care that he or angiogram is carried out. This gives a picture of the
she does not have a poor diet or lifestyle. Many state of these arteries (see below). If the coronary
middle-aged men, the highest risk group, help to arteries are blocked, a coronary artery bypass
prevent heart disease by taking half an aspirin a operation may be carried out, as shown below.
day (this seems to help stop small clots forming
which could block the arteries) and/or by drinking
Avoid the
a small quantity of alcohol (red wine may be the problem!
most beneficial).
Don’t smoke
Avoid fatty foods
Aortic arch Take regular
aerobic exercise
Grafted 'bypass'
Men are more at risk of CHD than women – but men
can’t avoid CHD by changing their gender!
Blocked part of In a coronary artery bypass operation a blood vessel is

coronary artery removed from another part of the body and stitched into
place between the aorta and the unblocked part of the
coronary artery. Sometimes an artificial vessel is used. The
bypass increases blood flow and reduces the likelihood of
angina (chest pain).
Coronary artery
Angioplasty can also help.

A special cable is passed into The metal
the narrowed artery and ‘cage’ (stent)
used to insert a metal ‘cage’ is placed in
which forces the artery open the artery
and the cable
Blood can now flow more easily is withdrawn.
Q
1 a The heart muscle has its own supply of blood from vessels that
from coronary heart disease
Graph A
20
Percentage death rate
run all over its surface. What is the name of these vessels?
b In some people these vessels can become blocked with a 15
fatty substance containing cholesterol. Explain the effects
10
that blocking these blood vessels would have.
2 Look at the graphs. Graph A shows the relationship between 5
the death rate for CHD and the blood cholesterol level. Graph
0
B shows the relationship between cholesterol levels and age, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
for men and women. Blood cholesterol / arbitrary units
a At which ages do men and women show the same blood
Graph B
cholesterol level? 7
Blood cholesterol /
b Use the information in the graphs to explain why the death 6

arbitrary units
rate from CHD is higher for men than for women between 5
Men
the ages of 25 and 45 years. Women
4
c Use the graphs to determine the level of blood cholesterol
3
that would keep the death rate from CHD at a minimum.
d What does your answer to c suggest about cholesterol 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
as the only cause of CHD?
Age / years
e What sort of person is most at risk from CHD?
93
Questions on circulation
1 Read the following article carefully, then answer the f the highest concentration of glucose following a meal
questions based on it. g blood at high pressure but with a low oxygen
Blood plasma carries red blood cells, white blood concentration.
cells and platelets to all parts of the body. It also
3 These diagrams are concerned with the exchange of
carries many solutes (dissolved substances) – these
materials between the blood and tissues.
include oxygen, carbon dioxide, urea, hormones,
glucose and amino acids. Part of the circulatory system
From heart To heart
In a normal healthy person the number of white
blood cells may vary, but is usually no more than
A F
8000 per mm3 of blood. If a person has an infection,
B C D E
the number of white blood cells may rise to 40 000
Artery Vein
per mm3 of blood.
In a healthy person living at sea level there are about Small artery Small
Capillaries vein
5 000 000 red blood cells per mm3 of blood. The cells
are regularly replaced from the bone marrow. Old, Sections through blood vessels (not to scale)
worn out red blood cells are removed from the blood Thick wall, muscle Single layer Thin wall, muscle
and elastic fibres of cells and elastic fibres
by the liver, after about 120 days of carrying out their
function. Each cell carries oxygen from the lungs to the
tissues, combined with a protein called haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin will also combine with carbon Pore
monoxide, a gas in car exhaust fumes and cigarette Artery Capillary Vein
smoke. Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin
Average blood pressure at different
about 250 times more readily than oxygen does, and positions in the circulatory system
the combination does not break down.
Blood pressure / kPa
20
a Name two soluble substances transported in the
16
blood plasma. For each substance you name, 12
suggest where it might be coming from and 8
where it might be going to. 4
0
b What is the maximum number of white blood A B C D E F
cells normally found in 1 mm3 of blood? What can Position in circulatory system
cause this number to increase?
a What happens to the blood pressure as the blood
c In a healthy person, what is the ratio of red blood
travels from A to F?
cells to white blood cells?
b The highest pressure is found in the artery. Why
d Name two sources of carbon monoxide.
is this important for the delivery of materials to
e What happens to the amount of oxygen transported
the cells?
if a person breathes in carbon monoxide?
c Veins have structures along them, not shown in
the diagram, to help return blood to the heart.
f How long would it take the blood of the person
What are these structures called?
in part e to regain its full ability to carry oxygen?
d How can the small arteries help control the
distribution of blood to tissues which have a high
g Liver is a good dietary source of iron. Why?
demand for oxygen and nutrients?
2 Name the blood vessel in a human that has: e Use information shown in the diagrams to explain
a the highest pressure how the structure of capillaries allows substances
b the highest oxygen concentration to pass from them to surrounding cells.
c the highest carbon dioxide concentration 4 List the blood vessels and chambers of the heart
d the highest temperature when the body is at rest through which:
e the function of removing deoxygenated blood a a molecule of glucose absorbed through the gut
94 from the leg passes on its way to an active muscle in the leg
b a red blood cell passes as it delivers oxygen A US citizen is almost three times as likely to
from the lungs to the brain and returns to be develop CHD as a French citizen. Medical scientists
oxygenated again. suggested that this difference could be due to
either diet or inheritance. They set up a study of
5 On a visit to a sports physiology laboratory, a
1000 French nationals who had emigrated to the
student underwent a series of tests. He was made
US, and who had taken up the American lifestyle,
to exercise on a rolling road, and the following
including diet.
information was collected.
a How many of these people would you expect to
heart rate / beats total heart output / output develop CHD if:
per minute dm3 per minute per beat / cm3 i diet is responsible
55 4.0
ii inheritance is responsible?
70 4.8
b All the people in this study were male, and non-
80 5.2
90 5.6 smokers. Why was this important to the validity
120 6.0 of the results?
140 6.0
7 The following tables show the effects of smoking
150 5.8
and blood cholesterol levels on the risk of
170 4.6
developing CHD.
a Copy the table and complete it by calculating the
output per beat for each heart rate value. cigarettes smoked per day relative risk of CHD
0 1
b Plot a graph of total output (vertical axis) against
5 1.2
heart rate (horizontal axis). On the same graph plot
10 1.5
output per beat (vertical axis) against heart rate. 15 2.0
c Describe the relationship between: 20 2.5
i heart rate and total output 25 2.9
ii heart rate and output per beat. 30 3.2
d i Even during severe exercise, the heart rate p Effect of smoking
seldom rises above 140 beats per minute. Use
the data in the table to explain why this is so. cholesterol level relative risk of CHD
ii Well trained athletes can keep up a heart rate Male, normal 1
of 170 beats per minute. Suggest how their Female, normal 0.3
output per beat may be different from that of Male, 30% above normal 1.4
Male, 45% above normal 2.0
an untrained person such as the student.
Male, 75% above normal 3.1
e Distance runners often have low resting heart
rates. How might this be of advantage to them? p Effect of blood cholesterol level
f Increased total output means that more blood
a Plot the two sets of results in an appropriate way.
can be delivered to active tissues. As heart rate
b i Which appears to carry greater risk, smoking
increases, so does breathing rate. Suggest why.
10 cigarettes per day or having a blood
6 The bar chart below shows how the risk of CHD cholesterol level 45% above normal?
varies in different parts of the world. ii How much more likely is a man who smokes
30 cigarettes per day and has a 75% higher
than normal blood cholesterol level to develop
600
CHD than a non-smoking woman with normal
blood cholesterol level?
England + Wales
number per 100 000 people
400 Men
8 Suggest how:
France
Death from CHD /
Scotland
Japan
Australia
200 a lifestyle
Finland
USA
b diet
0 c inheritance
may cause problems with the circulatory system.
200
Women
400
95
2.30 Health and disease

Objectives Classification of diseases
There are two main classes of disease – infectious
■ To understand what is meant by disease
and non-infectious. Infectious diseases are
■ To appreciate that disease may have a number
caused by some other living organism, usually a
of causes
microorganism. They can be ‘caught’, or passed
■ To understand that some microorganisms may
on from one individual to another and so are
cause disease
also called transmissible diseases. These diseases
are caused by a living organism, called a
What is disease? pathogen. Infectious diseases can be classified
The process of homeostasis maintains optimum according to how the disease-causing organism
conditions for body function (see page 128). is passed from one individual to another, as
However, sometimes the mechanisms of illustrated below.
homeostasis cannot cope with changes in the Non-infectious diseases are not ‘caught’ from
internal environment of the body. A person another individual. These diseases may have a
in this situation will show signs (such as a number of causes, illustrated opposite.
raised body temperatures) and experience
symptoms (such as feeling tired). The person Patterns of disease vary in time and
is no longer ‘at ease’ but is ‘dis-eased’. Disease, space
then, is the state of the body when it cannot In the eighteenth century many British children died
cope with changes by the normal homeostatic from bacterial infections. With the development
methods. of antibiotics, immunisation programmes and
Infectious diseases
These are caused by organisms, called pathogens, which may spread in a number of ways:
In infected water e.g. Cholera bacteria In droplets in the air e.g. influenza virus
By direct contact (contagious) e.g. In contaminated food (causes food

athlete’s foot-fungus or head lice – poisoning) e.g. Salmonella bacteria
insects or pork tapeworm
By animal vectors e.g. Plasmodium Via body fluids e.g. hepatitis B virus or
protoctist (causes malaria) via Anopheles human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
mosquito (causes AIDS)
Typical symptoms of disease include:

sweating/fever due to resetting of body’s thermostat
vomiting/diarrhoea due to body’s attempts to clear gut of irritants
pain due to release of toxins by pathogens.
A doctor might use a thermometer to recognise a sign such as raised body temperature.
p Infectious diseases. Parasites such as tapeworms and head lice are not considered to cause ‘diseases’ by some people, but
they do cause distress to the person affected by them and the body is less ‘at ease’ when it has been colonised by such a
parasite. Parasites may be thought of as causing long-term disease.
96
Non-Infectious diseases
Degenerative – organs and tissues work less well as they age. This
is thought to be due to changes in body chemicals caused by free
radicals such as the peroxide ion
e.g. heart attacks, cataracts, hardening of the arteries.
Deficiency – poor diet may deprive the body of some essential

substance e.g. scurvy is caused by lack of vitamin C – see page 54.
Allergy – sensitivity to some antigen in the environment, e.g. hay

fever (pollen is the antigen) – see page 104.
Environmental – some factor in the environment may trigger a

dangerous or abnormal reaction e.g. overexposure to ultraviolet
radiation may cause abnormal cell division leading to skin
cancer – see page 212.
Inherited/metabolic – some failure in the body’s normal set of

chemical reactions, e.g.
sickle cell anaemia (abnormal haemoglobin, page 204)
cystic fibrosis (production of thick mucus, page 204)
diabetes (failure to produce enough insulin, page 133).
These conditions are due to alterations in the genes.
Psychological/mental – changes in the working of the brain may

lead to abnormal behaviour, e.g. schizophrenia, depression.
Self-induced – some abuse of the body may affect its function,

e.g. lung cancer caused by cigarette smoking, cirrhosis of the liver
caused by alcohol abuse, see page 155.
improved public hygiene, deaths from infectious the vector can live and breed. In the same way,
diseases in the UK are now much less common. diseases spread by the number of people likely
Smallpox was a major killer worldwide until the to meet an infected individual. In recent years
1960s, but effective vaccination has now eliminated there has been concern over the possible spread of
this disease (see page 105). infectious diseases because:
In the Western world the major killers are now ■ E
asier travel by air means that diseases can be
‘diseases of affluence’, caused by our relatively carried from one country to another before the
wealthy lifestyle. Along with accidents, coronary infected person develops any symptoms.
heart disease and cancer cause most deaths in ■ G
lobal warming has increased the range of
Britain, largely the result of smoking, eating too some insect vectors.
many sugary and fatty foods, and lack of exercise. ■ A
greater dependence on communal eating and
Infectious diseases that are spread by vectors fast food has led to the easier transmission of
(e.g. malaria spread by mosquitoes) are naturally organisms that cause food poisoning.
confined to those parts of the world in which
Q
1 Suggest three ways in which microbes might be 4 What is the difference between the signs and the
harmful to humans, and three ways in which they symptoms of a disease? What are the causes of
might be helpful. Give examples to support your ‘typical’ disease symptoms?
suggestions. 5 Suggest why measles is very rarely fatal in Britain yet
2 Suggest three cause of non-infectious diseases, and still ranks among the top five killer diseases in the
give one example of each. developing world.
3 How can infectious diseases spread? Give examples to 6 How have changes in human lifestyle contributed to
support your answer. the spread of infectious diseases?
97
DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE
2.31 Pathogens are organisms that cause

disease
Objectives Viruses
Viruses are responsible for many of the most
■ To recall that a pathogen is an organism that causes
serious human diseases. Viruses differ from the
disease
true living organisms in that they cannot survive
■ To give examples of different types of pathogen and the
diseases they cause and reproduce outside the cells of their host –
every virus is a parasite. The structure of viruses
was described on page 6. Remember that viruses
Pathogens are parasites are so small that they can pass through filters and
Any organism that affects the body to cause screens which will trap any other organism. We
disease is a pathogen (or pathogenic organism). use the electron microscope to study viruses.
Pathogens are parasites, that is, they live on the
body of a host and cause it some harm: Bacterial diseases
■ b
y secreting poisons (toxins) – this is
The structure of bacteria and their importance to
especially common from bacteria. The humans are outlined on page 244. Some bacteria
toxins have different effects, for example the cause serious human diseases, TB for example.
organism Clostridium botulinum produces a TB is now the infectious disease that causes most
deadly nerve poison, whereas bacteria of the deaths worldwide, due to:
salmonella group release a toxin which irritates ■ poor disease control programmes
the lining of the gut. ■ resistance to antibiotics (see page 248)
■ a
s a result of multiplication – the organism ■ co-infection with HIV (see page 189)
may reproduce quickly and produce such a ■ a
rapid increase in the population of young
large colony that it damages cells directly, as adults, the age group most at risk from TB.
in malaria, or it uses up compounds which
Any bacterial disease can be treated with
should be used by the host cell, as in polio.
antibiotics.
Many viruses multiply and cause host cells
to burst. Controlling the spread of disease
■ a
s a result of the immune response – when Transmissable diseases are caused by pathogens
the host detects pathogens it directs more so controlling these diseases often involves
blood to the site of infection. This can cause preventing the spread of these organisms.
swelling and soreness, and usually causes a Important techniques include:
rise in body temperature. ■ hygienic food preparation (see opposite)
■ good personal hygiene
There are many pathogens that are parasites on
■ waste disposal (page 280)
humans, causing diseases. The following table
■ sewage treatment (page 277).
illustrates the range of pathogenic organisms.
Individuals and communities all contribute to the
Pathogen type Size Disease in
control of disease.
humans
Virus About nm Influenza
(1/1000 μm) AIDS
Bacterium (Prokaryote) About 1μm Cholera
Food poisoning
Protoctist Up to 1 mm Dysentery
Malaria
Fungus May be Athlete’s foot
extensive Ringworm
‘Worms’ Up to several Tapeworm
meters Toxocara
98
2.32 Preventing disease: safe food

Objectives
A number of bacteria can cause food poisoning,
■ To understand how microorganisms can affect human
including Clostridium botulinum (found in soil,
food supplies
fish and meat – it makes the most deadly nerve
■ To understand the dangers of food poisoning
toxin produced by a living organism), Listeria
■ To understand how the risks of food poisoning can be
monocytogenes (found in soft cheeses and pâtés,
minimised
and becoming more common as we eat more
‘convenience foods’) and the Salmonella group.
Human foods need to be protected from The diagram below shows some questions and
microorganisms for two reasons: answers about bacteria and food poisoning.
■ t he microorganisms might be decomposers Thorough cooking kills any bacteria in food,
and spoil the food but food may become contaminated after being
■ t he microorganisms might be pathogenic and cooked, or may not be cooked well enough.
cause disease.
The following principles of good food hygiene
Food poisoning help to prevent food poisoning:
Food poisoning is caused by eating contaminated ■ A
void contamination of food by bacteria –
food which contains harmful numbers of food- wash hands, cooking utensils and surfaces
poisoning microbes. The symptoms of food carefully during food preparation, and package
poisoning may be due to: food carefully during transport and storage.
■ t he microorganism ‘feeding’ on the host tissues ■ P
revent any bacteria that do gain entry to food
as it reproduces from multiplying – see page 160.

■ t oxins released onto the food by the ■ D
estroy any remaining bacteria – cook the food
microorganism or released inside the host as thoroughly.

the microbe reproduces.
The causes and symptoms of food poisoning

How do the bacteria get Which are the high- What are the characteristic
into the food? risk foods? symptoms?
Contaminated water Poor hygiene e.g. cooked meats abdominal pain

used during preparation unwashed hands and poultry diarrhoea
during preparation cooked rice vomiting
shellfish
dishes made
with raw eggs,
e.g. custard,
ice cream
Symptoms usually develop 8–36 hours

Contamination during storage e.g. uncooked after eating the food, and diarrhoea and
foods stored alongside cooked foods vomiting may lead to dehydration.
99
2.33 Individuals and the community can

fight disease together
Objectives Community responsibility
Living close together in towns and cities means
■ To understand that the fight against disease involves
we share many facilities which affect our health.
several levels of responsibility
■ To provide examples of individual, community and Community health responsibilities include:
worldwide responsibilities ■ Providing safe drinking water and treating
sewage (see page 277)
■ removing refuse (see diagrams below and
The fight against disease has three levels:
right)
■ personal – for example, each individual can take
■ providing medical care for the unwell
responsibility for his or her own social habits
■ monitoring standards of health and hygiene.
■ communities – for example, local health
services must be correctly managed and Worldwide responsibility
financed The World Health Organisation (WHO) aims to
■ worldwide – for example, many nations carry raise the level of health of all the citizens of the
out vaccination programmes (see page 105). world so that they can lead socially productive
lives. They have had some successes:
Personal responsibility ■ reduce infant mortality, by providing a better
The individual can reduce his or her chances of
diet for mothers and their infants
contracting some diseases by:
■ elimination of smallpox, by a well coordinated
■ personal hygiene
vaccination programme
■ balanced diet
■ reduction in malaria, by a variety of control
■ regular exercise
measures such as draining swamps
■ not smoking
■ improved provision of safe water, by the
■ controlling alcohol intake.
construction of water-treatment plants.
Refuse disposal in land-fill sites

Advantages Disadvantages
Can help land reclamation e.g. in filling Sites can attract pests, such as flies,
old quarry workings. rats and gulls. These might spread disease
Can be made economical in terms of space: (e.g. flies contaminate food) or leave a mess
– lorries use rams to compress rubbish (e.g. gulls leave droppings).
– very deep pits can be used. Ecologically important areas such as marshes and
Can be situated well away from residential heathland may be used as dumps.
areas, reducing impact of smells and Refuse may be buried under 0.5m of soil. This
unsightly rubbish. reduces access to pests
allows bacteria and fungi to decompose
organic compounds
generates biogas which can be used to fuel
machinery.
Refuse that can be decomposed by microbes

is biodegradable. Non-biodegradable materials
are inert (like plastic and glass) or inhibit
decomposition (like acidic peel from oranges
and lemons).
100
Refuse disposal by incineration
Incineration plant is quite small, May generate toxic fumes
so valuable land not used. (especially from burning plastics).
No attraction to pests, so less Can be very expensive to build.
risk of disease. Seepage of wastes may
Heat generated can be used – pollute groundwater.
incinerators built as part of Fuel is consumed to begin the
housing projects can save energy. combustion process.
p Open rubbish dumps are a source of infection. Waste food is infected with harmful
microbes, which may be spread by rats, birds such as the Marabou stork, and humans.
Q
1 Suggest two steps an individual can take to reduce the 3 Name one viral and one bacterial sexually transmitted
risk of named disease. infection (STI).
2 What are the responsibilities of a community health 4 For any one named STI suggest how individuals, local
service? communities and scientists worldwide might be
involved in its control.
101
2.34 Combating infection: blood and

defence against disease
Objectives
Physical defences against the entry of
■ To recall what is meant by disease
microorganisms include the cilia and mucus-
■ To recall that disease can be caused by pathogens,
secreting cells of the respiratory pathways (see
which must first invade the body
page 112). If the potential pathogens do penetrate
■ To understand that the body may be able to defend
these first lines of defence, they might reproduce
itself against pathogens
quickly in the warm, moist, nutrient-filled tissues.
Further defence depends upon the blood.
Disease is often caused by the invasion of the
body by another organism. Organisms that cause Bleeding and clot formation
disease in this way are called pathogens and their Blood clotting seals wounds. The blood clot limits
attacks on the body result in infections. the loss of blood and also prevents entry of any
pathogens. Clotting depends on platelets and
The skin and defence against disease blood proteins, as outlined in the diagram below.
The outer layer of the skin, the epidermis, is waxy
and impermeable to water and to pathogens White blood cells and defence
(although microorganisms can live on its surface). Organisms that gain entry to the tissues are
Natural ‘gaps’ in the skin may be protected by removed or destroyed by white blood cells.
chemical secretions, for example: These white blood cells must attack only invading
■ the mouth leads to the gut which is protected organisms and not the body’s own cells (although
by hydrochloric acid in the stomach this does happen sometimes, see page 105). The
■ the eyes are protected by lysozyme, an enzyme white blood cells recognise foreign particles such
that destroys bacterial cell walls, in the tears as bacteria, or perhaps large molecules such
■ the ears are protected by bactericidal as proteins in snake venom, and react against
(‘bacteria-killing’) wax. them. These foreign particles are called antigens.
Potential pathogens have antigens on their
Blood clotting reduces loss of blood and seals the wound against pathogens
Exposure to air
Damaged platelets Torn capillaries
Release enzymes
Inherited defects
in blood protein Several stages: calcium ions
production cause and other clotting factors
severe bleeding must be present
(haemophilia).
Fibrinogen, an
inactive blood Fibrin, an activated
protein blood protein
Beneath a scab the tissue may become

red and inflamed. Certain white blood Forms a mesh of fibres which
cells release histamine, a chemical traps red blood cells. These dry Fibrin fibres trap blood cells to form a scab
messenger which allows plasma to leak out to form a scab which closes
out of the capillaries. The extra plasma the wound and prevents the
dilutes any toxins which may have entry of pathogens.
entered the wound.
102
Phagocyte action
Sometimes phagocytes die as

Blood vessel Digestive enzymes are they accumulate toxins from
poured into the sac. the pathogens. The pus
The pathogen is destroyed. underneath a scab, or in
The phagocyte may absorb a spot, contains many of
the digested products, these dead phagocytes.
and use them for
its own metabolism.
Infected tissue
Phagocytes are large white blood cells.

They are attracted to wounds or sites
of infection by chemical messages. Phagocyte recognises pathogen and
The long, lobed nucleus allows them flows round it, enclosing it in a sac
to squeeze out between cells which
line the capillaries. Some pathogens escape the phagocytes by:
They contain sacs full of powerful hiding inside the host´s cells, e.g. Plasmodium in liver cells
digestive enzymes. staying in phagocyte-free areas, e.g. inside the gut.
surface, and they are recognised and destroyed by disorganised. They can destroy lung tissue rather
phagocytes and by antibodies. Phagocytes engulf than foreign particles, leading to the disease
and then destroy the pathogens with digestive emphysema (see page 121).
enzymes, as outlined above. Antibodies are
described on page 104. Q
There are many phagocytes present in areas of 1 Suggest how the skin may limit the entry of
the body likely to suffer infection. The exposed pathogens to the body. Why is it necessary to
surfaces of the lungs, for example, are patrolled prevent the entry of pathogens?
by phagocytes. If the lungs are regularly attacked 2
This question concerns the process of blood clotting.
a Why might blood clotting be necessary?
by the free radicals in tobacco smoke, large
b When could blood clotting be a disadvantage?
numbers of phagocytes collect and may become
c Blood clotting occurs in a number of stages. This is
quite common in biological processes, since it
First aid can save lives
i allows amplification. Each step produces a
Severe blood loss, or haemorrhage, can cause a number product which can trigger many repeats of the next
of problems. Following an accident there may be so step – for example, each enzyme molecule released
much blood loss that the blood pressure falls to from a platelet can catalyse the conversion of 100
dangerously low levels. This may affect the function inactive protein molecules to their active form.
of vital organs such as the heart, brain and kidney. i Suggest how this amplification might be an
If the victim has no pulse or is not breathing, steps are advantage in a rapid response to wounding.
taken to restart these essential functions. ii If there were five steps, each allowing an
If there is considerable bleeding, the first-aider applies amplification of 100, how many ‘product’
firm pressure to the site of the injury. The victim should molecules would be present at the end of the
not be moved unless he or she is in danger. No attempt complete process for each ‘signal’ molecule
should be made to clean wounds – this may force a released at the start of the process?
foreign body such as a glass fragment deeper into the 3 Describe the process of phagocytosis. Suggest two
wound. ways in which the structure of a phagocyte is related
Organisations such as the St John’s Ambulance Brigade to its function. Suggest two ways in which a
in the UK provide training in first aid. pathogen might avoid phagocytosis.
103
2.35 Antibodies and the immune response

Objectives
Once the lymphocytes have learnt to make a
■ To know what an antibody is
particular type of antibody in response to the
■ To understand how antibodies are involved in defence
antigens on an infective organism, the body
against disease
begins to recover as the organisms are destroyed.
■ To understand how memory cells protect against
It takes a few days to produce antibodies, so the
infections
infected individual will show some symptoms of
■ To know how the immune response can be
the disease (a high temperature, for example).
enhanced
Immunity
After an infection, some lymphocytes are kept
An antibody is a protein
as ‘memory cells’, which help the body to defend
An antibody is a protein produced by the body
itself against further attacks by the same antigen.
in response to an antigen. Each different antigen
This ‘memory’ may last for years, and the body
stimulates the production of the particular type of
is said to be immune to the disease. There are
antibody that will destroy that antigen. Antibodies
different types of immunity, as shown opposite.
are made by white blood cells called lymphocytes.
They defend the body as shown below.
The action of white blood cells – lymphocytes
Scientists estimate that humans can make This end of the antibody acts
up to 1 000 000 different antibodies – as a signal to destroy
enough to account for every pathogen or the pathogen.
‘foreign’ substance we might ever meet!
The forked end

of the antibody
recognises and
binds to the
surface antigen
on the pathogen
to ‘label’ it.
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell: Antibodies are:

found in circulating blood and in the proteins produced by lymphocytes
lymph nodes (see page 89) able to recognise, bind to and help
have a large nucleus and no granules to destroy pathogens An antigen is:
in the cytoplasm always Y-shaped. a protein or carbohydrate on the
stimulated by contact with pathogens surface of the pathogen
to produce antibodies. able to provoke the immune system
‘Labelled’ pathogens may be destroyed by:
of the host.
sticking together in clumps so they can
be ingested by phagocytes
T-lymphocytes, which burst membranes Pathogens may evade the immune
around the pathogen system by mutation – they change
antibodies directly – a few antibodies and produce different antigens
may actually destroy the pathogen's cell which the host has not learned to
walls or membranes. recognise and has no antibodies for.
104
Immunity may be Natural Individual contracts disease but survives,

Pathogen makes antibodies and is now immune to
Active: individual infects further infection by the same pathogen,
Immunity is the body’s use of
makes his or her individual e.g. immunity develops to different
antibodies to combat invasion by
own antibodies. strains of the common cold.
pathogens. It may be enhanced
This gives long Artificial by a vaccine – a chemical or cell
term (even lifelong) Vaccine does not cause disease but which provokes the body’s
immunity because there Weakened lymphocytes do produce antibodies immune system to make the
are now memory cells pathogen – individual is now immune to this appropriate antibodies.
which retain the ability (vaccine) pathogen, e.g. vaccination against
to produce antibodies. Rubella virus (which causes German
measles) in teenage girls.
Vaccination reduces the spread
Natural Mother’s antibodies cross the placenta of disease. If many individuals
and are in breast milk – newborn child are protected by their antibodies
temporarily immune to pathogens for there will be very few new host
Passive: individual organisms where the pathogen
which mother produced antibodies, e.g.
is given ready- can multiply. There will therefore
gut infections.
made antibodies. be fewer pathogens to infect new
This only gives short individuals.
term immunity Artificial
Injection
because no memory
cells are produced. Adult is now immune to disease. Used if disease is too
fast-acting for the immune system to deal with, e.g.
Antibodies collected injection of anti-tetanus antibodies following a deep,
from blood of dirty cut or wound. This offers only a temporary
laboratory animal immunity, since the body is not producing any of its
and stored as serum own antibodies.
Some problems with the immune Transplant rejection – the most common organ
response transplant in Britain is the kidney transplant
The activity of the immune system saves all our (see page 127), but heart, intestine, lung, liver
lives, many times over. There are occasions, and pancreas transplants are becoming more
however, when it may actually reduce the common. The recipient’s lymphocytes may
likelihood of survival. These are described below. recognise antigens on the surface of the donor
organ as foreign and slowly destroy it. This
Autoimmune diseases are caused by the body
problem of rejection is being overcome by:
producing antibodies which destroy its own cells.
Why this should happen is not known. An example ■ drugs that suppress the immune system of the
is Type I diabetes where the body destroys its own recipient long enough to allow the transplanted
insulin-producing cells by an immune reaction. organ to become established
■ matching tissues wherever possible, for
Other problems* example by seeking out relatives of people
Allergies are conditions in which the body needing bone marrow transplants, since
becomes sensitive to a substance and over-reacts relatives are more likely to have similar
to it. This may cause swelling and tissue damage. antigens to the recipient.
Examples include hay fever and sensitivity to
bee and wasp stings. Allergies are treated with
drugs such as antihistamines to reduce the
immune response.
Q
1 How do antibodies recognise pathogens?
2 State one difference in structure between a lymphocyte and a phagocyte.
3 Explain how a single infection by a pathogen can provide lifelong
protection against a disease.
105
2.36 Respiration provides the energy

for life
Objectives
is described in greater detail on page 38, but in
■ To understand that energy is needed to carry
energy terms it can be described simply as:
out work
■ To appreciate that different forms of energy can
be interconverted light energy from the Sun
■ To be able to list some of the energy-demanding
⇓
processes in living organisms converted in green plants
■ To describe how the process of respiration releases
⇓
energy from chemical foods chemical energy in organic molecules
A second energy-conversion process releases

Energy conversions in living things the chemical energy stored in organic food
Energy can be defined as ‘the capacity for doing molecules and converts it to energy forms that
work’. The processes that keep organisms alive organisms use to stay alive. This process is called
(for example, pumping ions from one side of a respiration. Respiration is the set of chemical
membrane to another) usually require work to be reactions that break down nutrient molecules in
done. It is clear, therefore, that life requires energy. living cells to release energy. Respiration involves
Life also depends on energy conversions. The the action of enzymes in cells (see page 32).
first and most important energy conversion in The diagram at the bottom of the page shows
living things is photosynthesis. This process some of the uses of energy by living organisms.
Growth: uses energy to synthesise

large molecules from smaller ones
(e.g. protein synthesis from amino
acids).
Maintenance of body temperature:

all chemical reactions in the body
release some heat, particularly
reactions in the liver.
Passage of nerve impulses:

pumping ions in and out
of nerve cells.
Photosynthesis Respiration
in green plants in all cells
Active transport: moving molecules
Light against a concentration gradient,
energy ENERGY
e.g. ion uptake by roots.
This energy can be used

‘Food’
to do the work needed to Cell division: replication and
(chemical
keep cells and organisms separation of chromosomes is very
energy)
alive. Much of the energy energy demanding. A human
will eventually return to replaces billions of cells every day.
the environment as heat.
Movement: contraction of muscle

requires energy. The supply of
energy will run out if food or
oxygen is limited.
p Living organisms obtain their food by nutrition (see page 62). They release energy from
food in the process of respiration, and use it to carry out the work needed for life.
106
What is respiration? The energy is released in small ‘packets’ which

Respiration involves the oxidation of food can then drive the reactions that keep the cell
molecules, and energy is released during the alive. These energy packets act as a short-term
process. These food molecules all contain carbon, store of energy. The one used most commonly by
hydrogen and oxygen and the complete oxidation cells is a molecule called adenosine triphosphate
process converts these to carbon dioxide and (ATP).
water. Complete oxidation occurs only if oxygen is The reactions are summarised in the following
present. For example: equation.
carbon glucose  oxygen
words: glucose  oxygen energy   water
dioxide
⎯→
⎯→ ATP ‘work’ in cells
symbols: C6H12O6  6O2 energy  6CO2  6H2O
carbon  water

dioxide
Definition: respiration is the release of energy
from food substances, and goes on in all living This process, which releases energy in the
cells. So much energy is released in this process presence of oxygen, is called aerobic respiration
that, if it was all released at once, the cell might (‘aerobic’ means ‘in air’), and takes place in the
be damaged. mitochondria (see page 17). The reactions involve
enzymes, and some energy is ‘lost’ as heat.
Vacuum flask experiment
A B
Vacuum flasks:
prevent heat loss from
contents or gain from
surroundings
Equal masses
of peas
Cotton wool
plugs: support Dead peas, killed by
Living peas, boiling or by strong
thermometers and allow
previously soaked disinfectant
gas exchange between
in water and washed
flask contents and
with dilute disinfectant
surroundings
Thermometers: positioned so
that they can be read without
removal from flask
Apparatus is assembled as shown.

Temperature readings are taken immediately, and then every day for 4–5 days.
In an experiment like this one, the following results were obtained:
a Explain these results.

Time / days Temperature / °C
b Why is it important to include flask B?
A B
c Disinfectant kills bacteria – why is this important?
0 20 20
1 23 20
2 25 20
3 27 21
4 28 21
5 28 21
107
2.37 Contraction of muscles requires

energy supplied by respiration
Objectives
Anaerobic respiration has two drawbacks:
■ To know that respiration is the source of energy
■ It gives only about one-twentieth of the energy
for muscular work
per glucose molecule that aerobic respiration
■ To understand that anaerobic respiration is less efficient
yields.
than aerobic respiration and produces a toxic product
■ Lactic acid is poisonous – if it builds up in the
■ To understand that exercise is limited by the build-up of
lactic acid cells it inhibits muscular contraction, which
leads to fatigue and, eventually, death.
This harmful lactic acid is carried out of the

How muscles contract
muscles in the blood. It is transported around
Muscles contract and pull on bones to move the
the body to the heart, liver and kidneys where
skeleton. Muscles are collections of very long
it is oxidised to pyruvate, which can be used to
muscle fibres. When lots of fibres shorten at the
release energy by aerobic respiration. The heart,
same time, the muscle contracts.
the liver and the kidneys will need extra oxygen
Muscular work requires energy to get rid of this lactic acid, provided by the deep
Aerobic respiration fast breathing that follows hard exercise. This
Work must be done to contract muscle. The extra oxygen is the oxygen debt.
energy for this comes from aerobic respiration.
The equation is a reminder of how this energy is
released:
Q
1 One of the comparisons between aerobic and
anaerobic respiration shown below is incorrect.
carbon
glucose  oxygen energy   water Which one?
dioxide
Respiration
The oxygen comes from the air. It is taken in at
Aerobic Anaerobic
the lungs and carried around the body in the
A Uses oxygen gas Does not use oxygen gas
blood, pumped by the heart. Glucose comes from
B Produces ethanol or Produces no ethanol or
food digested in the gut, and is also carried in the lactic acid lactic acid
blood. Muscles have extensive capillary beds to C Large amount of energy Small amount of energy
supply glucose and oxygen for respiration, and to released released
carry away carbon dioxide. The blood also carries D Mitochondria involved Mitochondria not involved
away heat that is produced during respiration. E Carbon dioxide always Carbon dioxide sometimes
produced produced
Anaerobic respiration
When we work very hard our muscles use up a
2
What is meant by energy transformation? Briefly
lot of energy. The heart and lungs, even working
describe one energy transformation that is important
flat out, cannot supply enough oxygen to provide
to living organisms. What eventually happens to all
this energy by aerobic respiration. Muscles can
of the energy taken in by living organisms?
release energy from food without using oxygen, by
a process called anaerobic respiration:
glucose energy  lactic acid
108
The diagram below shows the part played by aerobic and anaerobic respiration during rest, exercise and recovery.
Rest – all respiration is aerobic. Hard exercise – respiration is Recovery – paying off the oxygen debt. The
Normal breathing and heart rt mainly
m ainly anerobic. Very high b reathing and
breathing d hea art rate
heart tes remain
rates i high
high,h, evven
even
rates can supply the tissuess breathing
b reathing and heart rates still though the m usccles ar
muscles re at rest.. TThe
are he extxtra
extra
with all the oxygen they need,
eed,
ed, ccannot
annot provide the muscles o xygen is us
oxygen sed tto
used o cocon
onvertt the
convert the lac
llactic
tic
ic ac
aacid
id
d
Glucose oxygen energy gy with
w ith enough oxygen for in
nto carbon
into n diooxidde and
dioxide nd water, pa payin
payingng offff
carbon dioxide + water aaerobic
erobic respiration. the oxygen n deebt..
debt.
Glucose
G lucose energy lactic
Heart rate acid H eart ratee
Heart
70 beats per minute 1 40 beat
140 ts p
beats er m
per in
nute
minute te
ffalling
alling to
o noormmal
normal
Heart
H eart Rate
Ra
ate
Breathing aafter
fter somme min
some nuttess
minutes
140 beats p per
err minu
minute
ute
15 breaths per minute
Breathing
Breathing B reathin
Breathingng
50
50 breaths
breatths per minute
minute
ue 5 0 breat
50 ths perr m
breaths inute
ue
minute
ffalling
alling to
o noorm
mal aft
normal ter
after
ssome
ome min nuttes
minutes
The
The muscles
musclles aree getting
g tti
ge t ngg energyy
without
without ‘paying‘
‘p ing‘‘ for
payin for it with
wit
ithh
oxygen.
oxygen. They
hey are
The are running
ru
unn in up
ning
an
an oxygen debt.
debt
bt. PPanting
anting and rapid
d rap
pid hheartbeat
eartb continue
beatt conti
tin until
nue u ntill
tthe
he lactic acid has
id ha been
as beeeen rromoved.
n ro movved
ed. Physically
d. Phys
ysical
ally
fit people reco
fi recover ffaster.
over fas ter.
Blood levels of oxygen and lactic acid
Rest Exercise Recovery
This is the ‘extra’ Anaerobic respiration

oxygen required to is important in other organisms
No lactic acid builds pay off the oxygen such as
up since there is debt. yeast, for brewing and baking
enough oxygen for
(page 250)
aerobic respiration.
Glucose alcohol  carbon
dioxide
This is the shortfall
Oxygen in oxygen – making C6H12O6 2C2H5OH  2CO2
lactic acid builds up
Lactic acid an oxygen debt.
Time / min
p Trained athletes can exercise for longer than people who do not usually exercise before they build up an oxygen debt
Q
3
The concentration of lactic acid in the blood of a a Plot this information in the form of a graph.
runner was measured at intervals before, during and b What was the lactic acid concentration at the end of
after she ran for 10 minutes. The results are shown in the run?
the table below. c For how long did the concentration of lactic acid
increase after the end of the run?
Time / Concentration of
d Why did the blood still contain lactic acid after the
minutes lactic acid / arbitrary units
0 18 run?
10 18 e In which tissues was the lactic acid produced?
15 56 f How long after the run was it before the oxygen
25 88 debt was paid off?
35 42
50 21
65 18
109
2.38 The measurement of respiration

Objective
■ To explain how it is possible to detect the process of
respiration
Since respiration is essential glucose oxygen energy carbon dioxide water

for life, an obvious ‘sign of life’
is that respiration is taking
Oxygen consumption Energy release can
place. We can demonstrate can be measured be measured as the
that respiration is happening, using a respirometer. production of heat.
and we can even measure how
quickly it is going on.
Involvement of enzymes Carbon dioxide release causes:
The equation for aerobic can be demonstrated by limewater to turn milky
respiration suggests methods the effects of temperature hydrogencarbonate indicator
changes on respiration. solution to turn from
that we might use to red → yellow–orange.
demonstrate this process.
To demonstrate that respiration is going on, we need to use some

living organisms. Germinating seeds are useful for this experiment
since they are chemically very active (the fast growth during
germination requires a great deal of energy). Animals such as
blowfly larvae (maggots) or woodlice can also be used, although
they are rather more difficult to handle.
1 Measurement of oxygen
consumption using a respirometer
The apparatus shown in the diagram on the next page is used.
a A measured mass of living organisms is put in the chamber.
b First the spring clip is open, so that an equilibrium of temperature and
pressure is set up between the chamber and the surroundings.
c After five minutes or so, the spring clip is closed and the movement of the
coloured liquid along the capillary tube is observed. The time taken for it to
move a measured length along the tube is noted.
d The living organisms are removed and the experiment is repeated.
Using this apparatus, a group of students obtained the following data.
Experiment Distance Time Relative oxygen consumption /

moved / mm taken / s mm per s
1 Seeds 39 100
2 Seeds 42 100
3 Seeds 24 60
4 Maggots 46 90
5 Maggots 55 100
6 Maggots 30 60
The effect of temperature on respiration can be investigated

using this apparatus. The respiratory chamber can be placed in a
thermostatically controlled water bath and the measurements made
at a series of temperatures (see Q.3 on page 111 opposite).
110
Principle: Carbon dioxide produced during

respiration is absorbed by potassium hydroxide
Principle:
solution.Carbon dioxideisproduced
If the system closed to during
the atmosphere,
respiration
a change is absorbed
in volumeby ofpotassium hydroxide
the gas within the chamber
solution.
must Ifbetheduesystem
to theisconsumption
closed to theof atmosphere,
oxygen.
a change in volume
The change of the gas
in volume, i.e. within the chamber
the oxygen consumption,
mustis be due to the
measured consumption
as the movementofofoxygen.a drop of coloured
The liquid
change in volume,
along i.e. tube.
a capillary the oxygen consumption, Graduated scale Coloured liquid – narrow-bore
is measured as the movement of a drop of coloured against which capillary tube means that any
liquid along Graduated
movementscaleof Coloured small liquid
change – narrow-bore
in volume of gas
Spring clipa –capillary tube.
when open, against whichliquid capillary
coloured tube means
in chamber that aany
produces
contents of chamber are in movement of
can be measured. smalllarge
change in volume
movement of gas
of liquid.
Spring clip – when
equilibrium withopen,
atmosphere. coloured liquid in chamber produces a
contents of chamber are in can be Gauze basket large
measured. to hold respiring of
movement material
liquid.
equilibrium with atmosphere.
Rubber stopper – can be made must be porous to allow free exchange of gases.
more airtight by smearing Vaseline Gauze basket to hold respiring material
Rubber stopper
along – can bechamber
seal between made mustRespiratory
be porouschamber
to allow has
freerelatively
exchange of gases.
moreandairtight by smearing Vaseline
stopper. low volume, so that changes in volume
along seal between chamber Respiratory chamber has
due to respiration arerelatively
significant
and stopper. low enough
volume, tosobe
that changes in volume
measured.
Filter paper wick ensures that
due to respiration are significant
maximum surface area of potassium
Filterhydroxide
paper wick ensures that enough to beamount
Weighed measured.of respiring material
solution is available
maximum surface
to contents of area of potassium
chamber. – the mass, m, of the respiring material
hydroxide solution is available Weighed amount
should of respiring
be known so that material
results can be
to contents of chamber. mass, m,with
– thecompared of the respiring
other material
experiments.
should be known so that results can be
Potassium hydroxide solution absorbs compared withtoother
Glass rod keep experiments.
respiring material
carbon dioxide evolved during respiration. out of direct contact with potassium hydroxide solution.
Potassium hydroxide solution absorbs Glass rod to keep respiring material
carbon dioxide evolved during respiration. out of direct contact with potassium hydroxide solution.
2 Measurement of carbon dioxide release

To detect carbon dioxide released by
respiring organisms, we can use an
indicator solution. For example
hydrogencarbonate indicator is
purple at high pH (alkaline), red
around neutral pH and orange-
yellow at low pH (acidic).
The diagram shows the apparatus. A B C D
Potassium hydroxide Hydrogencarbonate Hydrogencarbonate
Asolution B indicator C D indicator
Potassium hydroxide Hydrogencarbonate Hydrogencarbonate
Using limewater Clear Turns cloudy/milky
solution indicator indicator
Q
1 a In experiment 1 why did the students take more than a Plot these results on a graph, and explain the shape
one set of readings for each group of organisms? of the curve.
b Calculate the mean relative oxygen consumption for b In this investigation, identify the independent
the seeds and for the maggots. Suggest a reason (input) variable and the dependent (outcome)
for the difference. variable.
2 The students repeated the experiment with no living c Suggest any fixed variables. (Refer to page 34 if
organisms in the chamber. The coloured liquid did not you are unsure about these terms.)
move at all. Why was this important? In experiment 2:
3 In an extension of Temperature / Relative oxygen 4 What is the purpose of the potassium hydroxide
this investigation, °C consumption / solution?
the students mm per s 5 What does the indicator solution in flask B show?
measured the effect 15 0.3 6 How can you explain the change in flask D?
of temperature on 25 0.6 7 Suggest a control for this investigation, and explain
the rate of oxygen why it is a suitable control.
35 1.1
consumption by 8 Suggest any visible change that might happen in flask
45 0.8
the maggots. They C. Explain your answer.
55 0.2
obtained the
following results: 65 0.0
111
2.39 Gas exchange supplies oxygen for

respiration
Objectives
■ To understand why living organisms must obtain oxygen Property of surface Reason
from their environment, and why they must release Thin (ideally one cell Gases have a short distance over which
carbon dioxide to their environment thick) to diffuse.
■ To know the properties of an ideal gas exchange surface Large surface area Many molecules of gas can diffuse across
at the same time.
■ To be able to identify the parts of the human gas
Moist Cells die if not kept moist.
exchange system
Well ventilated Concentration gradients for oxygen and
carbon dioxide are kept up by regular
Exchanging oxygen and carbon fresh supplies of air.
dioxide Close to a blood supply Gases can be carried to and from the
cells that need or produce them.
Respiration uses oxygen to ‘burn’ (oxidise) food
and so release the energy that cells need to stay
alive. Respiration produces carbon dioxide and Gas exchange in humans
water vapour as waste products: Like other mammals, humans are active and
maintain a constant body temperature. This
carbon means they use up a great deal of energy.
glucose  oxygen energy   water
dioxide
Mammals must have a very efficient gas exchange
Living organisms must be able to take oxygen system.
from the air and get rid of carbon dioxide to The gas exchange system in humans is shown
the air. Swapping oxygen for carbon dioxide in opposite and is made up of:
this way is called gas exchange (or gaseous ■ a respiratory surface – membranes lining the
exchange). alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs
Gas exchange takes place through a gas exchange ■ a set of tubes to allow air from the outside to
surface, also known as a respiratory surface. reach the respiratory surface. This set of tubes
The diagram below shows how the process has many branches, and is sometimes called
happens. The properties of an ideal respiratory the ‘bronchial tree’
surface are given in the table on the right. ■ a blood supply (carried by the pulmonary
Gas exchange surface is Layer of water on

artery and pulmonary vein) to carry dissolved
thin – dissolved gases can gas exchange surface. gases to and from the respiratory surface
pass through it easily. ■ a ventilation system (the intercostal muscles
Carbon
Oxygen and the diaphragm) to keep a good flow of air
dioxide
over the respiratory surface.
Oxygen dissolves Carbon dioxide
in moist layer is changed to a gas
Q
1 What are the properties of an ideal gas exchange
surface?
2 List the structures through which a molecule of
oxygen passes to get from the atmosphere to the
Carbon dioxide
cytoplasm of a named working cell.
produced by respiration 3 Most larger animals transport oxygen in red blood
dissolves in body fluids
cells. What are the advantages of transporting
to form hydrogen-
carbonate ions (HCO3–). oxygen in this way? How is a red blood cell adapted
to its function of oxygen transport?
4 What is the difference between respiration and
p A gas exchange surface allows cells to obtain the oxygen gas exchange?
they need for respiration, and get rid of the carbon dioxide
112 they produce
Larynx (voice box) – air passes Cilia – fine ‘hairs’ on

through here during breathing. When surface of cell. These
breathing out, the vocal cords can be can beat in a
made to vibrate. The sounds produced Nucleus
coordinated way to
make up our speech. carry mucus (with
Basement
trapped microbes
membrane –
and dust) away from
holds the cells
the lung surfaces.
in place
Trachea (windpipe) – tube that
carries air towards the lungs. C-shaped Goblet cell – produces
rings of cartilage prevent the trachea sticky mucus and releases
collapsing during inhalation. Mucus it onto the surface of
the cells.
Cells like these form the mucous

Bronchus – first branch from membrane which lines the whole
the trachea. There is one bronchus
to each lung.
bronchial tree.
Ribs
External intercostal
Bronchiole – final, very fine branch
muscles Structures
leading into the alveolus.
Internal intercostal involved in
muscles ventilation
(see page 114)
Pleural
membranes
Alveoli (air sacs) – these are lined
by the membranes where gas Diaphragm
exchange takes place. The surface
is moist, thin and has an enormous
area. (In humans, the total surface
area is about as big as a tennis court!)
When oxygen is in short supply in the air the right

ventricle has to work very hard. It may beat so
powerfully that plasma leaks into the lungs – the
person may ‘drown in their own blood’. This can
Branch of pulmonary artery – happen to mountaineers at high altitude.
delivers deoxygenated blood at high
pressure from the right ventricle of
the heart. Air moves in and out of
alveolus during breathing
Bronchiole
Deoxygenated Oxygenated
blood blood
Alveolus
Oxygen
diffuses into Carbon dioxide
red blood diffuses out of Red blood
cells. blood plasma. cell
Capillary network
around alveolus Plasma
Only a thin membrane separates
the air in the alveolus from the
blood in the capillaries.
Branch of pulmonary vein –

returns oxygenated blood to the The protein haemoglobin in red blood cells carries oxygen (as
heart for pumping out to the oxyhaemoglobin). Packaging haemoglobin in cells means it does
tissues. not affect the water balance between plasma and tissue fluid.
113
2.40 Breathing ventilates the lungs

Objectives
The pleural membranes ‘stick’ the outside of the
■ To understand the muscular movements involved
lungs to the inside of the chest cavity. The lungs
in the ventilation of the lungs
themselves do not have any muscles, but the
■ To know how the efficiency of breathing can be
‘stickiness’ of the pleural membranes means that
measured
the lungs will automatically follow the movements
■ To understand how breathing is affected by exercise
of the chest wall. If the volume of the chest cavity
■ To appreciate that the function of the lungs may
increases, the volume of the lungs will increase at
sometimes need to be supported
the same time. The pressure inside the lungs will
decrease as the volume gets bigger.
Breathing is the set of muscular movements
Air always moves down a pressure gradient,
that gives the respiratory surface a constant
from a region of higher air pressure to a region
supply of fresh air. This means there is always a
of lower air pressure. If the air pressure in the
concentration gradient between the blood and
lungs is less than the pressure of the atmosphere,
the air in the alveoli for both oxygen and carbon
air will move into the lungs along a pressure
dioxide. As shown below, breathing is brought
gradient. In the same way, if the air pressure
about by:
in the lungs is greater than the pressure of the
■ the action of two groups of muscles – the
atmosphere, air will move out of the lungs along a
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
pressure gradient.
■ the properties of the pleural membranes that
surround the lungs.
4. Air rushes in to fill the extra

space and equalise the pressures.
Vertebrae of backbone –
1. External intercostal muscles ribs pivot on these.
contract and pull the
rib cage upwards and 3. Lung volume increases
outwards. and the pressure falls.
Breathing
in Summary:
Pleural membranes
2. Diaphragm muscles Extra lung volume created by
and pleural fluid – these
contract and diaphragm rib cage moving up and out
are sticky, but also slippery
moves downwards. diaphragm moving down
enough to reduce any
friction during breathing
movements. pressure falls
4. Air is forced out. air rushes into lungs
1. Internal intercostal muscles

relax and rib cage falls
There are two sets of intercostal
downwards and inwards. Breathing muscles. The external intercostal
out muscles contract during breathing
3. Lung volume decreases in. The internal intercostal muscles
2. Diaphragm muscles and pressure increases. are used during coughing and
relax and diaphragm sneezing, for example.
returns to its dome shape.
p The intercostal muscles (‘intercostal’ means ‘between the ribs’) and the diaphragm work together to alter the volume of the
chest cavity. Changing the volume of the chest cavity will automatically change the pressure of air inside it. (It is a law of physics
that pressure  volume is a constant – in other words, if pressure increases then volume must decrease, and vice versa.)
114
Air is breathed in, gas exchange happens in the alveoli, and the air
is breathed out again. The composition of the inspired (breathed-
in) air is therefore different from the composition of the expired
(breathed-out) air, as shown in the table.
Component Inspired Expired Reason

of air (inhaled) (exhaled)
air / % air / %
Oxygen 21 18 Oxygen has diffused from the air in the
alveoli into the blood
Carbon 0.04 3* Carbon dioxide has diffused from the blood
dioxide into the air in the alveoli
Nitrogen 78 78 Nitrogen gas is not used by the body
Water vapour Very variable Saturated Water evaporates from surfaces in the alveoli
Temperature Very variable 37 °C Heat is lost to the air from the lung surfaces
p Composition of inhaled and exhaled air

* The increase in carbon dioxide concentration can be detected with limewater (turns milky/cloudy)
or hydrogen carbonate indicator (turns from red to yellow-orange), as shown on page 111.
Asthma* An asthma attack can be

Breathing is difficult, and an brought on by various factors
asthma sufferer may become including allergy to pollen or
very distressed. Air cannot dust (or fur), emotion, breathing
easily move along the pressure in cold air, smoke (page 120)
gradient because: and air pollution (page 264) and
■ the muscles in the wall of the exercise. Treatment involves:
bronchi contract ■ removal of the factor causing
■ the lining of the bronchi the asthma

‘leaks’ a sticky mucus. ■ use of a bronchodilator –
usually a spray containing
a drug which relaxes the
bronchial muscles.
Measuring the efficiency of the lungs

The amount of air that enters and leaves the lungs is measured
using a spirometer. A person breathes in and out of a mouthpiece
q A spirogram gives a great deal of
connected to a chamber. Inside the chamber a piston moves up
information about someone’s breathing
and down, and its movements are measured electronically. The
and the efficiency of their lungs. The
changes in volume during breathing are plotted on a graph called a
lung volumes are expressed in the SI
unit dm3. 1 dm3 is the same as 1 litre.
spirogram, shown below.
3
Tidal volume – the volume Vital capacity – the maximum volume of
2 of air breathed in and out air breathed in and out from deepest
Volume of air per breath / dm3
during one normal, resting inhalation to deepest exhalation

breath
1
0
Time / minutes
0.5
1
Breathing rate (number
of breaths per minute) At rest:
2 can be calculated Rate = 16 bpm (breaths per minute)
Tidal volume = 0.5 dm3
Total minute volume = 16 × 0.5 = 8.0 dm3
3
115
2.40 Breathing ventilates the lungs
Exercise and breathing

Q During exercise the muscles work hard, and need to release more
1 Explain the part played by the energy by respiration. Greater volumes of air must therefore be
intercostal muscles and
breathed in and out, by:
diaphragm in breathing.
■ increasing the breathing rate – more breaths per minute
2 What can be learned from a
■ increasing the tidal volume – more air per breath.
spirogram?
3 Why are there differences in These two changes can increase the volume of air passing in and out
the oxygen and carbon dioxide of the lungs from the typical 8 dm3 per minute at rest to 50–60 dm3
compositions of inhaled air and per minute during strenuous exercise.
exhaled air?
p The effect of exercise on breathing can be measured after a race
Any alterations in blood CO2

concentration is detected by
sensors in the brain. Nerve
impulses are then sent to muscles
in the chest and the heart.
At rest: CO2 concentration Exercise: deeper, more rapid breathing

in blood, and blood pH, are (so more CO2 lost from lungs) Changes in breathing and
kept at safe levels (see page deeper, more rapid heartbeat bloodflow keep CO2 concentration
128 – homeostasis) (so more blood pumped to tissues and blood pH at safe levels.
to carry CO2 away)
Other factors affecting breathing rate

As well as exercise (see also page 109) some other factors affect breathing rate:
Factor Effect
Smoking Increase, due to the effect of carbon monoxide (see page 121)
Anxiety Increase, due to the effect of adrenaline (see page 150)
Drugs Some cause an increase e.g. amphetamines because they are stimulants (see page 152)
Some cause a decrease e.g. alcohol and barbiturates because they are depressants (sedatives) (see page 152)
Environmental Increased by high CO2 concentration (see page 265)
Sometimes increased by high temperature or humidity, as an attempt to lose body heat by panting (see page 130)
Altitude Increased by low O2 concentration in the atmosphere. Climbers at high altitude breathe quickly and with a low tidal
volume – this can cause problems of dehydration.
Weight Can increase because fat makes lung ventilation harder (i.e. tidal volume falls)
Can decrease if excess body weight is a symptom of low activity of the thyroid gland (see page 149)
116
Exercise: too much or too little?* Hair on head allows upright posture without overheating
of brain from solar radiation.
Humans are well-adapted to exercise. Some
Large gluteus maximus
evolutionary biologists believe that one of the
muscles allow upper body
reasons that humans have been so successful to lean forward without
individual falling over. Hairless skin allows
is that we have evolved to run: from our large evaporation of
They also allow legs
gluteus maximus muscles to our almost hairless to alternately swing sweat – essential for
skin, we can exercise for longer periods than forward and swing cooling during
backward without prolonged periods
most other land animals. Our brains are able to of exercise.
overbalancing.
cope with lengthy exercise, and have allowed us
to develop the social skills necessary to become
successful hunters.
Recent generations of humans in highly Sweat glands secrete sweat,
containing water which can lose latent
economically developed countries rarely have heat of evaporation as it is converted to
to chase game to feed themselves. However, water vapour.
our physiology and anatomy have not become p Adapted to run
adapted not to exercise, and we have developed
many artificial ways to make sure that we are not ■ Whether the effect is related to exercise generally
harmed physically or mentally by our change in (e.g. changes in muscle structure) or to a specific
feeding habits. Some of the benefits of exercise – exercise (e.g. shoulder injuries in swimmers).
to heart and breathing system – have already ■ What we actually mean by physical activity
been described on page 93. When we consider and by exercise. Physical activity is any
the benefits or risks associated with exercise we movement that uses energy. Exercise is
should take into account: physical activity that is structured and is
■ Whether the effect is short term (a runner’s done at a certain intensity for a certain length
‘high’ for example), medium term (management of time. We engage in physical activity and
of body mass for example), long term (benefits exercise for fitness benefits in order to improve
to the circulatory system) or catastrophic (heart some components of physical fitness (heart-
attack, for example!) lung condition, muscle strength, muscle
endurance, flexibility, and body composition).
Is too much exercise bad for you?*
Menstrual cycle may stop Compulsive exercise
Results from low oestrogen levels, and can cause delayed puberty. An exercise addict no longer chooses to exercise but feels compelled to do so and
It is particularly common in athletes involved in endurance events struggles with guilt and anxiety if he or she doesn’t complete their exercise. Any of
(e.g. distance runners), and in women who participate in sports the above injuries can result from compulsive exercise. Compulsive exercise is more
where appearance is considered important (e.g. gymnasts, common in girls and young women, and is often associated with eating disorders.
ballet dancers).
Torn Achilles tendon
Cardiac myopathy The Achilles tendon joins the gastrocnemius (calf)
A disease of the heart muscle that causes the heart to become and the muscles of the lower leg to the heel of the
enlarged and to pump less strongly. As a result the muscle of the foot. If the muscles are weak and become fatigued,
heart becomes weak, thin, or floppy and is unable to pump blood they may tighten and shorten. Overuse can also be a
efficiently around the body. This causes fluid to build up in the lungs, problem by leading to muscle fatigue. The more
which therefore become congested, and results in a feeling of fatigued the calf muscles are, the shorter and tighter
breathlessness: this is called left heart failure. It is probably partly they will become. This tightness can increase the stress
genetic (inherited), but is only likely to be seen if exercise is very severe. on the Achilles tendon and result in a rupture.
Stress fracture Torn muscle

A stress fracture occurs when the forces are much lower Pain that occurs in the calf muscle on the lower
than in a car crash or fall, but happen repetitively for part of the leg often is the result of a pulled or
a long period of time. Stress fractures are commonly torn calf muscle. This is called a calf strain. It
seen in athletes who run and jump on hard surfaces, such as distance runners, occurs when part of the muscle of the lower leg
basketball players, and ballet dancers. A stress fracture can occur in any bone, but is (gastrocnemius or soleus) is torn away from the
commonly seen in the foot and shin bones. They rarely occur in the upper extremity Achilles tendon.
because the weight of your body is not supported by your arms as it is by your legs.
Despite these problems, doctors believe that moderate exercise is one of the most important methods we
have for maintaining our health and mental well-being.
117
Questions on gas exchange

1 Two boys were asked to take part in an c What is the ratio of the volume of a breath during
investigation into the effect of exercise on exercise to the volume of a breath at rest?
breathing. The number of breaths they took in d Calculate the rate of breathing, in breaths per
each half minute was measured and recorded, minute, during strenuous exercise.
first of all while sitting still, then when e Using the data gathered, describe two effects
recovering from two minutes of hard exercise. of exercise on breathing.
The results are shown in the table below. f The computer could also measure the effects
time / activity number of breaths
of exercise on heart rate. Suggest what these
minutes in each half minute effects might be.
Tom Alan g What is the benefit to the body of the effects
0.0 7 8 described in e and f ?
0.5 7 8
2 These diagrams show apparatus that can be
1.0 Sitting still 7 8
1.5 7 8 used to explain the mechanism of breathing.
2.0
Air goes in and out here
2.5
3.0 Exercise (step-ups)
3.5 ‘Trachea’
4.0 24 24 Glass tube
4.5 23 17
‘Bronchus’
5.0 18 13
5.5 15 10
Balloon ‘Lung’
6.0 Recovery (sitting) 12 10
6.5 12 9
Glass
7.0 10 8 wall ‘Chest wall’
7.5 8 8 of a 1
8.0 8 8 bell jar
Pulled down
8.5 7 8
Rubber
a Draw a graph to show the changes in 2
sheet
breathing rate over the time period of Diagram A
3
this investigation. Plot both lines on the
same axes.
b Which boy appears to be fitter? Explain
4
your answer.
The teacher of the class was interested in Diagram B
the changes in breathing during the exercise
Look at diagram A.
period. She used a sensor, computer interface,
a What does the rubber sheet represent?
monitor and printer to obtain the following
b What will happen to the balloons when the
information on another member of the class.
rubber sheet is pulled downwards?
Start of
c What phase of the breathing cycle is
3 exercise represented when the rubber sheet is allowed
Volume of air in lungs / cm3
to return to its resting position?

2
d In what way is this model an incomplete
1 demonstration of the mechanism of breathing?
0
Look at diagram B.
e What parts of the human ventilation system
1 do the labels 1– 4 represent?
2 f Use the information in your answers to a–e
to comment on the statement: ‘Breathing
3
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 in is an active process, but breathing out is
118 Time / seconds completely passive.’
3 This table shows the energy reserves for skeletal 4 Respiration is one of the characteristics of
muscles in an athlete. living things.
a List four other characteristics of living
time the reserve things not including respiration.
would last / min
b Describe the difference between respiration
energy reserve mass / g energy / kJ walking marathon
and breathing.
running
blood glucose 3 48 4 1
Paper 2 Q1 May 2008
liver glycogen 100 1660 86 20
5 a T
his table shows the percentage of
muscle glycogen 350 5800 288 71
haemoglobin that is inactivated by carbon
fat in skin 9000 337 500 15 500 4018
monoxide present in the blood of taxi drivers
a i C
ompare the effect of walking and in a city.
marathon running on energy reserves.
percentage of
ii Suggest which two energy reserves would city taxi drivers haemoglobin inactivated
be most readily available to muscles by carbon monoxide
during exercise. day time smokers 5.7
iii Choose two food groups to which the drivers non-smokers 2.3
energy reserves in the table belong: night time smokers 4.4
protein mineral fibre fat carbohydrate drivers non-smokers 1.0
iv Calculate the energy per gram of
glycogen. Show your working. i T he carbon monoxide in the blood of these
b Suggest why athletes eat foods high in taxi drivers comes from two sources. One
i proteins, during training source is from vehicle exhaust fumes.
ii carbohydrates, for three days before a Name the other source of carbon monoxide
marathon race. that may be inhaled by drivers.
c During a fast race (a 100 metre sprint), ii Using data from the table, suggest which
95% of the energy comes from anaerobic of these two sources contributes most
respiration. During a marathon, only to the inactivation of the haemoglobin.
2% of the energy comes from anaerobic Explain your choice.
respiration. iii Calculate the difference in the percentage
i State the equation, in symbols, for of haemoglobin inactivated by carbon
anaerobic respiration in muscles. monoxide in day and night time taxi drivers
ii Suggest and explain why a sprinter can and suggest a reason for the difference.
use mainly anaerobic respiration during b i Name two other harmful components
the race, while a marathon runner needs of cigarette smoke, apart from carbon
to use aerobic respiration. monoxide. For each, describe an effect
iii Explain how, during a marathon race, the it can have on the body of a person who
blood glucose concentration stays fairly smokes.
constant, but the mass of glycogen in the ii Suggest a possible effect that might
liver decreases. happen to the fetus of a pregnant woman
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 who smokes.
Paper 3 Variant 1 Q5 November 2008 Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
119
2.41 Smoking and disease

Objectives
tobacco produces tiny droplets of water too, and
■ To understand that smoking tobacco is harmful to
these carry the harmful chemicals deep into the
health
lungs in just the same way as a medicine spray.
■ To list some of the harmful components of tobacco
It would be hard to find a more efficient way of
smoke and the damage they cause
delivering harmful chemicals to the lungs than
■ To understand why it is so difficult to give up smoking
smoking! Some of these dangerous chemicals, and
the effects they have on the body, are shown on
The risks of smoking the opposite page.
Many national advertising campaigns stress
that smoking is harmful. At the same time,
the manufacturers of cigarettes emphasise
Why is it so difficult to give up
i
the ‘glamorous’ side of smoking. However, smoking?
manufacturers have to include, by law, a statement In many ways nicotine is the most dangerous of the
on their advertisements and cigarette packets that chemicals in tobacco smoke. As well as affecting the
‘smoking can seriously damage your health’. heart and blood pressure directly, nicotine makes a
person become addicted to smoking. Addiction comes
Life insurance companies routinely ask ‘Do you
in two forms:
smoke?’ because they are aware that smokers are ■ in physical addiction, the body cannot function
more likely to die younger. Whether or not to take properly in the absence of the chemical because it
up smoking is the most important health decision has partly replaced a natural body chemical
that many of us will ever make. For this reason ■ in psychological addiction, the addicted person
everyone should know about the possible effects links smoking with comfort or lack of stress – when
they feel stressed they may automatically reach for
of smoking. Nobody who starts smoking now can
a cigarette.
say ‘But I didn’t know the risks’ when they suffer
the effects of their smoking habit later in life.
How is smoking harmful?
Smoking is inhaling the smoke from burning Q
tobacco (and paper). This smoke can harm the 1 How is smoke harmful to the lungs?
lungs and respiratory passages for a number of 2 What is the difference between physical and
reasons: psychological addiction? How can smokers be helped
to overcome their addiction?
■ it is hot
3 Suggest three harmful effects of smoking other than
■ it has a drying effect
damage to the lungs and breathing passages.
■ it contains many harmful chemicals.
4 Why are smokers more likely to develop infections of
The heat and dryness irritate the lungs, but the lungs than non-smokers?
the main dangers of smoking come from the 5
Draw a single cube with a side of 10 cm, and then
chemicals in the burning tobacco. There are over the same cube divided into smaller cubes each with a
side of 1 cm.
1000 known chemicals in tobacco smoke. These
a How many small cubes fit into the large cube?
include tars, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
b What is the surface area of each small cube?
nicotine and even small quantities of arsenic and
c What is the total surface area of all of the small
plutonium! When doctors treat lung diseases cubes?
with medicine, the molecules of the medicine d What is the surface area of the large cube?
are delivered in a spray; the droplets of water in e Use your answers to explain why emphysema
the spray carry the medicine down through the sufferers are often very breathless.
respiratory tubes and deep into the lungs. Burning
120
Free radicals are extremely dangerous

chemicals that damage proteins and DNA. They
cause ageing of cells (smokers are often
‘wrinkled’, inside and out!) but smokers can
reduce their effects with high doses of
vitamin C.
Cilia are destroyed which means

that mucus accumulates in the
Nicotine is the chemical that causes addiction.
respiratory tubes. Dust and microbes,
It is also a stimulant which makes the heart beat
trapped in the mucus, slide
faster and at the same time makes blood vessels
down towards the lungs
narrow. Together these two effects raise blood
making the person
pressure (causing long-term damage to the
cough. This coughing
circulation). The increased heart rate increases
inflames the lining
the demand for oxygen, but carbon monoxide
of the bronchi, causing
(see below) reduces oxygen availability – so heart Mucus,
bronchitis. A smoker is 20
muscle is more likely to be damaged. microbes
times more likely to develop
and cell
bronchitis than a non-smoker.
fragments
build up
Emphysema results
when the walls of
the air sacs are
destroyed. This
happens because
Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen supply smoke affects white
Oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form blood cells which
then destroy lung Healthy Alveoli in
oxyhaemoglobin in red blood cells. Carbon
tissue. When the alveoli person with
monoxide (CO) reduces oxyhaemoglobin
walls break down emphysema
formation because it binds very tightly to
haemoglobin, and the effect is permanent since there is less surface for gas exchange, and
breathing becomes very difficult. Somebody with
carboxyhaemoglobin is very stable. This:
emphysema may only be able to walk 2 or 3
reduces aerobic respiration (bad for sport)
metres before becoming breathless. Emphysema
reduces oxygen transport across the
is almost unknown in non-smokers.
placenta (babies born to smokers have
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
low birth-weight). can be a result of emphysema
Carbon monoxide poisoning is especially likely very poor airflow
when car engines are allowed to run in enclosed worsens over time
spaces (such as garages) and when the does not respond to anti-asthma
atmosphere is of poor quality (e.g. in smog). drugs.
Tar causes cancer, which is uncontrolled division Lung cancer is 10 times more likely in a smoker
of cells. These cells, usually those lining the lower than a non-smoker. The tumour invades other
part of the bronchus, grow through the basement tissues. This causes pain and loss of function of
membrane and invade other tissues. other tissues, often resulting in death.
Tar is also an irritant which makes coughing
more likely. This causes physical damage to the
lungs, and makes the effects of emphysema even
worse. Other irritants in tobacco smoke include
smoke particles, ammonia and sulfur dioxide.
Smoking causes other diseases including:

cancer of stomach, pancreas and bladder
loss of limbs – amputated because of poor
circulation
coronary heart disease
The lung of a smoker destroyed by cancer
lower sperm counts in men. (right), and a normal lung (left)
121
2.42 How do we know that smoking causes

disease?
Objectives
■ To understand the statistical evidence linking smoking Some disturbing data i
to disease Fewer boys are taking up smoking in the UK than
■ To be able to design an epidemiological investigation 20 years ago (good news) but more girls are now smoking
(bad news). Can you suggest reasons for these changes?
Key Boys Girls

Sir Richard Doll’s research into
in 15–17 year age group

Percentage of smokers
30
smoking
We know today that smoking causes disease, but 20
how have we found this out? The diseases could 10

result from living in a polluted environment, or
exposure to chemicals at work, or diet, or any 1980 1985 1990 1995
number of other factors. Year
Sir Richard Doll was an epidemiologist – he studied Cigarette sales in the UK have fallen because people
patterns in the distribution of diseases. He was are becoming more aware of the health risks of smoking.
Advertising campaigns emphasise the dangers, and
particularly interested in comparing the habits and
smoking is banned in many public places to reduce
environment of people who developed lung disease ‘passive smoking’ (breathing in someone else’s cigarette
with people who did not. His results were very smoke). Tobacco companies are focusing on selling to
valuable because he collected data in a scientific developing countries where people are less aware of
way, removing many variables from his studies. the health risks. The rise in lung disease in Britain
For example: in the 1980s and 1990s will be repeated in 20 years’
time in these countries.
■ he carried out many of his studies on doctors,
The number of cigarettes sold in the UK and in Mexico,
so he could rule out profession as a cause of
1960–1995.
lung disease
250
■ he separated data for people living in cities
Cigarette consumption
from those living in the countryside, so 200 Mexico

(% of 1960 level)
environment was not causing large differences

150
between people in one study group.
100
Some examples of epidemiological studies that
UK
related lung disease and early death to smoking 50
tobacco are shown on the opposite page. The box 0

shows some data about smoking in Britain and 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
other countries.
t Sir Richard
Doll carried out
epidemiological
research on lung
The cigarette companies are now targeting countries
diseases.
122 such as Africa to increase their profits.
Evidence linking smoking with lung cancer

335
Increase in risk of death from lung cancer Results of a prospective study – looking
forward and suggesting that if smoking was
330
an important cause of lung disease
and death, then early death would be more
325 likely in smokers than in non-smokers
320
315
310 A correlation between two variables does not

necessarily prove that one of the variables
35 causes the other – it might be that heavy
smokers develop lung cancer because they
1 Non-smokers are exposed to some other environmental
0
factor, or that individuals with a genetic
0 10 20 30 40
make-up that carries a risk of lung cancer
Cigarettes smoked per day are also ‘genetically’ more likely to smoke.
The work of Richard Doll and others is so
convincing because it has eliminated many
100 other environmental factors. However, it is
Doctors alive (% of number alive at age 55)
likely that the development of lung cancer

90 is a complex process. It is probably
80 multifactorial, involving both genetic and
Non-smokers lifestyle factors.
70
60
Smokers
50
40
30 Results of a retrospective study –

looking back at the lifestyle, occupation
20 and environment of people who have died
10 from lung cancer
0
55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Age (years)
p In 1962 the Royal College of Physicians published a report on smoking and

health, which suggested a clear link between cancer and smoking. For example,
among a sample of doctors living in similar-sized cities, those who smoked
regularly were more likely to develop cancer of the lung.
Q
1 What is meant by the term epidemiology? n Which sex?
2 Suggest two factors other than cigarette smoking that n Which occupation?
might increase the risk of developing lung cancer. n How about their diet?
3 How much more likely to die of lung cancer is a person In what way do you think the results of your study
who smokes 25 cigarettes a day than someone who might be useful?
does not smoke at all? 5 In a typical laboratory experiment, data are collected by
4 One epidemiological study has suggested that living manipulating one variable and measuring the responding
close to power lines can cause leukaemia. How would change in another, with all other identifiable variables
you try to prove this link? kept constant (see page 34). Why can this approach not
n Which populations would you study? be used to investigate the effect of smoking on the
n How old would they be? development of lung disease in humans?
123
2.43 Excretion: removal of the waste

products of metabolism
Objectives
■ To understand that living cells produce wastes The role of the kidney
The kidneys are specialised organs that:
■ To name some human waste products
■ remove the toxic waste product urea from the
■ To name the organs involved in excretion
circulating blood – they carry out excretion
■ To understand the functions of the kidney
■ regulate the water content of the blood – they
carry out osmoregulation.
Homeostasis (page 128) means keeping a constant
environment around the cells of the body. This The structure of the kidneys is well adapted to
involves providing cells with essential raw materials, enable them to carry out these processes.
but also means removing waste products. These waste ■ Each kidney receives a good supply of blood at
products can be very toxic (poisonous), for example: high pressure through the renal artery.
■ Carbon dioxide, produced during respiration, ■ Each kidney contains hundreds of thousands
dissolves in plasma and tissue fluid to form a of tubes, the nephrons (kidney tubules), that
weak acid (carbonic acid, H2CO3) which can can filter substances from the blood.
denature enzymes and other proteins at high ■ Each kidney has an exit tube, the ureter, to
concentrations. carry away the urine (a solution of wastes
■ Urea, produced in the liver during deamination dissolved in water).
of excess amino acids, can denature enzymes. ■ The kidney is under close control by a
■ Salts, which can be in excess in the diet, can have feedback system so that water saving is
an effect on the water potential of the blood. always exactly balanced to the body’s needs.
Excretion is the removal of toxic materials, the

waste products of metabolism and substances in
excess of requirements.
Inferior vena cava
Aorta
Adrenal gland
Cortex
Adrenal artery and vein
Renal artery – contains blood Medulla

with high urea concentration
Right kidney In pregnant women the bladder is

compressed by the expanding uterus.
this reduces its storage capacity so
Renal vein – contains blood
that these women have to urinate
with lower urea concentration
more frequently than normal.
Ureter – carries urine
from kidney to bladder
In women the urethra is shorter than
Bladder – stores up to about 500 cm3 in men. This means that bacteria can
of urine before expelling it from body infect the bladder more easily in
women than in men.
Sphincter – ring of muscle
In men the inside of the urethra has
which controls flow of urine
a spiral groove (like the rifling in a
from bladder to urethra
gun barrel), which makes the urine
Urethra – carries urine from flow in a narrow stream.
bladder to outside
p The kidneys receive blood from the renal artery, remove urea and a variable amount of water from it and return the
‘modified’ blood to the circulation through the renal vein. The wastes removed from the blood are eventually expelled from
124 the body through the urethra after being stored in the bladder.
The structure of the kidney

The kidneys and their blood vessels are located in the abdomen, as
shown in the diagram opposite. The kidneys constantly produce
urine which then passes to the bladder.
The functional unit – the kidney tubule (nephron)

Each kidney contains hundreds of thousands of long tubes called
q The kidney is made up of many
nephrons, each with its own branch of the renal artery and vein.
nephrons (kidney tubules). Substances
Each nephron works in exactly the same way, so the function of
are filtered out of the blood into the
the kidney can be explained by considering the working of just one
nephron. Useful molecules and most of
the water are reabsorbed into the blood. nephron, as shown below.
Branch of renal artery –

Branch of renal vein – blood containing
contains glomerulus (ball of About 180 dm3 of water filters through to the nephrons every
useful molecules and water but cleared of
capillaries); day. Only about 1.5 dm3 is lost as urine because the rest of it
wastes is now returned to the circulation.
blood containing wastes plus is returned to the blood.
useful molecules plus water is
delivered from the circulation.
Key
water
waste
useful molecules
Bowman’s capsule – contains

glomerulus (ball of capillaries);
blood is filtered under high pressure
(ultrafiltration). Wastes plus some
useful molecules plus some water
are filtered into the nephron
(kidney tubule). First coiled tubule –
useful molecules plus most of Collecting duct – kidney
water are selectively reabsorbed can reabsorb water from here
into the blood. and return it to the blood
according to the body’s
demands, under the influence
Position of of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).
nephron in kidney
Urine containing
wastes dissolved in
a small volume of
Medulla (contains water.
loops of Henlé and
collecting ducts)
Loop of Henlé alters salt
concentrations in the medulla
Cortex (contains to aid reabsorption of water
Bowman’s capsules from the collecting ducts.
and coiled tubules)
Q
1 Define the terms excretion and osmoregulation. receives materials from the blood after filtration in the
2 Name two waste products of metabolism. State their capsule. The tubules then remove useful
source and how they are removed from the blood. substances such as from this filtrate by the process
3 Copy and complete the following paragraph. of . The remaining waste or excess materials pass
The main excretory organ in the mammal is the . down the tubule and leave the excretory organ via the
There are two of these, each supplied with blood . They are collected for temporary storage in the
through the and each composed of many . Eventually a dilute solution of these wastes, the
thousands of tubules called . Each of these tubules urine, leaves the body through the .
125
2.44 Dialysis and the treatment of

kidney failure
Objectives
■ To explain how body water is regulated Kidney failure
Damage to the kidneys, perhaps through infection
■ To explain how kidney disease can be treated
or following an accident, can stop the nephrons
working efficiently. The body can no longer
Osmoregulation control the composition or amount of urine
The final part of each nephron, the collecting formed, so the content of the blood plasma and
duct, removes water from the filtered solution tissue fluid is not kept at its optimum. Death may
passing down inside the tubule and returns it to follow quite quickly if the kidney failure is not
the blood. The body can control the amount of corrected. Two types of treatment are available:
water that is returned to the blood in this way, ■ dialysis using a kidney machine (an artificial
and balance it with the amount of water taken kidney)
in in the diet and the amount of water lost from ■ kidney transplant.
the body by other means. This vital control of
water balance is called osmoregulation. Water Dialysis and the artificial kidney
A kidney machine takes a patient’s blood, ‘cleans’
is the most common substance in the body, and
it and returns the blood to the circulation.
has many functions (see page 236). The average
This process is called dialysis. Wastes diffuse
daily intake and loss of water by different
out of the blood, across a partially permeable
methods is outlined in the diagram below.
membrane, into a fluid that is constantly renewed.
In this way urea is removed from the blood
without altering any of its other features. The
diagram on the opposite page shows the workings
of a kidney dialysis machine.
q The water excreted in the urine is adjusted so that total

water intake and total water loss are balanced
Intake varies greatly

depending on the type
of food available. Some
desert animals gain 90%
of their water from
respiration. Camels don’t Body contains
store water in their hump, Water intake about 40 dm3 Water loss
but fat. Water is released of water
Drinks 1500 cm3 Urine 1500 cm3
when the fat is respired.
Water in foods 800 cm3 Sweat 500 cm3
From 15 dm3 in 25 dm3 Exhaled air 400 cm3
respiration 200 cm3 tissue fluid inside Faeces 100 cm3
and blood the cells
plasma
Isotonic sports drinks

Volume of urine is greatly reduced if
provide rapid rehydration.
more water is lost through sweating.
They contain:
glucose and salts,
which are quickly
absorbed so that Diarrhoea can greatly increase water
water follows by osmosis. loss. Severe cases can cause death by
dehydration.
126
Kidney transplants Q
A kidney transplant involves surgically
1 The body must maintain a water balance.
transferring a healthy kidney from one person
a Why does the body need water?
(the donor) to a person with kidney failure (the b How is water gained by the body?
recipient). It is relatively simple to connect c How is water lost by the body?
up the donor kidney in the recipient’s body, but 2 The water balance of the body is maintained by
a problem arises with tissue rejection. The negative feedback. Explain what this term means.
recipient’s immune system will attack the donor 3 Why is a kidney transplant considered better than
kidney and slowly destroy it (see page 105) dialysis? What problems are associated with kidney
unless the recipient takes drugs to stop this transplantation?
happening. Blood groups and tissue types of
donors and recipients are carefully matched to
reduce the likelihood of rejection. Successful
kidney transplants have advantages over dialysis
treatment:
■ Inthe long term, a transplant is much cheaper.
■ The patient’s life is less disrupted once they
have recovered from the operation.
Blood returns to body Chamber – removes any blood

through vein – this is clots and re-warms blood to A patient usually has three dialysis
easier since blood in body temperature so body is not sessions per week, each lasting 6–8 hours,
vein is at low pressure. ‘shocked’ when blood returns. which disrupts the person’s life. There
are never enough machines and trained
staff to treat all the people who need
dialysis, so difficult decisions have to be
made about who receives treatment.
Dialysis fluid has a composition

which means that urea and salts
diffuse into it from blood but useful
Dialysis fluid in solutes and water do not.
Blood taken from

artery – leaves body
under high pressure.
Membrane is partially permeable
so that urea can cross it but blood
cells and large molecules such as
proteins can not.
Dialysis fluid out

– the fluid can be
cleaned and then
Pump controls re-used. Diffusion of urea out of blood is aided by
pressure and flow countercurrent flow of plasma and dialysis
rate so that blood is fluid – they flow in opposite directions,
‘cleaned’ in 6–8 hours. maintaining the concentration gradient.
127
2.45 Homeostasis: maintaining

a steady state
Objectives
■ To be able to define the term homeostasis Cells change the
composition of the
■ To understand why the body must keep constant tissue fluid as they
conditions around its cells remove food and
oxygen and add
■ To remember that tissue fluid surrounds all cells carbon dioxide
■ To understand the principle of negative feedback and other wastes.
■ To know the organs involved in homeostasis
Heart supplies the
constant pressure
needed to deliver
The cells in any living organism will only function blood to the tissues,
properly in the correct conditions. The conditions and to form the
tissue fluid.
outside the body (the external environment) are
continuously changing – for example, temperature Skin – the main
on a cool day might vary from 0°C out of doors organ for control
of heat exchange
to 20°C indoors. The body has mechanisms for (see page 130).
adjusting conditions within the body (the internal
environment) so that conditions around the cells Kidneys regulate
levels of water
remain constant.
and salt
Keeping the internal environment (osmoregulation)
and remove urea
constant and other wastes
The blood cells lie in the blood plasma, and other (excretion) (see
page 124).
cells are surrounded by tissue fluid (see page 88).
Conditions in the blood (and therefore in the Lungs regulate
tissue fluid) are maintained at an optimum – exchange of carbon
dioxide and oxygen.
the best values for the cells to function. Keeping
constant conditions in the tissue fluid around the Intestines supply
Liver regulates
cells is called homeostasis. soluble foods and
the levels of many water.
Homeostasis involves several organs, but the basic solutes in the blood,
and removes poisons (see page 71).
principle is always the same, as shown below. The
diagram on the right shows some of the organs p Many organs play a part in homeostasis. (A more accurate
involved in homeostasis, and the particular diagram of the human circulation is given on page 86.)
conditions in the tissue fluid which they regulate.
Homeostatic
External systems even out
environment has variations in the
Varying conditions conditions
many factors which
may be experienced experienced by
can vary greatly, e.g.
by the body. the body, e.g. the
amount of food
available. liver can store or
release glucose.
Tissue fluid surrounds working

Blood is now at a cells with constant, ideal
constant, ideal state conditions, e.g. an optimum
e.g. glucose concentration glucose concentration for
of 1 mg per cm3. respiration.
128
How is homeostasis brought about?

The work of these organs must be coordinated to achieve homeostasis. Flying with ‘George’
i
Information about the conditions in the body is continuously fed to the An aeroplane may be flown by an
brain from sensory receptors around the body. automatic pilot, sometimes called
‘George’. This involves a series of
For example, if the body temperature rises, temperature receptors in feedback controls that correct any
the skin send information to the brain. In response, the brain starts slight deviation from the aircraft’s
off mechanisms that will lower the body temperature again. The flight path. For example, if the plane
same temperature receptors ‘inform’ the brain when the temperature tips to one side, a gyroscope detects
the deviation and sends an
is back to normal. Homeostasis depends on this continual feedback
electronic signal to the computer.
of information, as explained in the diagram below.
This computer then sends out
To summarise: another signal to the plane’s ailerons
■ Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal (levelling flaps) and the flight path is
environment. corrected.
■ Homeostasis involves control by negative feedback.

■ In negative feedback, a change sets off a response that cancels
out the change.
Level of factor in blood
Deviations outside the normal range may Any change from the set point is a deviation.
not be controlled by homeostasis and can This deviation acts as a signal to the control
lead to disease. centre.
This is the range of

this factor that can
be controlled by Control centre sets off
homeostasis. Cells Time
the correct responses.
work well within
this range.
This is the norm or set point for the

homeostatic control system. This would
be the ideal level of this factor for
cells to work. Response cancels out the
deviation and returns the
factor towards its set point.
p In homeostasis, deviation from a set point acts as the signal that sets off the correction mechanism.
This negative feedback keeps variable factors within the narrow range suitable for life.
Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. 2 Copy and complete the following table.
Cells work best when conditions around them remain
Homeostatic organ Factor controlled
constant. Cells are bathed in fluid, and many
systems work to keep the composition of this fluid Liver
constant. Each system has , which detect any Lungs
changes from the (the ideal conditions for the Water content of blood
cells). The changes are then communicated to the Heat loss or gain
, usually along neurones. The central Intestines
control area then sets off the correct responses. These
3 Use the principle of feedback control to compare
responses cancel out the original change and so this
the regulation of blood glucose level in humans
sort of control is often called .
(see page 132) with the maintenance of a stable
temperature in an aircraft cabin.
129
2.46 Control of body temperature

Objectives
■ To understand why body temperature must be Heat and temperature
i
controlled Heat is a type of energy, so it can be ‘held’ by an object
■ To know the difference between heat and temperature or passed from one object to another. Temperature is
■ To understand the part played by the skin in control of a measure of how concentrated the heat energy is in
temperature an object, such as the human body. A body will rise in
temperature if it gains heat energy.
■ To appreciate that control of body temperature is an
example of negative feedback
Birds and mammals are endotherms (‘inside
The importance of a constant heat’) – they can maintain a constant body
temperature temperature by generating heat internally.
Many biological and physical processes are Humans have several mechanisms which work
affected by temperature. For example: non-stop to balance heat production against heat
■ enzymes work best at their optimum
loss, as shown in the diagram below. This balance
temperature, and are denatured by wide is achieved by a temperature control centre in
deviations from this the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. The
■ cell membranes become more fragile as
diagram opposite shows the negative feedback
temperature rises systems that control body temperature in an
■ diffusion rates are increased by higher
endotherm.
temperatures, and decreased by lower ones The role of the skin
■ liquids such as blood become more viscous
As the barrier between the body and its
(thicker) as the temperature falls. environment, the skin is also the main organ
concerned with heat loss and heat conservation.
q An endothermic animal maintains an ideal body
temperature by balancing heat losses and heat gains
Metabolism – many biochemical Heat is lost when water evaporates

reactions, especially respiration, from the lungs and sweat evaporates
in the liver generate heat. from the skin.
Convection – transfer of heat to and

Movement generates heat by from the body on air currents. Can be
respiration and friction within increased by ’fanning‘ air past the body.
the muscles.
Radiation – transfer of heat in the Heat can be
form of rays, usually infra-red rays. gained or lost
by these processes.
Excretion: urine and faeces are Conduction – transfer of heat by
at body temperature. Heat is lost direct contact with another object
when they are expelled from the such as a cold rock or a hot oven
body. door.
Fat! Fat is an important

compound in temperature Heat losses
control: Heat gains Evaporation
each fat molecule provides Respiration Excretion
about twice as much energy Conduction Conduction
in respiration as a molecule of Convection Convection
either protein or carbohydrate If heat gains exceed Radiation Radiation If heat losses exceed
fat stores under the skin heat losses the body heat gains the body
insulate against heat loss. temperature will rise – temperature will fall –
may cause hyperthermia. 37˚C may cause hypothermia.
130
Skin increases heat loss by:

During fever, to the hypothalamus Radiating heat
the body’s through vessels at the back Evaporation (sweat)
temperature of the neck. A nosebleed can
may be reset be stopped by placing a cold
2–3 °C higher. object on the back of the
neck – the hypothalamus Radiation (vasodilation
reacts to the ‘cooled’ blood of arterioles leading
Higher temperatures denature
by closing down skin blood to surface capillaries)
proteins of infecting bacteria
more rapidly than they affect vessels. As a result the
human proteins. Blood flows nosebleed stops. Convection (relaxation
of hair erector muscles
so hair lies flat)
The structure of the skin is adapted for temperature control

Epidermis protects Hair erector muscle
against water loss Nerve ending – receptor
and entry of that detects temperature
disease-causing changes on the skin
organisms Hair surface
Integrator
Detector in brain
Corrective mechanisms:
Increase attempt to increase
heat loss
The optimum
Norm temperature for Norm
the body’s activities
is about 37°C
Corrective mechanisms:
Decrease attempt to
conserve heat ...
Detector
Integrator
in brain Subcutaneous (‘under the skin’) Capillary beds
fat insulates against heat loss – Sensory neurone carries
only involved in long-term impulses to the hypothalamus
(e.g. seasonal) temperature
control Dermis
Sweat gland - produces sweat
Malpighian layer
Skin reduces heat loss by reducing:

… and to generate more heat
shivering – muscular activity Convection (contraction
generates heat of hair erector muscles
adding extra clothing – insulation raises hairs and traps a
reduces heat loss layer of still air)
eating more – eating stimulates heat Radiation (vasoconstriction
production by respiration … of arterioles leading to
… or turn on the central heating! surface capillaries shunts
(Humans can control their external blood away from skin)
environment too.)
Evaporation (sweat glands
do not secrete sweat)
p The structure of the skin is adapted for temperature control

131
2.46 Control of body temperature
Control of blood glucose level Insulin controls the conversion of glucose to

One of the functions of adrenaline is to glycogen; glucagon controls the conversion
increase the concentration of glucose in the of glycogen to glucose. Glucose is a simple
blood for respiration. However, constant high sugar and is soluble in blood plasma and cell
concentrations of glucose in the blood are cytoplasm. Glycogen is a polysaccharide (see
harmful. page 28) and is insoluble. Glucose is therefore
the usable form of carbohydrate and glycogen
The ideal concentration of glucose in the blood is
is the storage form of carbohydrate. The way
normally maintained by two further hormones,
in which the blood glucose level is kept within
insulin and glucagon. These are secreted by cells
safe limits is shown in the diagram below.
in the pancreas in response to changes in blood
glucose concentration. They affect liver, fat tissue
and muscle.
■ Insulin is released when blood sugar is too
high. It stimulates the removal of glucose from
the blood.
■ Glucagon is released when blood sugar is too
low. It stimulates the release of glucose into
the blood.
Pancreas produces
Liver converts more of the
glucose hormone
glycogen insulin
Too high
hyperglycaemia
Blood glucose level

measured as blood
Normal blood passes through the
glucose level pancreas
Too low
hyperglycaemia
Pancreas produces
Liver converts more of the
glycogen hormone
glucose glucagon
p Blood glucose level is under feedback control by the hormones insulin and glucagon
132
Blood glucose level Glucose oxygen

Glucose is the cells’ main source of energy, and it
must always be available to them for respiration … Carbon dioxide water
… so the body keeps a constant amount of glucose

in the blood. This blood glucose level
Energy
is usually maintained at about 1 mg of glucose per
cm3 of blood.
What is diabetes? Cells may carry out work
Diabetes is a condition in which the blood glucose
concentration is higher than normal. sugar can also cause a form of diabetes. This
■ Type I diabetes is usually the result of the Type II diabetes can be controlled by adjusting
pancreas failing to secrete enough insulin. the diet to limit fat and sugar, and does not
■ Symptoms include
need injection of insulin. This ‘non–insulin–
– excessive thirst, hunger or urine production dependent’ diabetes is a common problem for
– sweet smelling breath obese people.
– high ‘overflow’ of glucose into urine (test with
Clinistix).
■ Long–term effects if
untreated include Clinistix are thin strips of plastic
– premature ageing with a small pad at the bottom.
– cataract formation The pad contains an enzyme and
a dye. If glucose is present the
– hardening of arteries
enzyme uses it to change the
– heart disease. colour of the dye. A Clinistix
■ Treatment is by regular dipped into a urine sample from
injection of pure insulin a diabetic person will give a positive
– much of this is now result within seconds. Clinistix are
manufactured by genetic an excellent example of the medical
uses of enzymes (see page 246).
engineering (see page 245).
■ A diet that contains too
much fat and too much
Questions on excretion and homeostasis

1 a What is hypothermia? a Use this information to explain how humans
b Why are old people particularly at risk from control body temperature.
hypothermia? b Explain how shivering affects body
c Why do you think children lose heat very temperature.
quickly? c How does the liver contribute to body heat?
2 This diagram shows how body temperature is d Use the diagram to explain the meaning of
controlled. ‘negative feedback’.
Body Body
3 If a person’s kidneys are diseased he or she may
Sweating,
temperature rises Sensor in dilation temperature falls have a kidney transplant. The transplanted kidney
brain of blood
vessels in skin
is connected to blood vessels which go into and out
of the leg.
Normal body Normal body a Copy and complete the diagram on the next
temperature temperature
page to show clearly how the artery, vein and
Shivering,
tube carrying urine should be connected in a
Sensor in constriction transplant operation.
Body brain of blood Body
temperature falls vessels in skin temperature rises 133
Vena cava 5 Humans and other mammals are able

Artery Aorta to maintain a relatively constant body
temperature, despite widely ranging
environmental temperatures. Mammals, unless
adapted to living in water, seem to prefer not to
get wet.
Three flasks were set up. Each flask represents
a hot mammal cooling down. Flask A had
Bladder
nothing around the flask. This represents a
hairless mammal. Flask B had a dry covering of
Tube carrying Vein cotton cool around the flask. This represents a
urine mammal with dry fur. Flask C had a covering of
cotton wool soaked in water around the flask.
b Sometimes a transplanted kidney is rejected.
This represents a mammal with wet fur.
Explain why rejection may occur.
c Explain how the kidneys prevent sugar and Each flask was covered with a lid through
useful ions being lost from the blood. which a thermometer was suspended. The
bulb of the thermometer was immersed in the
4 A person who suffers kidney failure may be
water, but did not touch the sides of the flask.
treated every few days by dialysis. This uses
Each flask was filled with an equal volume of
an artificial kidney machine. The diagram
hot water. The temperature of the water in
shows the working of a kidney machine. In
each flask was measured as it cooled. Readings
this machine a special solution flows around
were taken every 2 minutes and recorded in
the outside of an inner tube which carries the
the table below. A laboratory clock was used to
patient’s blood.
check the time.
a How is the waste substance urea removed
from the blood by dialysis? temperature / °C
b i It is better for the body if a kidney time / min flask A flask B flask C
transplant operation is performed
0 70 70 70
instead of having to undergo dialysis
2 66 68 64
Special solution of glucose, salts and amino acids 4 61 67 58
at the concentration found in normal blood
6 58 65 52
8 50 61 42
10 45 60 40
Blood to Blood from
patient’s patient’s
vein artery
a i O n the same axes plot a graph of the
three sets of results.
ii Compare cooling of the water in the three
flasks (flask A compared with flask B,
Partially permeable Special solution
membranes excess wastes from flask B compared with flask C and flask C
the blood
compared with flask A).
iii Explain what has happened to produce
every few days. Apart from the improved
these results.
convenience, why is a kidney transplant
b i Describe three ways in which this
better than dialysis treatment?
investigation was a fair test.
ii It is important to match carefully the
ii Describe two improvements which would
tissue type of the kidney donor and of the
increase the accuracy and reliability of
patient before doing a kidney transplant.
this investigation.
What would happen after the transplant Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
if this matching were not done? Paper 6 Q1 May 2008
134
stand stand stand

lid lid lid
water water water

level level level
flask dry wet

cotton cotton
wool wool
flask A flask B flask C
6 a T
he diagram below shows the urinary b T
he table shows the relative quantities of
system and its blood supply. several substances in the blood in the renal
artery and renal vein.
X direction of
blood flow substance relative quantities in relative quantities in
blood in renal artery / blood in renal vein /
arbitrary units arbitrary units
glucose 10.0 9.7
oxygen 100.0 35.0
sodium salts 32.0 29.0
Y urea 3.0 1.5
water 180.0 178.0
Explain what is happening in the kidney to

bring about three of the differences between
the blood in the renal artery and renal vein,
shown in the table.
Paper 2 Q11 May 2008
Name structures X, Y and Z.
135
2.47 Coordination: the nervous system

Objectives
■ To understand that different cells and tissues Working together
must work in a coordinated way There are millions of cells and scores of different
■ To know that there are two systems of coordination in
tissues and organs in the body of an animal
mammals such as a mammal. The cells and organs do
■ To understand that the structure of a neurone is highly not all work independently – their activities
adapted to its function are coordinated, which means that they work
together, carrying out their various functions at
certain times and at certain rates, according to the
needs of the body.
Brain
(inside skull) Coordination in mammals is achieved through
Central two systems, each with its own particular role.
nervous The nervous system deals with rapid but short-
system
Spinal cord (CNS) lasting responses, whereas the endocrine system
(inside vertebral brings about slower, longer lasting responses. The
column)
two systems are compared in the table below.
The nervous system
Nerves carrying information In mammals and other vertebrates, the nervous
to and from the CNS –
peripheral nervous system system is arranged as shown in the diagram on
the left. It consists of a brain and spinal cord,
which together form the central nervous system
(CNS), connected to the various parts of the body
by the peripheral nervous system. This is made
Sensory nerves Motor nerves
carry information carry information up of nerves, collections of many long thin nerve
to the CNS from the CNS cells called neurones.
Information flows along the nervous system as
follows. A receptor detects a change in conditions
(a stimulus). A message is carried from the
receptor to the CNS by a sensory neurone. After
processing, a message is sent from the CNS to an
p The arrangement of the human nervous system organ (an effector) that carries out a response.
A motor neurone carries this message.
The endocrine and nervous systems compared

Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Nature of message Electrical impulses, travelling along nerves Chemical messengers, travelling in the bloodstream
Duration of response Usually completed within seconds May take years before completed
Area of response Often confined to one area of the body – the response Usually noticed in many organs – the response is widespread
is localised
E xamples of processes Reflexes such as blinking; movement of limbs Growth; development of reproductive system
controlled
136
Nerves and neurones

All the information carried by the nervous Cell body controls
the metabolism of Dendrites ‘collect’
system travels along specialised cells called
the nerve cell information from
neurones (sometimes just called nerve other cells
cells). The structure of a single neurone, Axon is a long fibre
is well adapted to its function of carrying which carries information
away from the cell body,
information, as shown on the right. sometimes over long
distances
Nerve impulses
Messages pass along neurones in the form
Fatty sheath made of myelin
of electrical impulses, called action gives electrical insulation
Direction of impulse
potentials, which travel very quickly from between neighbouring cells
and makes impulses travel faster
one end of a nerve cell to the other. In a
living mammal the impulses always travel
End plate which synapses
along a neurone in a certain direction. with another nerve cell,
They are then passed on to another a muscle or a gland
neurone, to a muscle cell or to a gland cell. p A nerve is made of many neurones. This motor neurone
The end of the neurone is separated from carries information from the CNS to an effector.
the next cell by a tiny gap, visible under a
microscope, and the impulses can only cross
this gap in one direction. This gap, called a
synapse, acts like a valve as explained in the
diagram below.
End of one 1 The synapse is the junction

neurone between the end plate of
one neurone and the
2 dendrite of the next.
3
1 An impulse arrives at
4
the synapse.
2 At the end plate are
tiny vesicles containing
a chemical
Cell body of (neurotransmitter).
next neurone 3 The chemical is released
into the gap.
Many drugs, such as heroin, 4 The chemical diffuses
have their effects by changing across the gap and the
the way neurotransmitters impulse restarts on the
diffuse across this gap (see other side when the
page 153). Often the effects neurotransmitter binds to
depend on the relative the correct receptor
shapes of the drug and the molecule.
neurotransmitter, and how
they ‘fit’ the receptor.
p Impulses travel along a neurone in the direction that
allows the mammal to respond to changes in its environment.
They can only pass across the synapse in this direction.
Q
1 Suggest two similarities and two differences between 3 Explain the difference between:
the endocrine system and the nervous system. What is a motor and sensory neurones
the importance of these differences? b central and peripheral nervous systems.
2 Explain how the structure of a neurone is related to its 4 How does a nerve impulse:
function. a pass along a neurone b cross a synapse?
137
2.48 Neurones can work together

in reflex arcs
Objectives
■ To understand that neurones work together in a reflex Reflexes and survival
arc All reflex actions have evolved to help us survive.
■ To understand that all reflex arcs are important for
The table below lists four reflexes, and shows how
survival each helps us survive.
The size of the pupil can change quickly and
automatically in response to changes in the
Neurones act together in many complex ways to
intensity of light. This reflex action, described
bring about the correct response to a stimulus. The
in more detail on page 145, prevents damage to
simplest type of response is called a reflex action.
the retina.
A reflex action is a rapid automatic response to a
stimulus, for example jerking your hand away from A reflex is an involuntary action. Voluntary
a sharp or hot object. The nerve pathway involved actions only take place if the brain is involved in
in the reflex action is called a reflex arc, shown in initiating the action (see page 140).
the diagram on the opposite page.
Name of reflex Stimulus Response Survival value

Coughing Particles making contact with the Violent contraction of the diaphragm Prevents lungs being damaged or
lining of the respiratory tree and internal intercostal muscles infected, so that gas exchange remains
efficient
Pupil reflex Bright light falling on the retina Contraction of the circular muscles of Prevents bleaching of the retina so that
the iris vision remains clear
Knee jerk Stretching of the tendon just under Contraction of the muscles of the upper The leg can support the body’s weight
the knee, holding the kneecap in thigh so that the leg straightens during walking
place (a doctor may tap this tendon
to test the reflex)
Swallowing Food particles making contact with Contraction of the muscle of the Prevents food entering the respiratory
the back of the throat epiglottis, which closes off the entrance pathway, so that the lungs are not
to the trachea damaged
Q
1 The diagram opposite shows the route taken by nerve
impulses to bring about the knee-jerk reflex.
C
a Name the structure tapped by the hammer. How does
this set off the reflex action?
b Name the structure that carries impulses towards the
spinal cord. D
c Which structure A–E is responsible for the response in B E
this reflex action? A
d The distance between structure B and the spinal cord
is about 30 cm. Assuming that the impulses travel at
100 m per s, how long should it take for an impulse
to travel through this reflex arc?
e Careful measurement suggests that the actual time
taken for the impulse to travel through this arc is
2 or 3 times this value. Can you explain why?
138
Cross-section of the spinal cord – showing

2 Sensory neurone the path of a spinal reflex arc
– carries impulse
from the receptor
to the CNS.
The synapses act like valves
(page 137) so impulses only
travel in one direction in the
Cell body is not at one end
reflex arc
of the cell. Has myelin sheath
White matter contains

the nerve fibres
Grey matter contains the cell
bodies of the motor neurones
Dorsal (‘back’)
branch of
spinal nerve
5 Effector – the structure

that carries out an action
(the response) to deal with
the initial stimulus. Can be a
muscle – in this example it is
the biceps – or a gland. Spinal cord
Spinal
nerve – has
both sensory
and motor neurones,
so carries impulses
into and out
of the CNS
Galen, a surgeon who worked
with the gladiators of Rome,
dicovered that each spinal
nerve had two branches.
Gladiators wounded in the
back often lost the power of
sensation but could still move,
Direction whereas those wounded on
of impulse the front could not move
although they could still
1 Receptor – a cell or an organ
feel pain.
that receives a stimulus and Ventral (‘belly’)
converts it into an branch of
electrical impulse. spinal nerve
4 Motor neurone
– carries impulse
from the CNS to 3 Connector or relay neurone
the effector. – carries impulse slowly across
the spinal cord. No myelin sheath:
this gives time for the action to
Cell body at one end of the cell. be modified by impulses carried
Has myelin sheath down the spinal cord from the brain.
139
2.49 Integration by the central

nervous system
Objectives
The central nervous system (CNS) processes
■ To understand that the central nervous system
information from receptors and passes
integrates and coordinates the responses of the body
instructions to effectors to tell the organism how
to respond. This complex series of operations,
referred to as integration, is outlined below.
Sense organs
send information
about the organism’s Effectors in the head can bring
environment to the about a response. For example, the
central nervous systems. eyelids may blink. Reflexes that use
the brain as a relay centre without
conscious involvement are cranial
e.g eyes reflexes.
Many learned reflexes operate

through lower regions of the brain.
These often need to be set off by a
stimulus from a higher region, but
once started always lead to the
The brain can process same response.
information very quickly.
It can communicate with
other parts of the body Some reflexes help to keep a constant
via the spinal cord. internal environment in the body.
These do not involve any conscious
throught, and can rarely be ‘overruled’.
These reflexes are controlled y the
autonomic nervous system and
include breathing, heartbeat and
peristalsis.
e.g skin
A reflex that uses relay neurones in

the spine cord is a spinal reflex,
e.g. withdrawing the hand from a
hot object.
Voluntary actions require a conscious

decision by the brain – the organism has a
choice in the selection of the response. Effectors include muscles (which are
made to contract) and glands (which
are made to secrete).
Involuntary actions do not involve any

conscious decision by the brain. The organism
has no choice – the response autometically
follows the stimulus.
In simple terms:
Stimulus Sense organ Central nervous system Effector Response
140
Involuntary actions The advanced development of the brain,

Reflexes concerned with the ‘housekeeping’ tasks particularly those parts that deal with learning,
of the body, such as breathing, do not reach the sets mammals (and especially humans) apart from
conscious level of the brain. They are dealt with ‘lower’ animals. The brain is involved in voluntary
by the autonomic branch of the nervous system. actions, in which a conscious choice is made about
the response to a particular stimulus.
Responses may be more complex than a simple
reflex arc. For example, the CNS may store
information as memory and then compare an
Conditioned reflexes i
incoming stimulus with a previous one. It chooses
Conditioned reflexes are learned reflexes in which
the correct response for this particular situation, the final response has no natural relationship to the
and sends information out to the effectors to stimulus. In an experiment, a Russian scientist, Ivan
bring about the appropriate action. Each time a Pavlov, rang a bell when he fed dogs. The dogs then
particular stimulus leads to a certain response, salivated in response to the bell, even when no food
the impulse passes along the same route, so that was given. The natural stimulus (the food) had been
replaced by an unnatural one (the sound of the bell).
reflex actions become learned reflexes. Talking
Conditioned reflexes can be ‘unlearned’ if the unnatural
and cycling are examples of learned reflexes. stimulus is not repeated with the natural one – if the
Whether or not a reflex has been learned, it is an food was produced without the bell over a period of
involuntary action – a particular stimulus always time, the dogs would no longer salivate at the sound
leads to the same response. of the bell.
Voluntary actions
During evolution, the front of the spinal cord
became highly developed to form the brain.
Q
1 Reaction times for a class were measured using a Attempt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
computer to calculate the time taken for each student Reaction
to press the space bar after seeing a light. 330 340 290 320 320 280 270 290 400 260
time / ms
The table opposite shows the results for student 1.
b Place the students’ reaction times into groups by
a Calculate the mean reaction time of this student.
copying and completing the table below. Draw a bar
Why is the mean value useful?
chart of the results.
The mean class results are shown in the table below.
(You have just calculated the result for student 1.) Reaction time / ms Number of
students in group
Student Reaction Student Reaction 110–150
number time / ms number time / ms
160–200
1 16 150
210–250
2 220 17 300
260–300
3 130 18 140
310–350
4 220 19 230
c The teacher suggested that this reaction time could
5 210 20 150
affect driving ability – a motorcycle travelling at
6 250 21 190
55 km per h would cover about 15 m in a second.
7 190 22 180 How far would the motorcycle travel before:
8 200 23 240 i the student with the shortest reaction time
9 220 24 120 pulled the brake lever
10 240 25 170 ii the student with the longest reaction time pulled
11 140 26 160 the brake lever?
d In a further experiment a loud noise was made at
12 280 27 190
the same time as the light was shown. Eventually
13 210 28 210
the student began to respond when just the noise
14 330 29 270 was made. How does this result explain the meaning
15 270 30 200 of the term ‘conditioned reflex’?
141
2.50 Receptors and senses: the eye

as a sense organ
Objectives
The general principle of receptor action is outlined
■ To understand that receptors are the first stage
in the diagram opposite.
in reflex arcs
■ To know the different types of stimulus to which The senses
a mammal is sensitive Our senses are our ability to be aware of different
■ To know that a sense organ combines receptors with aspects of the environment. For example,
other cells the sense of sight allows us to be aware of
■ To know the structure and function of the eye light stimuli, detected by photoreceptors. The
photograph opposite shows the different human
senses, and the stimuli to which they are sensitive.
Receptors detect changes in the
The receptor cells that provide our senses do
environment
not work on their own. They need a supply of
A stimulus is a change in the environment that
blood to deliver nutrients and oxygen and remove
affects an organism. All living organisms are
wastes. Receptors may need help in receiving the
sensitive – they can respond to stimuli. Animals,
stimulus, and receptor cells are often grouped
including mammals, have a nervous system which
together with other tissues to form a sense organ.
receives information from the environment,
The other tissues allow the receptor cells to work
decides how to respond and then tells the body.
efficiently.
A receptor is a part of the nervous system that
is adapted to receive stimuli. Receptors can be The working of the eye illustrates the involvement
classified according to the type of stimulus they of other tissues in the operation of a sense organ,
respond to, as shown in the table. as described opposite.
Note that the senses are detected by receptors in
Receptor type Responds to Example in structures on the outside of the body, and mainly
stimulus humans
around the head. This is because the stimuli
Photoreceptor Light Rod cells in retina of
come from outside the body, and the head is
eye
often the first part of the body that goes into a
Chemoreceptor Chemicals Taste buds
new environment. There are also many internal
Thermoreceptor Changes in Thermoreceptors in
temperature skin receptors inside the body. These detect blood
Mechanoreceptor Mechanical changes Hair cells in ear
temperature and pH, for example, and are vital in
such as changes in (hearing and the process of homeostasis (see page 128).
length balance)
p Classification of receptors
Receptor – Central nervous
Stimulus
receives stimuli and system – can
Receptors are – a change
converts them into ‘understand’ electrical
in the Sensory neurone – carries
transducers environment.
electrical impulses
information as electrical impulses.
impulses and ‘choose’
(transduces them). what to do with them.
All receptors are
transducers, which
Think about it! We are not aware of any
means they convert stimulus until the impulse reaches the
one form of energy into correct area of the brain. The receptor can
another. They convert the be working perfectly but unless the sensory
nerve and brain are working, the ‘sense’
energy of the stimulus will be incomplete – we ‘see’ with our brain
(such as light energy) into as much as our eyes.
the kind of energy that the
nervous system can deal p All receptors work in the same way – they convert one form of energy (the
with (electrical impulses). stimulus) into another form that the nervous system can understand
142
The eye as a sense organ

The eye is an example of
Taste depends on chemical Temperature sensitivity a sense organ. It contains:
stimulation of the tongue. depends on heat ■ receptors – the rod and cone
stimulation of the skin.
cells on the retina
■ systems for making the
most of the light stimulus,
including the lens and the
Smell depends on chemical Balance and hearing
stimulation of the nose. depend on mechanical iris
stimulation of the ear. ■ its own blood supply and
physical protection via the
choroid and the sclera.
Sight depends on
Touch depends on light stimulation
mechanical stimulation The diagram below shows the
of the eye.
of the skin. arrangement of the structures
in the eye.
The body also has a sense of position. Each muscle and tendon sends information about
how stretched it is to the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS interprets this so that we
‘know’ where each part of the body is in relation to the other parts (see how easy it is to
clasp your hands behind your back, or to touch your nose with your eyes shut).
Together control light intensity on the Together control light focusing

retina (see page 145) on the retina (see page 144)
Pupil – the Iris – the coloured Ciliary Suspensory Lens

circular opening part of the eye muscle ligament
which lets light which can expand Retina – contains the light-sensitive
into the eye. It and contract to cells,the rods and cones.
appears black control the
because the amount of light
choroid is visible that enters the eye.
through it.
Yellow spot (fovea) – this area has the

Cornea – a highest density of cones and thus offers
transparent layer maximum sharpness but only works at
responsible for full efficiency in bright light.
most of the
refraction Optic nerve – composed
(bending) of of sensory neurones
light rays that which carry nerve
enter the eye. impulses to the visual
centre at the rear of the
brain.
Blind spot – at the exit point of the

optic nerve. There are no light-sensitive
p A horizontal section through the eye. The eye is a sense organ, containing cells here so light falling on this r egion
different tissues working together to perform one function. cannot be detected.
143
2.50 Receptors and senses: the eye as a sense organ
Rods and cones are photoreceptors on the retina

Sclera
('white' of eye)
Opening of tear duct

(tears wash the surface
of the eye, and contain
Pupil
a mild antiseptic)
(transparent – 'black'
is the choroid at
Iris the back of the eye)
('colour' of eye)
Eye: front/surface view
The retina contains two types of light-sensitive cell, rods and cones, as shown in the diagram below.
Rod cells are packed most tightly around Rods provide black-and-white images. Several rods
the edge of the retina. Objects are seen may be ‘wired’ to a single sensory neurone in the
most clearly at night by not looking optic nerve, giving great sensitivity at low light
directly at them. intensity (night vision), but images lack detail.
Layer of pigment prevents
sensory internal reflection which
neurone might lead to multiple or
to optic blurred images. This is the
nerve 'black' you can see
through the pupil.
Cones provide detailed

images, in colour (there
Cone cells are packed most tightly are three types, sensitive
at the centre of the retina. Objects to red, green and blue
are seen most clearly during daylight light). Cones only work
by looking directly at them. under high light intensity.
How a sharp image is Retina

Cornea
formed on the retina
An image is formed when rays
of light from an object are Lens
brought together (focused) onto Light rays from

The image formed on
the retina, as shown here. a single point
the retina is inverted
on the object.
A sharp image (upside down) and diminished
is formed when (smaller than the object).
light from a single The brain ‘corrects’ this
Cornea and lens point on the object inversion and reduction
together refract reaches a single in size. This process is called
(bend) the light rays. point on the retina. integration.
144
Accommodation – Ciliary muscle Ciliary muscle
adjusting for near and Suspensory

distant objects ligaments Suspensory
The amount of refraction ligaments
(bending) of the light is adjusted
Parallel
depending on the distance light rays
between the object and the eye. Diverging
The light rays coming from very light rays
distant objects are parallel. They

only need to be refracted a little
to form a single, sharp, focused Distant object Close object
Light needs to be refracted (bent) less. Light must be greatly refracted (bent).
image on the retina. However, Ciliary muscles relax , eyeball Ciliary muscles contract, pull eyeball
the lens does not need to be becomes spherical. inwards (eyeball ‘bulges’ forward).
very powerful for this. The light Ligaments are tight. Ligaments relax .
Lens is pulled long and thin. Lens becomes short and fat.
rays coming from close objects
are diverging. They need to be
refracted more to form a sharp Relaxed or waking eyes are set for Eyestrain is caused by long periods
viewing distant objects so that images of close work. The ciliary muscles are
image on the retina, and the of close objects (such as alarm clocks!) contracting against the pressure of fluid
lens needs to be more powerful. are blurred. in the eyeball.
The ability of the lens system to
produce a sharp image of objects
at different distances is called Stimulus – light falls on retina
accommodation. As people get
older the lens becomes less elastic
and loses its ability to change Impulse in sensory neurones of optic nerve
shape. This makes it harder to
refocus quickly on objects at
different distances. Smokers may Integration in the visual centr e of the brain
experience this problem earlier
than non-smokers because smoke
‘ages’ molecules in the lens.
Impulses in motor neurones
The iris controls the light

intensity at the retina
Light falls on the retina and Low light intensity – Circular High light intensity –
radial muscles of iris contract muscles circular muscles of iris contract
stimulates the rods and cones and the pupil is and the pupil is
to produce nerve impulses. These opened wider, so reduced in size,
more light can Radial so less light can
travel to the brain along the optic muscles
enter and reach enter and the retina
nerve. It is important that the the retina. The muscles of the iris is protected from bleaching.
rod and cone receptor cells are
not over-stimulated. If too much
light fell on them they would not
recover in time to allow continued
clear vision. The iris contains
muscles that alter the size of the
pupil, thereby controlling the
Adrenaline (see page 150) Heroin (see page 152) imitates
amount of light that falls on the imitates this part of the this part of the reflex – pupils
retina. This control is automatic, reflex – pupils dilate. constrict.
and is a good example of a reflex
action. This pupil reflex is p The pupil reflex prevents bleaching of the retina by regulating the amount of
explained in the diagram opposite. light that enters the eye 145
Questions on receptors and senses

1 What is a transducer? Explain how: B Muscles controlling the amount of light
a taste buds b rod cells entering the eye
can be called transducers. C The source of tears
2 Copy and complete this paragraph. D A black layer containing blood vessels
Light rays from an object are refracted by the E A very thin layer which protects the
and the which focus the light rays surface of the eye from bacteria
onto the . The amount of light that reaches F A tough white protective layer
this light-sensitive layer is controlled by the b In bright light the iris changes shape to
which is able to adjust the size of the (the reduce the size of the pupil.
black ‘hole’ in the front of the eye). There are two i What is the advantage of this?
types of light-sensitive cells, the , which are ii For this purpose, name the stimulus,
responsible for vision in low light intensity, receptor, coordinator and effector. Copy
and the , which are responsible for and complete the diagram below.
vision in light intensity. The image formed
on the is and than the object,
but the nerve impulses that pass along the
nerve to the brain are interpreted so that they Stimulus Receptor Coordinator Effector
make sense. The ability of the brain to compare
incoming information with previous experience, c Rosie went from bright light into a dark
and to set off the correct response, is called . room. The graph below shows the dimmest
light in which she could see during the first
3
Bimla was sitting in distance from thickness of half hour after entering the room.
a well-lit room. She eye / cm lens / mm
i How long was it before Rosie’s eyes were
covered one eye with 10 4.0
20 3.6 completely ‘used to the dark’?
an eye patch. A pencil
30 3.2 ii Rosie’s friend, Matilda, suggests that
was held in front of
50 2.9 Rosie’s eyes become ‘used to the dark’
her eye for 10 seconds.
100 2.7 because her iris changes shape. From the
Bimla focused on it 150 2.6 evidence in the graph, do you think that
and at the same time 200 2.6 this is likely? Explain your answer.
the thickness of her eye
lens was measured using an optical instrument. 60
The pencil was then moved a different distance
from the eye. This was repeated over a short
Brightness of light which is just visible / arbitrary units
period. The results are shown in the table. 50
a Name the structures in the eye that bring

about the change in the thickness of the lens.
40
b In this investigation, which is the
independent variable and which is the
dependent variable? 30
c Suggest two important fixed variables.
Explain why they must be fixed.
d How could the experiment be improved to 20
make the data more reliable?

4 a Copy the diagram of
10
the eye. Use arrows and
the letters listed below
to label the diagram. 0
A Layer containing 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
rods and cones Time in dark room / minutes

146
5 The figure below shows the bones and muscles 6 a C

omplete the following paragraph using
of a human leg. appropriate words.
a Muscles in the leg work antagonistically. Sense organs are composed of groups of
i State which muscle is antagonistic to cells that respond to specific
muscle A. . The sense organs that respond
ii Explain what is meant by antagonistic. to chemicals are the and the
b In the figure, the person is sitting with the
foot clear of the ground. If a sharp tap b T
he eye is a sense organ that focuses light
is given at X then the lower leg swings rays by changing the shape of its lens. It
forwards. This is a reflex action. does this by contracting its ciliary muscles.
i Describe the general features of any i What links the ciliary muscles to the lens?
reflex action. ii Describe the change in shape of the lens
ii If the spinal cord is cut through near the when a person looks from a near object to
chest, this reflex action still takes place. a distant object.
Suggest where in the central nervous c The graph shows changes in the contraction
system this reflex response is coordinated. of the ciliary muscles as a person watches a
humming bird move from flower to flower
C
pelvis while feeding on nectar.
B fully
X contracted 5
seat
ciliary
muscle 4
D contration 1
A
2
3
fully
relaxed
time
heel I n which period of time, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, was

the bird
i feeding from a flower very near to the
ground
person,
ii flying away from the person,
c I n an emergency, a person might have to run
iii flying towards the person.
suddenly and very quickly.
i Name the hormone that the body releases
Paper 2 Q7 May 2009
in such an emergency.
ii Describe three changes that occur in the
body when this hormone is released in
such an emergency.
147
2.51 The endocrine system

Objectives
■ To understand the need for a chemical system of Hormones in humans
coordination The main hormone-producing glands, and
■ To define the terms hormone and endocrine organ
the hormones they produce, are shown in the
■ To give examples of hormones in the human body
diagram on the opposite page.
A comparison between hormonal and nervous co-
ordination is shown on page 136.
A second control system
The responses controlled by the nervous system Hormones control puberty in humans
happen quickly, but there are some responses Hormones control long-term processes, and often
that go on over a long period of time. Growth and have widespread effects on the body. At puberty a
development, for example, continue for years. person becomes physically able to reproduce. The
Animals have a second coordination system, the development of sexual maturity is a good example
endocrine system, which carries out this sort of a hormone-controlled process (see page 173).
of control. As a young person develops physically, certain
signals are processed by the brain, which then
Ductless glands
instructs the pituitary gland to stimulate the
The endocrine system is a series of organs called
primary sex organs – the testes in males and the
glands, which secrete chemicals called hormones.
ovaries in females. Sex hormones – oestrogen
The endocrine glands are ductless glands – they
(in females) and testosterone (in males) – are
secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream.
released into the bloodstream and circulate
(Other glands, called exocrine glands (such as those
throughout the body. They only affect the target
in the digestive system), secrete substances through
organs which have receptors that recognise them.
a duct or tube.) The hormones, once released, travel
These target organs then carry out responses,
in the blood to any part of the body that is supplied
such as the growth of body hair, which may
with blood. The hormones affect only their target
continue for many years.
organs, as outlined in the diagram below.
1 Stimulus affects endocrine gland so that it

Hormone production is under
releases a hormone (chemical messenger). feedback control
4 Target organ brings about The production and secretion of hormones
an appropriate response to is accurately controlled by feedback – the
deal with the original stimulus. Endocrine gland
hormones regulate their own production. As the
level of hormone in the blood rises, it switches
off (inhibits) its own production so that the level
Hormone never gets too high. As the level of hormone in the
blood falls, it switches on (stimulates) its own
2 Hormones are distributed
production so that the level never gets too low.
through the body in the
bloodstream. Feedback control is very important in biology,
particularly in homeostasis (see page 129). It is
Hormone responses can
last for a long time. The outlined in the diagram opposite.
3 Receptors on the cell membranes hormones are eventually Hormones and food: growth hormones are
of the target organ recognise the removed from the blood.
Some (such as adrenaline) widely used to increase meat production in
circulating hormone molecules.
Cells with different receptors are
pass into the urine; others domestic animals (see page 150).
(such as sex hormones) are
not affected by the hormone, so
first altered chemically
only the specific target organ can
by the liver.
respond to the hormone.
p The mechanism of hormone action

148
Endocrine organs and their secretions
Human growth hormone

Sometimes the endocrine system does not
function properly. An example is pituitary
dwarfism – a person fails to grow and
Adrenal glands
develop properly because of a lack of a
Adrenaline – control of preparing
hormone called human growth hormone.
the body for action (see page 150).
Treatment has been considerably improved in
recent years by the production of human
growth hormone by bacteria.
Pancreas
Insulin and glucagon – control of
blood sugar concentration
(see page 132).
Sex organs The pancreas is also an
secrete exocrine organ! It secretes
sex hormones. digestive enzymes down a
tube into the small intestine.
Ovaries in female Testes in male

Oestrogen and progesterone – Testosterone – controls puberty in
control puberty in females, males, including deepening voice,
including development of breasts stronger muscles and growth of
and hips. Also control the menstrual body hair. Also controls
cycle and ovulation (see page 176). development and release of sperm
(see page 173).
Level increases if Increased Detected by Less hormone

endocrine gland hormone level cells of the secreted, so level
secretes too much. acts as a ‘signal’. endocrine glands. in blood falls.
Ideal level of This is negative feedback control.

Return to The change in hormone level acts as
hormone in blood
a signal to cancel out the change.
Level decreases if Decreased Detected by More hormone

endocrine gland hormone level cells of the secreted, so level
secretes too little. acts as a ‘signal’. endocrine glands. in blood rises.
p Feedback control regulates hormone levels in the blood
149
2.51 The endocrine system
Adrenaline
One hormone that has been widely studied is
adrenaline. This substance seems to bridge
the gap between nervous and endocrine
control. It is definitely a chemical messenger,
and is released directly into the bloodstream,
yet its actions are often very rapid indeed
and may only last for a very short time. The
widespread and instant effects of adrenaline
are described below.
Skin becomes pale as blood is diverted away.
Deeper, more rapid breathing and airways become wider.
Heart beats more rapidly.
Blood is diverted away from digestive system to

muscles by using sphincters (see page 88).
Adrenal glands (on top of the kidneys) release the p Adrenaline is The overall effect is to
hormone adrenaline.
known as the ‘flight or provide more glucose and
more oxygen for working
fight’ hormone,
Glycogen in muscles is converted to glucose, and muscles – preparation
released into the blood.
released when the for action!
body is given a shock
Hormones and food production*

Hormones are important in the beef, poultry and dairy industries:
they mimic the effects of hormones produced by the animals
concerned. Protein hormones must be injected into the animal
(as proteins in food would be digested), steroid hormones are
supplied in food or from pellets implanted in a part of the body not
consumed by humans. Many people are worried about the use of
these hormones.
Hormone Use Concerns for consumers

rBGH (recombinant Rapid growth of beef cattle: May cause cattle to produce other
bovine growth better conversion ratio of feed growth factors which could cause
hormone) in to muscle increased period cancer in humans
(protein) of milk production
Synthetic oestrogen Rapid growth in beef and Early onset of puberty in girls;
(steroid) poultry feminisation in males e.g. breast
development
Worries about steroid levels have led

to a ban on their use in the US, UK
steroid pellets in flesh of ear: ears are not and much of Europe.
usually eaten by humans
150
Hormones can be used as drugs in sport

The effects of hormones on the body’s activities
can be used to improve performance in sport.
Some hormones which have been abused in this
way are listed in the table below.
Hormone Effect on body Effect on sporting

performance
Anabolic Increase growth of Increase strength and power:
steroids muscle. weight ratio useful in
Reduce fat content ‘explosive’ sports such as
of body. sprinting and shot putting.
Cortisone Repair of damaged Allow rapid recovery after
tissues. intensive training.
Testosterone Stimulates male’s Aggression can be important
aggressive behaviour. in contact sports like rugby.
BUT BEWARE!
n Drug abuse is illegal and can lead to lengthy
bans for sportsmen and women.
n ‘Artificial’ hormones can switch off natural
hormone production by feedback inhibition.
Men may lose their sexual potency, gain body
fat and develop ‘squeaky’ voices, and women
may cease menstruation and ovulation (and
sometimes develop excessive body hair).
p Ben Johnson, 100 m sprinter who was disqualified from

the 1988 Summer Olympics and 1987 World Championships
after testing positive for banned drugs.
Questions on hormones
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. 2
A dangerously aggressive animal is unlikely
A human exposed to a severe shock responds to fit into society. Aggression may be an
by producing the hormone . This hormone important part of puberty in male animals,
causes the storage polysaccharide to and may help to win females. Explain how
be converted to , a soluble sugar used negative feedback (feedback control) would
to release energy via respiration. Aerobic keep aggression within acceptable limits in a
respiration requires as well as this sugar, young male animal.
and more of this gas is made available because
the hormone causes and breathing.
The body makes the most of its resources by
adjusting blood flow to different organs – less
blood flows to the , for example, and more
flows to the . The face of a shocked person
shows three effects of this hormone – the
skin , the pupils and the hair .
Because of these effects this hormone is often
called the or hormone. 151
2.52 Drugs and disorders of the

nervous system
Objectives
Social drugs may be abused
■ To know what is meant by a drug
A drug that is taken for non-medical reasons can
■ To be able to list the main types of drug
be described as a social or recreational drug.
■ To understand the effects of some drugs on the nervous
Examples include legal drugs, such as nicotine in
system
cigarette smoke, and alcohol, and illegal drugs,
■ To appreciate that the nervous system may not always
such as amphetamines and LSD. These drugs are
work perfectly
taken for the pleasurable sensations that they
give the user. Users may become dependent on
Types of drug the drugs because they are unwilling to give up
A drug is a chemical substance that can modify these pleasurable sensations. This psychological
or affect chemical reactions in the body. A or emotional addiction may then be followed
medicine is a chemical treatment for an illness by a physical addiction. A person becomes
or disorder. Antibiotics are drugs which are physically addicted to a drug when the drug is
medicines (see page 248). All medicines contain necessary for the normal working of the body.
drugs, for example, aspirin tablets contain the drug If the person cannot get the drug, then he or
acetylsalicylic acid, but not all drugs are medicines. she will get withdrawal symptoms. Someone
Nicotine and alcohol are drugs, for instance, but suffering withdrawal from heroin, for example,
are not usually thought of as medicines. may vomit, tremble, sweat profusely and have
There are many drugs, affecting different parts of severe abdominal pain after as little as four hours
the body. Some drugs act directly on the nervous without the drug.
system. These are often grouped according to the The dangers of abusing social drugs
effect they have, for example: Many casual users of social drugs soon become
■ Stimulants promote (speed up) the action of dependent upon them (physically and/or
the nervous system. Stimulants usually make psychologically), so that the drug becomes a
the drug user feel more confident and alert, dominant feature of their everyday life. The
and include amphetamines, caffeine and user will do almost anything to satisfy the desire
nicotine. (Nicotine is taken in tobacco smoke. for the effects of the drug, and this may lead to
Other effects of smoking are described on problems such as:
page 120.) ■ malnourishment as the drug depresses the
■ Depressants inhibit (slow down) the action appetite
of some part of the nervous system. The user ■ financial problems – drugs can be expensive
feels sleepy and less anxious, but may become and users often resort to stealing
dependent on the drug. Examples of depressants ■ infections from shared needles used to inject
are barbiturates, alcohol and cannabis. drugs, including HIV and hepatitis
■ Narcotics act like depressants but particularly ■ dangers from other substances mixed with
target the brain. They work as pain-killers and the drugs.
may bring about a feeling of drowsy well-being
or euphoria. Narcotics such as heroin are The drug may also lead to dangerous behaviour
very likely to bring about drug dependence in such as poorly coordinated driving after drinking
the user. alcohol or erratic behaviour when using a
■ Analgesics are mild pain-killers. Aspirin and hallucinogen.
paracetamol are widely used analgesics.
Some of these drugs and the effects that they

have are described on the opposite page.
152
Drugs may affect the central and peripheral nervous system
Alcohol affects emotional centres The brain is affected by several groups

in the forebrain. It acts as a depressant of drugs:
and overrules normal social restraints. Heroin (an example of a narcotic) mimics
At low concentrations alcohol therefore the action of the body’s natural pain-
‘lifts’ social inhibitions. killers. This gives a pleasurable sense
of well-being (a ‘high’).
Alcohol can upset normal sleep
patterns by reducing the levels of a
‘calming agent’ in the brain.
Alcohol slows down impulses in peripheral

nerves, causing slower reactions. It also
affects nerves that control blood flow
At high concentrations, alcohol to the skin, causing flushing of the skin.
depresses the life-support centres in
the medulla. Breathing may stop,
causing brain damage or even death.
Many drugs have their
effects at synapses
Synapses transfer nerve
impulses as chemicals
Nicotine in tobacco smoke is a stimulant called neurotransmitters
which mimics the natural neurotransmitters (see page 139). Many drugs
in the part of the nervous system concerned have their effects by
with control of heartbeat and blood pressure changing the concentration
(see page 91). of neurotransmitters, or by
mimicking what they do.
Heroin has its effects by
interacting with receptors
normally sensitive to
natural neurotransmitters.
Aspirin does not affect the nervous
system directly but inhibits an enzyme
involved in the response that leads to
inflammation.
Ecstasy
Ecstasy is known by many other names, including
‘Disco burgers’, ‘Doves’, ‘Dennis the Menace’ and
‘Fantasy’.
It provides a ‘feeling of energy’ which can enable
people to dance for long periods. This causes
dehydration – users need to drink a pint of
non-alcoholic liquid each hour.
Death or disability can result from high body
temperatures, but rapid rehydration has also caused
some deaths.
Ecstasy is one of the most commonly ‘cut’ drugs.
This means it is mixed with other substances, and
its quality is extremely variable.
Long-term use has been shown to reduce the number
of nerve cell connections in the brain. This causes
memory loss and inability to perform simple tasks.
Is a powerful stimulant and so is especially dangerous
for anyone with high blood pressure, heart problems
or epilepsy.
Affects coordination so users should never drive
or use machinery.
153
2.52 Drugs and disorders of the nervous system
Alcohol is the most widely used drug

Alcohol is an unusual drug in that it is widely available legally in many
countries. Even young people that cannot buy alcohol legally may still
be able to obtain it quite easily. Apart from some cultures which ban
alcohol, very few people have never tried the drug, and most young
people would not consider it a ‘drug of abuse’. However, alcohol can be
an addictive drug, and causes great harm when used in excess. Most
people greatly underestimate how much alcohol they drink. The effects
of alcohol on the body extend beyond the nervous system – these are
described in the diagram below.
Alcohol has widespread effects throughout the body
Cardiovascular effects include

anaemia (alcohol poisons bone
marrow) and increased deposits
of fat in the coronary arteries.
Skin blood vessels dilate so warm blood

flows to the skin. The body feels warm
and comfortable, but hypothermia may
result at low environmental temperatures.
One unit of alcohol is the amount

that can be processed by the liver
in one hour in the average person
(see page 71). This is equivalent to one
small glass of wine, half a pint of beer,
or one measure of spirits.
Liver cells work harder to detoxify Cancers of the tongue and

Sex organs are stimulated but the alcohol. Cells lining blood vessels oesophagus are much more
do not work well. Sperm count are damaged causing cirrhosis – likely in heavy drinkers (especially
may be reduced. liver function begins to fail. if they also smoke).
Intestines are irritated, causing Many effects on the

indigestion, nausea, diarrhoea and ulcers. nervous system – see page 153.
Because alcohol is a depressant,

withdrawal leads to tremors, high pulse
In pregnant women, alcohol may cross Kidneys cannot reabsorb water
rate, sweating and visual hallucination.
the placenta to the unborn child. The very well. Too much water is excreted
This is called delirium tremens
child may develop slowly, especially its and the body becomes dehydrated
(the DTs) and is treated with sedatives
nervous system (this is called (this is responsible for the headache
and multivitamins.
fetal alcohol syndrome). following a drinking bout).
Disorders of the nervous system

We have seen that many drugs have their effects by altering the
activity of the nervous system. The nervous system may also be
damaged by medical conditions. Some of these are more likely in
old age (such as Alzheimer’s disease), some may strike at any time
(such as multiple sclerosis), some are caused by infection (such
as meningitis) while others may result from an injury (such as
a broken back). Such problems may cause great hardship to the
affected person, and to those who care for them.
154
Q
1 a Several drug types affect the brain. These iii How would driving be affected by a BAL of
include stimulants, depressants, and narcotics. Give 100 mg per 100 cm3 of blood?
one example of each, and describe how it affects c Suggest one visible effect of the dilation of blood
the brain. vessels in the skin.
b What is the difference between psychological d The liver detoxifies (breaks down) alcohol, and much
and physical addiction to a drug? of it is lost as carbon dioxide and water. How would
c What is meant by drug tolerance? these substances be lost from the body? Suggest one
Some drug users suggest that ordinary people are drug long-term effect of alcohol consumption on the liver.
dependent. They claim that people who drink six or e People who drink large amounts of alcohol over long
more cups of coffee per day may experience periods often become malnourished. In particular
withdrawal symptoms if they stop. These symptoms are they may be deficient in calcium and vitamin C.
said to include headaches and poor concentration. What symptoms might be seen in such people?
d Design an experiment that would allow you to f What is delirium tremens? Does this condition
investigate the validity of this claim. State clearly the suggest that alcohol is a stimulant or a depressant?
independent (input) and dependent (outcome) Explain your answer.
variables, and say how you would manipulate or 3 Illegal or controlled drugs are classified in the UK into
record them. Suggest some fixed variables that three groups – A, B and C. Group A contains the most
might improve the validity of your data. harmful drugs, including the opiates such as heroin.
2 Alcohol is a powerful and widely used drug. It affects Drugs seized by police and customs are put into these
the central nervous system, slows down reflex actions categories for the purposes of keeping records. The
and causes small blood vessels in the skin to dilate. table shows the number of drug seizures by the police
Most alcohol is absorbed in the small intestine, in the UK in 1980, 1985 and 1990.
although its rapid effects are partly explained by the a i Suggest one reason for classifying a drug as a
observation that up to 30% of it may be absorbed group A drug.
from the stomach. Alcohol is broken down in the liver, ii Calculate the percentage increase in the total
and most of it appears as carbon dioxide and water. quantity of cocaine seized by the police between
A medical student was given six units of alcohol to 1980 and 1990. Show your working.
drink, then blood samples were taken over the next iii Identify three main trends in the information
five hours. The table shows the blood alcohol level shown in this table.
(BAL) over the time of the experiment. b Drug dependence is characterised by personal neglect –
Time since BAL / mg of alcohol poor nutrition, lack of care in personal hygiene and
drinking / hours per 100 cm3 of blood being willing to share needles during injections.
0.0 0.0 Infections such as hepatitis are common, as are
0.5 70 vitamin deficiencies. Heroin users are 50 times more
1.0 135 likely to commit suicide than non-users. A female user
1.5 140 who becomes pregnant may pass on the dependence
2.0 115 to her child. Users who are denied access to the drug
3.0 75 show violent withdrawal symptoms that include
4.0 50 convulsions, diarrhoea and vomiting.
5.0 40 i What factors contribute to the early death of
a Use these data to plot a graph. heroin users?
b i What would be the likely BAL after 2.5 hours? ii Following withdrawal, users are treated with
ii The legal limit for driving is a BAL of 80 mg per methadone (a drug similar to heroin but less
100 cm3 of blood. For how long would this likely to case dependence) and multivitamin
student be above this limit? supplements. Why?
Seizures of group A drugs in the UK

Drug Number of seizures Quantity seized / kg
1980 1985 1990 1980 1985 1990
Cocaine (Group A) 365 510 1410 4.2 6.7 49.6
LSD (Group A) 244 448 1772 0.003 0.006 0.020
Heroin (Group A) 612 3003 2321 1.8 32.2 26.9
Cannabis resin 6218 13734 43474 312.2 469.8 57164
Amphetamines 706 3401 4490 5.0 50.2 222.7
155
2.53 Sensitivity and movement in plants:

tropisms
Objectives
A positive response is a growth movement
■ To recall that plants, like all living things, are sensitive to
towards the stimulus, and a negative response is
their environment
a growth movement away from the stimulus. For
■ To know that plants respond to stimuli by changes in
example:
their growth patterns
■ a stem growing towards light is a positive
■ To know that plant growth responses are controlled by
hormones phototropism
■ a stem growing upwards (away from gravity) is
■ To appreciate the importance of plant growth responses
a negative gravitropism
■ To understand how plant hormones may be used
■ a root growing downwards (away from light
commercially
but towards gravity) is a positive gravitropism
but a negative phototropism.
Plants respond to their environment
Plants respond to their environment – they show Roots are positively gravitropic:
sensitivity (irritability). Plant responses are ■ They grow into the soil, which provides a
rather slow compared with those of animals – source of water and mineral ions.
plants respond to stimuli (to changes in their ■ They provide an extensive system of support
environment) by changing their growth patterns. and anchorage for the plant.
These growth responses enable a plant to Shoots are positively phototropic:
make the most of the resources available in its ■ Leaves are in the optimum position to absorb
environment. light energy for photosynthesis.
Plants respond to many stimuli, but two are of ■ Flowers are lifted into the position where they
particular importance: light (the photo-stimulus) are most likely to receive pollen. They will be
and gravity (the gravi-stimulus). A growth held out into the wind, or may be more visible
response carried out by a plant in response to the to pollinating insects.
direction of a stimulus is called a tropism.
experiments provide clues about phototropism

Light from side
Shoot grows and Shoot with tip Cut tip replaced on agar Shoot marked Shoot bends towards
bends towards light removed: less (jelly). Shoot grows and with harmless ink light: ink marks show
growth and no bending bends towards light region of growth
towards light
156
investigation of the light-sensitive region
Lightproof boxes, allowing light in from one side only
Gap to allow A B C
entry of light
Coleoptiles with tips Coleoptiles with tips Untreated coleoptiles

removed covered
Procedure Box A B C
1 Three groups of coleoptiles (oat shoots) are treated as shown in A, B Treatment of coleoptiles
and C. Mean length / mm at start
2 The coleoptiles are measured, and the lengths recorded.
Mean length / mm at end
3 The three groups are placed in the lightproof boxes and exposed to
Change in length
lateral (sideways) light for 2 or 3 days.
Direction of growth
4 The coleoptiles are measured again, and the new lengths recorded.
5 Results can be recorded and analysed: What conclusions can you draw? Explain your answers.
Phototropism is controlled by auxin from the tip (where it is made) to a region

Growth is a relatively slow response to a stimulus in behind the tip (where it has its action).
animals (see page 148) and plants. Growth in plants ■ Auxin can diffuse back from the tip and can be
is controlled by plant hormones or plant growth collected in blocks of agar jelly. These blocks
substances. These are sometimes grouped together can then allow a decapitated tip to respond to
as ‘auxin’, which means ‘growth substance’. The light.
following observations have been made about auxin: ■ When shoot tips are exposed to light from one
■ If the tip of a young shoot is cut off, the shoot side, auxin accumulates on the ‘dark’ side of
can no longer respond to stimuli. This suggests the shoot. The auxin is somehow affecting the
that the tip produces the auxin. growth of the ‘dark’ side of the shoot.
■ A shoot responding to a stimulus always bends
The role of auxin in phototropism is shown below.
just behind the tip. The auxin appears to travel
More light means less growth!

The mechanism of phototropism Plants grown in the dark grow much taller
and thinner than those grown in the light.
Light from one side This is called etiolation. Light reduces the
amount of auxin and so reduces growth.
Light from all sides
Auxin is produced Light reduces the

at the tip and concentration of auxin
diffuses slowly on the ‘light’ side. The Cells on the ‘dark’ side receive more
down the plant. cells absorb less water, auxin. They absorb more water,
Cells on both sides and so swell less than and so increase in size more than
are affected equally normal. The ‘light’ side normal. The ‘dark’ side therefore
and the shoot therefore grows less grows more quickly and the shoot
grows straight quickly and the shoot bends away from the dark, i.e.
upwards. bends towards the light. towards the light.
157
2.53 Sensitivity and movement in plants: tropisms
Plants respond to gravity: the means the leaves will be exposed to light energy
mechanism of gravitropism for photosynthesis. It is more difficult to explain
Many experiments can be carried out to investigate how the shoot grows in this way whilst the root is
a plant’s response to gravity. A useful organism for positively gravitropic. One suggestion is that the
this type of experiment is the broad bean. Soaked root and the shoot are responding to different
beans germinate (see page 168) to provide obvious growth substances, but scientists believe that the
roots and shoots. These can be fixed inside a clear same growth substance (auxin) affects both roots
glass jar and their growth observed over a series of and shoots. It seems likely that the root and shoot
days. A simple experiment of this type is shown in cells have different levels of sensitivity to auxin,
the figure below. so that the same concentration of this substance
reduces cell expansion in roots but stimulates cell
It is obvious why the shoot grows away from
expansion in shoots.
gravity (i.e. is negatively gravi tropic) because this
Investigating how plants respond to gravity
Procedure
A B C
Young shoot
1 Freshly germinated broad
bean seedlings are fixed in
position inside a glass jar.
Young root
2 Seedlings are allowed to grow
Bean seedling held A B C for a further 5 days, with
between blotting the jars placed as shown in
paper and wall A, B and C.
of glass jar
Roll of moist Root turns to grow downwards,

blotting paper shoot turns to grow upwards.
The mechanism of gravitropism
Cells expand less 1 More growth substance

as hormone reaches reaches lower side...
them: both sides
affected to the same
extent
Growth substance
diffuses back 2 ... and stops it
along root extending as much
as top side
Tip produces growth
substance
pull of gravity Take note: auxin inhibits (slows

down) cell growth in roots, but
stimulates (speeds up) cell growth
in shoots!
158
Plant hormones have commercial uses plants are at the base of all human food chains.
Humans put their knowledge of how hormones Some examples of the commercial use of plant
work in plants to good use. Being able to hormones are illustrated above and in the
control the growth of plants is valuable, since diagram below.
Synchronised fruiting Seedless fruits can be produced – a hormone spray can

– spraying hormone This happens naturally! make fruits such as apples and grapes develop without
onto fruits can make One ripe fruit in a bowl fertilisation. Since no fertilisation has taken place,
them develop at the releases a hormone gas no seeds are formed. This also reduces the grower’s
same rate. This allows which makes the other dependence on pollinating insects.
efficient picking of the
e fruit ripen.
crop by machine.
Cuttings can be stimulated

to grow roots. In this way a
Weeds can be killed – spraying with high valuable plant can be
concentrations of the synthetic hormone
cloned to provide
2,4–D upsets normal growth patterns.
many identical
Different plant species are sensitive to
copies.
different extents, so this weed killing can
be selective, e.g. grasses may be killed
when shrubs survive.
Agent Orange worked like this!

During the Vietnam war, hormone sprays were
used to clear areas of vegetation and make
bombing of bridges and roads easier. These sprays Cutting dipped Cutting inserted Roots form and
can also be used to clear vegetation from into hormone into potting begin to absorb
overhead power lines, where removal by rooting powder compost mineral ions and
hand could be expensive and dangerous. water
Q
Copy and complete the following paragraphs. 2 Plant hormones have many commercial uses.
1 The of a growing shoot produces a plant These include:
hormone or . This substance causes cells behind ■
the stimulation of on cuttings, which allows
the tip to by the absorption of . When the growers to produce many of valuable plants
shoot is lit from one side, more accumulates on ■
the control of , which allows growers to
the dark side. As a result the cells more and the harvest economically with machinery
shoot bends towards the light. This response is called ■
the destruction of , which could otherwise
and offers several advantages to the plant, compete with crops for , and .
including greater access to light energy to drive the Careful selection of hormone concentrations allows
process of . this destruction to be : only pest plants are killed.
■
the production of fruits, since the hormone
can make the plant develop a fruit without
taking place.
159
3.1 Reproduction is an important

characteristic of living organisms
Objectives
Asexual reproduction:
■ To understand the importance of reproduction
■ To know that there are different methods of ■ involves only one parent organism
reproduction ■ all the characteristics of this one parent are
passed on to all of the offspring
■ asexual reproduction produces genetically
It is possible to tell whether an organism is living identical offspring from one parent
or not by testing for certain characteristics (see ■ many organisms reproduce asexually when
page 2). Among these characteristics is included conditions are favourable (e.g. when there is
reproduction, although reproduction is not plenty of food), and build up their numbers
necessary for an individual organism to survive. quickly.
However, no individual lives forever and if the Sexual reproduction:
species is to survive the individuals must replace
■ requires two organisms of the same species,
themselves before they die. This generation of
one male and one female
new individuals is called reproduction.
■ each individual produces sex cells (gametes)
Reproduction: a summary ■ sexual reproduction always involves
Living organisms can pass on their characteristics fertilisation – the fusion of the gametes to
to the next generation (reproduce) in two ways. produce a zygote
■ offspring receives some genes from each
parent, so shows a mixture of parental
characteristics
■ each of the offspring is different to other
offspring and to the parents.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Diploid (2n ) nn nn Diploid (2n ) nn Diploid (2n )

parent cell cell in testis cell in ovary
Mitosis Meiosis Meiosis
Haploid ( n )
Offspring nn nn n n n n
gametes
Mitosis Mitosis
Fertilisation
The offspring is diploid, but

nn nn nn nn nn has received one set of genes
from the father (n) and one
set from the mother (n)
This is a clone – all cells are identical to each
other and to the parent cell
p Organisms can reproduce asexually or sexually
160
Sexual reproduction provides variation Asexual reproduction can be

The plant life cycle (page 162) and the human advantageous
life cycle (page 172) both show sexual Plants arrive in new locations by the dispersal of
reproduction, which depends on the fusion of seeds. There are occasions, however, when a plant
male and female gametes. Sexual reproduction would benefit from simply producing many copies
consumes energy that otherwise could be used of itself. For example:
by the parent. However, it also leads to variation
■ When a single plant arrives in a new habitat it
(see page 210). Sexual reproduction occurs in all
can occupy this habitat if many copies can be
advanced organisms.
produced quickly.
■ When a plant is well suited to its habitat, any
variation might be a disadvantage.
Sexual and asexual reproduction compared

Sexual reproduction and vegetative propagation both have
advantages and disadvantages. Many plants make the best of both Sexual: provide new varieties
worlds, and reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Advantage Disadvantage
Asexual ■ Only one parent needed ■ No variation, so any change in

■ Rapid colonisation of favourable environmental conditions will
environments affect all individuals
Asexual: make many copies of useful variety
Sexual ■ Variation, so new features of ■ Two parents needed
organisms may allow adaptation ■ Fertilisation is random, so harmful
to new environments variations can occur
……….. and what’s best for growing crops?

Sexual: new varieties of a plant can be developed. These
might give a better yield, or tolerate dry conditions
for example.
Asexual: varieties with useful features can be cloned to
produce large numbers of identical crop plants.
BUT BE CAREFUL:
A clone of plants could all be
susceptible to the same disease.
For example, great hardship
occurred in the lrish Potato
Famine of 1845 when almost
all of the potato crop was
infected by the potato
blight fungus.
161
3.2 Reproduction in flowering plants:

flowers
Objectives
1 The young plant develops reproductive organs.
■ To understand the part played by flowers in the
2 Sex cells (gametes) develop inside the
life of a flowering plant
reproductive organs.
■ To be able to identify the parts of a typical flower
3 The male sex cells are transferred to the female
■ To be able to state the functions of the parts of a flower
sex cells.
4 Fusion of male and female sex cells
An individual plant, like any other living (fertilisation) occurs, and a zygote is produced.
organism, eventually dies. For a species of plant 5 The zygote develops into an embryo.
to survive, the individual plants must be able 6 The embryo grows into a new young plant, and
to replace themselves. This is the process of the cycle starts all over again.
reproduction, an essential part of the life cycle of
Whereas animals move around freely (they are
the plant.
motile), plants live in a fixed position. So, in plants:
Sexual reproduction in plants ■ Male gametes may have to be carried some
Flowering plants, as their name suggests, are distance to meet female gametes.
able to reproduce using highly adapted structures ■ Young plant embryos may have to be carried
called flowers. The life cycle of a flowering plant some distance to get away from their parents!
is outlined below.
Most plants are hermaphrodite, that is, they
Flowering plants reproduce sexually. The following
have male and female sexual parts on the same
list shows the stages that can be recognised in the
individual. This means that the male gametes only
reproduction of flowering plants.
have to travel a short distance to the female gametes.
The young plant matures, Inside the flower, male and female
and under the correct light gametes develop. Pollination occurs
and temperature conditions when male gametes are transferred to
produces flowers. the female part of the flower.
Following fertilisation, a fruit

develops from the female part of
the flower. The fruit contains a
seed and a structure to help
The seed is dispersed – some move the seed away from the
‘agent’ carries it away from parent plant.
the parent.
Male gametes fuse
with female gametes
at fertilisation. This
Under the correct conditions occurs in the female
the seed germinates to part of the flower.
produce a young plant.
p The life cycle of a flowering plant

162
The formation of flowers

A flower is formed from a bud, which is a collection of cells at
the end of a flower stalk. The cells receive hormone messages
from the main plant body, and gradually develop into four rings
of specialised leaves – the flower. These have the sole function of
forming sex cells and making sure that fertilisation occurs.
The structure of a typical insect-pollinated flower is shown in the
diagram below.
Each plant species has its own uniquely shaped
pollen grains. Scientists can find out about
Stigma – a ‘platform’
the vegetation that once existed in a particular
A cross-section on which the pollen
area by collecting and studying pollen grains
(transverse section) grains land.
released thousands of years ago.
of a flower shows
that it is made up of
four ‘rings’ of leaves. Anther – contains four pollen
Stamens – the male sacs filled with pollen grains.
parts of the flower. Each pollen grain contains a
male nucleus (male gamete).
Carpel – the female
part of the flower. Filament – a long stalk that
holds the anther in the best
Petals – usually brightly Style – a stalk
position to release pollen
coloured and scented. which holds the stigma
onto a visiting insect.
They may produce nectar, in the best position to
a sugary solution, from receive pollen grains.
small glands at their Position of nectary.
bases. Colour, nectar and
scent attract pollinating Ovary – a hollow chamber. The
insects. ovules develop from the walls of
the ovary:
Sepals are green and
protect the flower bud. Single ovule
They usually disappear
after pollination. Female nucleus
in ovum – the
female gamete
Micropyle
Flower stalk – swollen – entry point for
Ovary wall
tip acts as a base for the male nucleus at
four sets of floral leaves. fertilisation
p The structure of a flower: the convolvulus (morning glory). A flower grows from a
flower bud and is specialised to produce and release the male and female gametes.
Q
1 Look at the table on the right. Match each part of a Flower parts Functions
flower to its function. Write the letter and number to
a pollen 1 to support the anther
show your answer, for example, a–5.
b flower stalk 2 to secrete a sugary solution
2 Copy and complete the following paragraph.
The life cycle of a flowering plant has a number of c style 3 to contain the female gametes
stages. A young plant develops when a seed . The d filament 4 to protect the flower in bud
plant matures until it produces a which is a e anther 5 to deliver the male gamete
collection of leaves specialised for . Male gametes f sepal 6 to form a base for the flower
are transferred to the female part of the flower by g petal 7 to hold up the stigma
and fuse with female gametes at .
h nectary 8 to attract insects
Following this process the ovary develops into a
i ovary 9 to produce pollen
which contains a and a structure to help move it
j stigma 10 to receive pollen
away from the parent plant. This process, which is
called , requires some agent or vector to remove
the seed from the parent plant.
163
3.3 Pollination: the transfer of male sex

cells to female flower parts
Objectives
Pollination
■ To define the term pollination
■ To understand the difference between self-pollination
and cross-pollination
■ To describe how flowers may be adapted to pollination
by insects or wind
■ To describe how honey bees are adapted as
insect pollinators
Self-pollination and cross-pollination

For sexual reproduction to occur, the male
gametes must be transferred to the female part In self-pollination pollen is transferred from anther to stigma of the
same plant. This is very efficient (the pollen doesn’t have to travel
of the flower – this transfer is the process of very far) but does not offer much chance of genetic variation (see
pollination. The transfer may come about within page 212).
the same flower (self-pollination) or from one
flower to another of the same species (cross-
pollination), as shown in the diagram on the right.
Cross-pollination offers many advantages, and
some species make sure that it happens.
■ Some have special proteins on the surface of
the stigma that prevent pollen tubes forming if
the pollen comes from the anthers of the same
plant. These are self-sterile plants.
■ In some plants, the anther and the stigma are
so far away from one another in the flower that
In cross-pollination pollen is transferred from anther to stigma of
it is not very easy for pollen to travel from the
another plant of the same species. This is risky (pollen may never
anther to the stigma of the same flower. reach the other plant) but offers a greater chance of genetic variation
■ A few plants, such as ash, willow and holly, than self-pollination.
have separate male and female plants.
Pollination by wind and insects

Whether self- or cross-pollination occurs, some
agent or vector is needed to carry the pollen
grains from the anthers to the stigma. This agent
is most often an insect or the wind. Flowers
show many adaptations to successful insect
pollination or wind pollination. Some of the
insects that act as pollinators have also become
adapted to make the most of their relationship
Cross-pollination is the only possibility for flowers that are not
with flowers. The table on the opposite page hermaphrodite. Sometimes a plant has only male or only female flowers.
shows how some plants are adapted for This is very risky, since plants of the opposite sex may not be nearby,
pollination by insects or plants. The honey bee but offers a very great chance of genetic variation (page 212).
feeds on nectar and pollen.
164
Wind-pollinated flower e.g. maize

Bract: leaf-like structure
Wind-pollinated
which holds the parts of
flowers are often
the flower.
produced at colder times
of the year, when very
few insects are flying. Tiny petal: helps to push
the bracts apart to expose
stigma and stamens.
Pollen: light and

produced in huge Stigma: long and feathery
quantities. Has to give a large surface area
smooth coat for pollen to land on. Often
and tiny ‘wings’ hang out into the wind.
to help transfer
by the wind.
Filaments: long and
flexible so that anthers
No nectar or Anthers: held at are held out into the
scent – no need to the middle so that wind.
attract insects. they can shake to
release the pollen.
p Wind-pollinated flowers such as this grass have small,

inconspicuous petals. The anthers and stigmas hang outside
the flower.
Part of flower Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated Reason

(e.g. convolvulus) (e.g. grass)
Petals Usually large, brightly coloured, Small, green or dull in colour, Insects are attracted to colour and scent. Guide lines
scented, often with nectaries. no scent or nectaries direct insects to nectaries, past anthers.
Guide lines may be present.
Anthers Stiff, firmly attached and Hang loosely on long thin Wind is more likely to dislodge pollen from exposed,
positioned where insects must filaments dangling anthers than from enclosed ones.
brush against them
Pollen Small amounts of large, sticky Enormous quantities of light, Sticky grains attach to hairs on insect’s body. Larger
grains smooth pollen grains amounts from wind-pollinated flowers mean pollination
is more likely.
Stigma Usually flat or lobe-shaped, and Long and feathery, and Feathery stigmas form a large network to catch pollen
positioned where insect must hanging outside flower being blown past the flower.
brush against them
ExpErimEntal dEsign: using modEls

Scientists use models of living organisms to study one or two 1 Design an experiment to determine whether colour or
features of the organism. Living organisms may have features scent is the more important stimulus to the honey bees.
that other organisms can detect, but that humans cannot. In your design:
These might affect the results of an experiment, so a model is ■ devise suitable models for the wallflowers
easier to study. ■ clearly state the independent (input) and the
Two students were interested in why honey bees visit dependent (outcome) variables
wallflowers. One of them believed that the colour of the ■ suggest any variables that should be fixed, and say
flower attracted the bees but the other was convinced that it how you would fix them
was the scent. ■ consider whether there are any controls that you
might use
■ draw a table that would be suitable for the
presentation of your data.
165
3.4 Fertilisation and the formation of

seed and fruit
Objectives
These structures have now completed their
■ To define the process of fertilisation
function, and would use up valuable food
■ To understand the role of the pollen tube
compounds if they remained.
■ To recall which parts of a flower form the fruit
■ To understand that a seed contains a food store as well ■ The wall of the ovary changes. It may become
as an embryo hardened and dry, or fleshy and succulent, and
in the wallflower it forms a leathery pouch.
The ovary is now called a fruit. A fruit is a fertilised

Fertilisation follows pollination
ovary, and has the function of dispersing the seeds
Pollination is complete once the pollen released
away from the parent plant, which helps to reduce
from an anther has landed on the stigma of the
competition for light, water and minerals.
same or another flower. The next step in the
plant’s reproductive process is fertilisation, Pollen grain – chemical signals Stigma
released by the stigma ensure
the fusion of the male and female gametes. The Style
that a pollen tube is only
diagram on the right shows how the nucleus from produced when pollen lands Fertilisation occurs
the pollen grain travels down a pollen tube to on a stigma of the same species. when the haploid male
and female gametes fuse
combine with the nucleus of the ovum. Pollen tube grows down through to form a diploid zygote.
the style and acts as a channel
The formation of fruit and seed to deliver the male gamete Fertilisation also triggers
After the male nucleus has fused with the ovum, from the pollen grain to the some other cells in the
female gamete in the ovule. ovule to divide rapidly
the resulting zygote divides many times to and form a food store
produce an embryo. The development of a seed Ovary wall – ovules are inside the seed.
attached to the inside of the
and the structure of the embryo are described in ovary wall by a short stalk. Micropyle – a gap in the
the diagram on the opposite page. covering of the ovule.
Ovule contains the female The tip of the pollen tube
Once fertilisation is complete, the developing gamete, and some other locates this gap and the
seed sends hormone messages to the flower, and a cells which may develop into male gamete enters the
food reserves. ovule through it.
number of changes take place:
■ The sepals and petals wither away, and may Note that only one fertilisation is shown here. Each ovule needs its
fall off. own pollen grain and pollen tube to be fertilised. A plum has only
one ovule in each ovary, a wallflower has a few tens and a poppy
■ The stamens, stigma and style wither away.
may have thousands of ovules in one ovary!
Stages in the development of a fruit
p Tomato flowers – the petals are still p After fertilisation, the petals have p In the ripe fruit, the ovary wall is
obvious fallen off, the stigma and style have swollen and succulent. What do you
withered and the carpel is beginning think is the purpose of the bright red
166 to swell colour?
The formation of seed and fruit following fertilisation.

Seed coat (testa) prevents drying
After successful fertilisation
out of the embryo.
the sepals, petals and anthers
wither away. The stigma and
style also wither so that only
the ovary remains on the flower
Cotyledons (seed leaves) may
stalk.
form the food store for the embryo.
There is one seed leaf in
monocotyledons such as grasses, or
two in dicotyledons such as peas
and beans.
Endosperm – tissue which forms

the food store in cereal crops.
Ovary wall may become

dry and hard (in a Brazil
nut, for example), very Plumule (young shoot)
soft and fleshy (in a plum, Radicle (young root)
for example) or form a together with the cotyledons these
leathery pouch (as in the make up the embryo . The embryo
wallflower). develops into a new young plant
after germination.
Micropyle – a small hole in

Fertilised ovule develops the testa which allows the
into a seed, with the zygote entry of water and oxygen
forming the embryo. as the seed germinates.
Remember! Not all seeds are edible

The carpel becomes the fruit. Seeds contain stores of carbohydrate, fat, protein, minerals
The ovule becomes the seed. and other food compounds. These are used up by the embryo
as it develops into a young plant, but also form an excellent
Fruit or vegetable?
food source for animals (including humans). But note …
If it’s been formed following
Uncooked castor oil seeds contain a deadly poison, ricin,
Fertilisation it’ s a Fruit; if ther e’s
which was used to kill the Romanian dissident Georgi Markov.
no sex inVolved it’s a Vegetable.
Almonds contain cyanide. Don’t eat too much marzipan since
Potatoes and carrots are vegetables
this is made from almond paste!
but tomatoes are fruits.
Q
1 In one sentence, explain the difference between 5 Two students suggested that the wallflower cannot
pollination and fertilisation. produce fruit unless pollination has taken place. Their
2 Draw a simple diagram of a typical hermaphrodite teacher showed them how to prevent bees reaching
flower. On your diagram label: the flowers by covering the flowers in a fine mesh bag,
a the parts that fall off after fertilisation and how to transfer pollen with a fine paintbrush.
b the parts that develop into a fruit. a Describe how the students could carry out an
3 Define the word ‘seed’. experiment to test their hypothesis.
4 Classify each of the following as: b Suggest how they could modify their experiment to
a fruit test whether self- or cross-pollination produced
b seed or more seeds in the wallflower.
c neither fruit nor seed. In your answer be sure to describe any controls which
Tomato, cucumber, Brussels sprout, they could include, and any steps they could take to
baked bean, runner bean, celery, pea, grape ensure that their results were valid.
167
3.5 Germination of seeds*

Objectives
■ To define the term germination Conditions for germination
A seed needs the following to germinate:
■ To understand the conditions required for germination
■ To describe the structural changes that accompany ■ a supply of water
germination of the broad bean ■ oxygen for aerobic respiration (see page 106)
■ a temperature suitable for the enzymes
involved in germination (see page 33).
Dispersal allows plants to spread their seeds
so they can develop without competition from These requirements are explained more fully in
their parents. A seed is made up of an embryo the diagram below.
and a food store, all enclosed within a seed Some seeds have other requirements as well
coat. If environmental conditions are suitable, as the ones shown in the diagram. A few need
the embryo will begin to use the food store in particular conditions of light (for example,
the seed and grow into a new young plant. This lettuce).
development of a seed to a new young plant is
called germination.
Start here! Start of germination Germination proceeds
Seed coat
(testa)
Amino
acids
Embryo Starch Protein
Starch Protein
Active Glucose
Micropyle enzymes
Energy
Food store Glucose Amino Aerobic
Inactive Water
acids respiration
enzymes
Water Oxygen
Oxygen
Dormant seed – embryo and food stores Water enters through the micropyle and: Water and oxygen enter through gaps in
are surrounded by an impermeable seed activates enzymes to convert insoluble the testa. Oxygen and glucose enable
coat. The micropyle is the only gap in the stores to soluble foods aerobic respiration, which releases energy.
seed coat. makes tissues swell so that the testa is The embryo is able to grow as it receives
split open. raw materials and energy.
Environmental factors that affect Enzymes work at their optimum
germination are very similar to those temperature.
that affect enzyme activity. This
indicates that germination is a
Dormancy will continue if the embryo in the seed
process controlled by enzymes
does not experience the right conditions:
(page 32).
if kept in anaerobic conditions
if kept dry
if kept cool.
Oxygen and water cannot reach the embryo if the
testa remains impermeable. Some seeds must pass
through an animal’s gut (where digestive juices are
present) before the testa is weakened enough for the
seeds to germinate.
Seeds kept dry in a vacuum, as in seed packets, can
be stored for long periods
168
Dormancy The broad bean shows hypogeal germination.

If a seed does not experience ideal conditions for ‘Hypogeal’ means ‘below the ground’ (‘hypo’
germination immediately, it will not die. Most seeds sounds like ‘low’ and ‘geo’ refers to ‘earth’). The
can survive long periods of poor conditions, only seed remains below the ground throughout the
germinating when conditions improve. Seeds survive whole process. The stages involved in hypogeal
in a resting state called dormancy during which germination are described in the diagram below.
they use hardly any food. The very low water content The seedling must start to photosynthesise
of seeds allows them to remain dormant, and the before all the food stores are used up. For this
availability of water is one of the conditions that reason each seed type has an optimum depth for
allows a seed to escape dormancy and germinate. planting. If a seed is planted too deep, the shoot
can’t get above the ground before all the reserves
Structural changes during germination
are used up. Very tiny seeds (lettuce for example)
Many biochemical processes go on inside the
often require a light signal to trigger germination.
seed during germination. There are also external
They will not germinate unless they are close
changes that can easily be seen as a seed begins to
to the surface of the soil, where they are in less
develop into a young plant. Different types of seed
danger of using up their food stores too quickly.
germinate in different ways. We shall take the
broad bean as an example.
1 2 3 4 5
Plumule Plumule grows Foliage Plumule emerges above ground Foliage Plumule straight
upwards retaining leaves and starts to straighten out to leaves – holds leaves
its hooked shape. show lift foliage leaves above the soil. open upwards
Shrivelled
testa
Lateral
roots
The radicle (young root) The plumule (young

emerges first. It anchors shoot) emerges as the
the seedling in the soil testa is split away from Lateral roots increase Seedling
and starts to absorb the cotyledons. The in size: important for Food stores in now established.
water and mineral ions. hooked shoot protects Cotyledon anchorage and cotyledons provide
the young leaves from visible through absorption of water nutrients for growth
damage by soil particles. split testa. and mineral ions. and energy.
Dry mass
+
0
Mass begins to increase
Dry mass falls as part of food Mass falls more quickly as as first foliage leaves start
– store is consumed by respiration. growth of seedling accelerates. to build up food compounds
by photosynthesis.
p Germination of the broad bean. Dry mass is used as a measure of the food stores because wet mass would include water
absorbed from the soil, and the amount of water absorbed and lost can vary greatly.
Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. downwards by , providing and absorbing
Before germination, a seed must absorb from the water and minerals for the seedling. The young shoot
soil. The seed coat is impermeable to this substance, or appears next. This grows upwards and
and it enters through a hole called the . This eventually bursts through the soil. The first leaves
absorption causes the seed to and split the develop and the seedling is able to produce its own
. The gas can now enter, which is necessary food by .
for . The energy from this process, together with 2 How would you attempt to prove that germination is
soluble food compounds, allows the to grow. controlled by enzymes?
The young root or appears first and grows
169
Questions on plant reproduction

1 Choose words from the list to complete each 3 Below you can see photographs of a tomato and
of the spaces in the paragraph. Each word an apple. Both are cut in half longitudinally
may be used once only and some words are through the middle.
not used at all.
bright dry dull heavy
large light sepals small
stamens sticky style
Flowers of plants that rely on the wind to bring
about pollination tend to have petals that
have a colour.
Their pollen is normally and .
In these flowers, the and the both
tend to be long.
Paper 2 Q2 May 2008
2 a Match the names of the flower parts with

their functions. One has been completed
for you.
anther
allows the passage of the a Make a large, labelled drawing of the cut
pollen tube to the ovary
surface of the tomato fruit.
b i List four differences between the two
attracts insects fruits visible in the photographs.
petal
for pollination ii Describe two similarities between the
two fruits visible in the photographs.
c Describe an investigation you could carry
produces
sepal
pollen grains out to compare the reducing sugar content
of these two fruits.
Include any safety precautions you will need
protects the flower to consider.
style
when in bud
Paper 6 Q2 May 2008
stigma
the surface on which the 4 a Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
pollen lands during pollination
involves both pollination and fertilisation.
i Explain the difference between
b Describe how the stigmas of wind-pollinated pollination and fertilisation.
flowers differ from the stigmas of insect- ii Name the part of a flower where
pollinated flowers. Relate these differences pollination happens.
to the use of wind as the pollinating agent. iii Name the part of a flower where
c Discuss the implications to a species of fertilisation happens.
self-pollination. b Sexual reproduction in flowers results in the
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 production of seeds and fruits. From which
Paper 3 Variant 1 Q1 May 2008 part of a flower is each of these formed?
c Describe the role of the wind in the life cycle
of some flowering plants.
Paper 2 Q3 May 2009
170
5 a All seeds need oxygen, water and a suitable ii Germination is quicker if the temperature
temperature to germinate. 22°C is a suitable is raised to 30°C. Explain why.
temperature for the germination of pea b Table 2 show how the dry mass of barley
seeds. Light and dark conditions have no seedings changed over the first 35 days after
effect on pea seed germination. The diagram sowing.
shows an experiment on germination of
pea seeds. Time after
0 7 14 21 28 35
sowing/days
22° C + light 22° C + dark Dry mass/g 4.0 2.8 2.8 4.4 9.6 17.8
A B C D p Table 2
i Plot these results in a line graph.

ii How many days after sowing did the
oil
barley seedings regain their original
boiled water
dry mass?
pea seed pea seed iii How many days after sowing did the
barley seedings TREBLE their original
dry mass?
iv Explain why dry mass falls in the early
stages of germination.
dry cotton wool wet cotton wool
i Complete Table 1 below.
Tube Would seeds germinate?

(Write YES or NO)
A
B
C
D
p Table 1
171
3.6 Reproduction in humans

Objectives
ideal for development of the sperm. The sperm
■ To define the term ‘sexual reproduction’
are delivered inside the female body through a
■ To know the steps involved in sexual reproduction
series of tubes that eventually release the sperm
■ To describe the human reproductive systems
from the tip of the penis. The male reproductive
system lies very close to the part of the excretory
Reproduction may be sexual or asexual. In sexual system that removes urine from the body; indeed
reproduction, genetic information from two the urethra is a tube used to expel urine and
parents combines to produce a new individual. seminal fluid from the body. A valve prevents this
Humans, like all other mammals, only use sexual happening at the same time! The two systems
reproduction. Sexual reproduction produces together are called the urinogenital system.
individuals that are different from each other. The male reproductive system is shown in the
The process involves a number of stages, as diagram on page 174.
shown in the diagram below.
The female reproductive system
The male reproductive system In addition to producing female gametes, the
The male reproductive system has two functions: female reproductive system receives male
■ to manufacture the male gametes gametes. It provides a site for fertilisation and
■ to deliver them to the site of fertilisation. for the development of the zygote. The female
gametes, called ova, are produced one at a time
The male gametes, called spermatozoa, or sperm
by the two ovaries. The ovum travels along
for short, are manufactured in the testes. These
the oviduct or Fallopian tube towards the
are enclosed in a sac of skin, the scrotum, which
uterus. It may be fertilised while in the oviduct.
hangs outside the body between the legs. This
The zygote grows and develops into a baby in the
position helps protect the testes from physical
uterus. The female reproductive system is shown
damage, and more importantly keeps them at a
in the diagram on page 174.
temperature 2–3 °C lower than body temperature,
Gametes are
Male and female gametes produced and
each carry one ‘half-set’ delivered.
of genetic information in
their nuclei.
Sperm Ovum
At puberty children
One male and one female become young adults
gamete join together. capable of producing
and delivering gametes
A zygote is formed when the male and female
(see page 173).
nuclei fuse. This is fertilisation. The zygote has one
‘complete set’ of genetic information – one half
from the father and one half from the mother.
The zygote divides
The embryo is formed when the cells
many times to
begin to take up the positions they
produce a large
will occupy in the young animal. Development continues:
number of cells.
the baby is born and
grows into a child.
172
Hormones control puberty in humans ovaries in females. Sex hormones – oestrogen

Hormones control long-term processes, and often (in females) and testosterone (in males) – are
have widespread effects on the body. At puberty released into the bloodstream and circulate
a person becomes physically able to reproduce. throughout the body. They only affect the target
The development of sexual maturity is a good organs which have receptors that recognise them.
example of a hormone-controlled process. These target organs then carry out responses,
such as the growth of body hair, which may
As a young person develops physically, certain
continue for many years. The effects of these
signals are processed by the brain, which then
hormones at puberty are explained further in the
instructs the pituitary gland to stimulate the
diagram below.
primary sex organs – the testes in males and the
Changes in behaviour – Changes in behaviour –

girls may become more boys may become more
Pituitary gland aggressive and territorial, Pituitary gland produces
maternal and attracted to boys.
produces hormones and attracted to girls. hormones which affect
which affect other other endocrine organs.
endocrine organs.
One pituitary hormone

One pituitary hormone stimulates the testes to
stimulates the ovaries to produce testosterone.
produce oestrogen. This male sex hormone
This female sex hormone circulates in the blood
circulates in the blood and stimulates
and stimulates development of male
development of female secondary sex
secondary sex characteristics.
characteristics.
Oestrogen begins the
cycle of egg production Facial hair develops.
and prepares the uterus
lining for implantation Chest broadens, muscles
(see page 178). become larger; voice
becomes deeper as larynx
changes in shape.
Breasts develop and
increase in size.
Nipples become larger. Hair develops on chest,
Oestrogen under armpits and in
Hair develops under pubic region.
armpits and in pubic Testosterone
region. Testes are stimulated to
begin production of
Hips become broader
sperm.
as pelvis widens and
fat is deposited.
Vagina becomes larger. Penis becomes larger, and

scrotum expands to
contain larger testes.
In girls, the proportion of fat

may affect the onset of Not all of testosterone’s
puberty. Puberty may be effects seem beneficial!
delayed in girls who are This hormone makes the
extremely muscular (such skin more oily and acne
as gymnasts). can develop.
p Oestrogen and testosterone are hormones – they are chemical messengers secreted

directly into the bloodstream and bring about widespread and long-lasting effects
173
The male urinogenital system.

Parts of the
urinary system
Ureter Bladder Sperm duct or vas deferens carries sperm

from the testis to the urethra.
helps to produce the

seminal fluid which
Prostate gland makes up 99.5% of the
semen (sperm make up
the other 0.5%)
Urethra carries semen from the sperm duct

to the tip of the penis.
Scrotum or scrotal sac holds the testes

outside the body, at the ideal temperature
Testis or testicle is made up of many for the formation of sperm.
coiled tubes (rather like balls of wool
which produce sperm; cells between the)
Penis becomes erect when
tubes produce testosterone (see page 173).
spaces in its structure fill
with blood.
Acrosome: contains enzymes

Male gametes (sperm): Haploid nucleus
are smaller than ova to penetrate egg cell membrane
are produced in huge numbers
(300 000 000 per ejaculation)
are motile – can swim by beating
the flagellum (tail). Mitochondria: release energy
for beating of flagellum
Flagellum: beats to move

sperm towards ovum
The female urinogenital system.
Parts of urinary system Oviduct or Fallopian tube

Uterus or womb where the
carries the ovum to the uterus.
fetus develops. During
Fertilisation usually occurs in pregnancy the uterus increases
Bladder (shown Ureter
pushed to one side) the first third of the oviduct. in volume from 10 cm3 to 5 dm3!
Funnel of oviduct collects ovum

released from the ovary at ovulation.
Ovary contains follicles which develop

the ova, and produces oestrogen
and progesterone (see page 176).
Muscular wall of uterus
Lining of uterus
Cervix or neck of uterus is a ring of muscle

which, until birth, keeps the fetus in the uterus.
Female gametes (ova):
• are much larger than sperm The cervix relaxes to allow birth of the baby.
• are produced in small numbers (one per month) Vagina or birth canal receives the
• do not move, but have a large food store. penis during intercourse, and is the
‘way out’ for the baby at birth.
Opening of vagina
Jelly coat: changes at
fertilisation to allow entry
of male nucleus
Haploid nucleus
Cytoplasm: contains food stores

for early development of zygote
174
Q
1 Explain the importance of the following in the human a Name parts A and B.
life cycle: b Put an ‘X’ on the diagram to show where sperms
a fertilisation are made.
b puberty c i In what way are the reproductive organs of the
c gamete formation. male with the vasectomy different from those of
2 Describe the pathway followed by: a normal, untreated male?
a spermatozoa at ejaculation ii Explain how this will act as a method of
b an ovum at ovulation. contraception.
3 Where does fertilisation occur? d A man infected with the human immuno-deficiency
4 Why is reproduction necessary? virus (HIV) may transmit AIDS (acquired immuno-
5 This figure shows the female reproductive system. deficiency syndrome) to another person. The virus is
transmitted in body fluids. Following a vasectomy, is
R it still possible for an infected man to pass AIDS to
another person? Explain your answer.
7 This figure shows a human egg cell and a human
sperm cell.
a Name structures R and S.

b i Copy the diagram and label, with a line and a
letter F, where fertilisation occurs.
ii Copy the diagram and label, with a line and a 100 µm
letter I, where implantation occurs. 10 µm
c During puberty, the secondary sexual characteristics human egg cell
develop.
i Name the hormone that controls these
developments in a female and state which organ
produces it. human sperm cell
ii State two secondary sexual characteristics that
develop in females, in parts of the body other a i What is the name given to the release of eggs
than in the reproductive organs. from the ovary?
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 ii Sperm cells and egg cells are haploid.
Paper 2 Q6 May 2008 State the meaning of the term haploid.
b Complete the table to compare egg cells with
6 The figure below shows the reproductive organs of the
sperm cells.
human male after an operation called a ‘vasectomy’
has been performed. Following a vasectomy, the man feature egg cells sperm cells
can still ejaculate fluid produced by the prostate and site of production
Cowper’s glands. relative size
numbers produced
Bladder mobility
Prostate gland
Cowper’s gland
Vas deferens
A (sperm duct)
Penis
B
175
3.7 The menstrual cycle

Objectives
The menstrual cycle is a long-term process
■ To understand the female monthly cycle
controlled by a number of hormones, which:
of ovulation
■ To know the role of hormones in the ■ prepare the uterus to receive any fertilised ova
menstrual cycle ■ control the development of mature ova.
■ To describe the sequence of events in follicle
Hormones affect the wall of the uterus
development and ovulation
During the menstrual cycle the wall of the
uterus goes through four phases, under the
The testes produce sperm continually at a rate of influence of two hormones, oestrogen and
about 100 000 000 per day from puberty to old progesterone. During the first phase, which
age. Women produce only one ovum per month lasts about five days, the lining of the uterus
during their reproductive life, from puberty to is shed, accompanied by a loss of blood. This
middle age. The two ovaries take it in turns to time is a woman’s period, or more correctly the
produce an ovum, and one of them releases a menstrual phase or menstruation. The other
mature female gamete every 28 days. The cycle of phases of the cycle prepare the uterus to receive
producing and releasing mature ova is called the and protect a zygote, and are shown in the
menstrual cycle (from the Latin word menstrua diagram below.
meaning month).
4 Premenstrual phase In humans the cycles of the two ovaries 1 Menstruation

The uterus lining degenerates are out of phase. Each ovary ovulates The uterus lining is shed, and
as the progesterone every 56 days but each woman ovulates blood and fragments of tissue
concentration starts to fall every 28 days. leave the body through the
unless embryo implantation vagina. Menstruation is triggered
has occurred, in which case Last day by a decrease in the
progesterone (from the corpus concentration of progesterone.
28th
luteum) keeps the lining intact 27th
26th
to begin pregnancy. 1st day
25th 2nd Blood is lost during
3rd menstruation and needs to be
24th Menstruation replaced during the repair
Uterus lining 4th phase. Menstruating women
23rd continues to therefore have a high
thicken 5th requirement for iron in their
Uterus lining diet. If this requirement is not
22nd is shed met they can become anaemic.
6th
21st
7th
2 Repair phase
20th More blood vessels grow in the
Ovum dies if 8th lining of the uterus, and the
not fertilised lining thickens and becomes
19th more stable. These changes are
3 Receptive phase 9th
triggered by an increase in the
The lining of the uterus and its
18th 10th concentration of oestrogen.
blood vessels are now well Ovulation
developed. If fertilisation has 17th Ovum released
11th
occurred the embryo can from ovary
become buried or implanted 16th 12th
15th 14th 13th The release of the ovum is
in this lining. This optimum set
of conditions for implantation accompanied by a slight
Following the development of a Graafian follicle
remains for 6–7 days after increase in body temperature –
(see top of next page), an ovum (egg) is released
ovulation, and is maintained some women are actually
into the oviduct. Ovulation occurs at the peak of
by an increasing concentration aware of the moment of
oestrogen concentration and is triggered by a
of progesterone. ovulation.
hormone from the pituitary gland.
176
Hormones control the development Graafian follicle become a structure known as the
of ova corpus luteum, which produces the hormone
The ova develop from cells lining the ovary. This progesterone. This hormone keeps the wall of
is triggered by follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) the uterus in good condition for the development
released from the pituitary gland. FSH causes a of a zygote if implantation has occurred. It also
special cell in the ovary to produce a sac around prevents FSH secretion which prevents the
itself. The fluid-filled sac and the developing release of any more mature ova by feedback
ovum inside it are together called a Graafian inhibition. This ensures that only one fertilised
follicle. Once the follicle is mature, and there is ovum develops in the uterus at any one time. The
a high concentration of oestrogen, it moves to processes taking place in the uterus and the ovary
the surface of the ovary and bursts, releasing the and their control by hormones are summarised in
ovum into the funnel of the oviduct. This process the diagram below.
is called ovulation. The remaining cells of the
Pituitary gland – Brain – processes information

releases hormones from other parts of the body and
which control activity ‘instructs’ pituitary gland.
of the ovary. FSH LH LH
Luteinising hormone– stimulates
Follicle stimulating
Events in the ovary release of mature ovum from
hormone – stimulates
ovary and development of corpus
development of Graafian
luteum from the remains of the
follicle in ovary. Graafian Ovum Corpus follicle.
follicle luteum
Oestrogen – repairs Progesterone – keeps the

Blood concentration of ovarian hormones
the lining of the uterus lining of the uterus ready for
and stimulates implantation and pregnancy.
development of female
sexual characteristics.
Day 0 Day 14 Day 28
Condition of lining of uterus

The lining of the uterus
gradually thickens and
develops more blood
vessels ready to receive
a fertilised ovum.
Day 0 Day 14 Day 28
RECEPTIVE PREMENSTRUAL
MENSTRUATION REPAIR PHASE The ‘safe period’ is the time
PHASE PHASE when intercourse theoretically
will not lead to pregnancy.
This assumes that for
fertilisation to occur, there
Body temperature (°C) ‘SAFE PERIOD’
must be sperm in the oviduct
This ‘blip’ in temperature
up to four days before or after
corresponds to ovulation.
ovulation. This is the basis of
‘SAFE PERIOD’ the rhythm method of
contraception (see page 180).
Day 0 Day 14 Day 28
Q
1 Define the terms menstruation and ovulation. 3 Use the term feedback inhibition to explain why
What is the link between these processes? contraceptive pills contain the hormone progesterone.
2 Describe the role of the hormones FSH, LH, 4 a List the phases of the menstrual cycle.
oestrogen and progesterone in the control of the b How long does the cycle last?
menstrual cycle. c At what time in the cycle does ovulation occur?
177
3.8 Copulation and conception

Objectives
■ To understand the difference between copulation and Copulation delivers male gametes
conception Before intercourse, sexual stimulation causes
■ To describe the events of fertilisation blood to flow into the man’s penis. The penis
■ To describe the processes of in vitro fertilisation and becomes erect and hard enough to enter the
artificial insemination by donor woman’s vagina (helped by lubricating fluids
■ To understand some of the moral and ethical questions released by the walls of the vagina). This is
posed by human intervention in reproductive processes called copulation or sexual intercourse.
The rubbing of the tip of the penis (the glans)
against the wall of the vagina sets off a reflex
Ovulation provides a female gamete action that releases stored sperm from the
During ovulation each month, an ovum is released testes, and squeezes them by peristalsis along
from one of the ovaries. The ovum moves slowly the sperm ducts and the urethra. As the sperm
along the oviduct towards the uterus. This pass along these tubes, seminal fluid is added
movement is brought about by: to them and the complete semen is ejaculated
■ peristalsis – rhythmic contractions of muscles in spurts from the tip of the penis. About 3 or
in the wall of the oviduct 4 cm3 of semen is ejaculated, and this contains
■ cilia – fine hair-like structures on the lining of about 300 000 000 sperm. The diagram below
the oviduct which sweep the ovum along. illustrates how the male and female gametes
arrive at the same place.
It takes 4–7 days for the ovum to reach the uterus,
and during this time fertilisation may take place
in the oviduct (see below).
4 The zygote (fertilised ovum) 5 The ball of cells becomes an embryo.

divides to form a ball of cells. It implants in the uterus lining and a
placenta develops (see page 182).
3 Fertilisation usually occurs
in the first third to first half
of the oviduct.
Sperm swim through the

2 Cilia and peristaltic
uterus towards the ovum
waves sweep the ovum
in the oviduct.
along the oviduct.
1 Ovum (female gamete)
is released from the Sperm are released close
ovary at ovulation. to the cervix during sexual
intercourse.
Man
Oviduct
Sperm duct
Ovary
Testis
Vagina
Woman Erect penis
p Sexual intercourse or copulation delivers male gametes to the female reproductive system
178
1 Sperm swim towards ovum. Fertilisation is the fusion of ovum and sperm
Ovum Cell from Fertilisation is the joining together (fusion) of an ovum and a
the follicle
sperm. The new cell contains a set of genetic material from the
Nucleus surrounding
ovum mother and a set from the father. Fertilisation takes place in the
oviduct, and although several hundred sperm may reach the ovum,
Outer only one of them will penetrate the membrane that surrounds it.
membrane Cytoplasm
Once this has happened a series of changes takes place:
2 Remaining follicle cells are scattered
■ The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier to the entry of
by sperm.
Tail other sperm.
Sperm ■ The head of the sperm (the male nucleus) moves towards the
nucleus
nucleus of the ovum and the two fuse (join together).
Ovum
membrane ■ The fertilised ovum or zygote now starts to divide, first into two
cells, then into four, and so on. It continues to move towards
3 One sperm passes through the outer the uterus.
membrane. A barrier forms to prevent
entry of more than one sperm. The events of fertilisation are summarised in the diagram opposite.
Conception is the implantation of the ball of cells

About six days after fertilisation the ball of cells, now called an
embryo, becomes embedded in the thickened lining of the uterus.
Conception, the beginning of the development of a new individual,
takes place when this embedding or implantation is complete.
4 Head of sperm crosses ovum cells membrane.
Once the embryo is attached to the lining of the uterus, some of its
outer cells combine with some of the mother’s cells and a placenta
begins to develop.
Infertility treatment
i
5 Sperm nucleus and ovum nucleus fuse at
In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
fertilisation. A zygote has been formed.
The term in vitro means ‘in glass’, and is used to describe a procedure that
takes place outside the body in some form of laboratory glassware. In in
vitro fertilisation, an ovum is fertilised outside a woman’s body in a special
kind of dish (not a test tube, although the technique is sometimes called
‘test-tube fertilisation’). The fertilised ovum is placed in the woman’s uterus
p Fertilisation is the fusion of ovum and to develop. This procedure is used to treat couples who are unable to
sperm conceive. For example, a woman’s oviducts may be blocked, preventing
sperm reaching the ovum, or making it difficult for a fertilised ovum to get
to the uterus.
Artificial insemination by donor (AID)
If a couple is unable to conceive naturally due to a problem with the man’s
sperm, they may try AID. Sperm from a donor is obtained from a sperm
bank (where it is stored) and is inserted into the woman’s uterus close to
her time of ovulation.
Q
1 Define the terms conception, copulation and fertilisation. In what order do
these events occur?
2 It is possible for humans to intervene in the process of reproduction.
Suggest how IVF and AID raise ethical problems for the medical
profession.
179
3.9 Contraception
Objectives Male contraceptive methods
There are three methods of contraception for men:
■ To define contraception
■ To know about different methods of contraception ■ Withdrawal (coitus interruptus) – the
■ To evaluate the effectiveness of different methods of penis is withdrawn from the vagina before
contraception ejaculation. This method is unreliable as small
amounts of semen can leak out before the
ejaculation.
Preventing pregnancy ■ Vasectomy – the sperm ducts are cut or tied in
Contraception (which literally means ‘against a surgical operation (see page 174).
conceiving’) is defined as ‘deliberately preventing ■ Condom or sheath – this is a thin rubber
pregnancy’. It is quite natural for two people who covering that is fitted over the erect penis before
love each other to want to have intercourse (to intercourse. It prevents sperm being released
‘make love’ or ‘have sex’). However, they may not into the vagina, and also protects against
want to have a baby. Using contraception allows a sexually transmitted infections (see page 189).
couple to choose when to have children and is an
essential part of family planning.
Contraception may depend on:
■ an understanding of the body’s natural cycles
(e.g. the rhythm method) t The condom or
■ a physical barrier between ovum and sperm sheath is unrolled
(e.g. the condom) over the erect penis,
■ a chemical (e.g. a pill, or a spermicide) and semen is
■ a surgical procedure (e.g. vasectomy). collected in the end.
The rhythm method: natural Female contraceptive methods

contraception The main methods of contraception used by
Couples who use the rhythm method avoid having women are shown in the diagram opposite.
intercourse during the fertile period. Instead
they wait for the safe period, when fertilisation Which method is best?
is unlikely to result. The diagram on page 177 Choosing a method of contraception depends
shows the safe period. There are several methods on a number of factors, including age, religious
of working out the time of ovulation: belief and whether a long- or short-term method
is required. The table compares the failure rates
■ Calendar method – the time of ovulation is
of the different methods in the form of HWY,
calculated after keeping a record of when the
the number of pregnancies likely if a Hundred
last six or more periods started.
Women used the same method for one Year.
■ Temperature method – the woman measures
her body temperature and looks for changes at
Method of contraception Failure rate / HWY
ovulation.
No method used 54
■ Mucus method – the woman notes changes
Rhythm method 15
that take place in the mucus lining of the
Condom 8–10
vagina and cervix at ovulation.
Diaphragm with spermicide 2–3
The table opposite shows that the rhythm method IUD 1
is not very reliable. However, it is acceptable to Contraceptive pill 1
religious groups opposed to artificial methods of Female sterilisation 0
contraception.
Vasectomy 0
180
Female sterilisation is difficult to IUD (intrauterine device) or coil A capsule inserted just beneath
reverse and should only be considered This is a plastic-coated copper coil which the skin can release progestogen over
by couples who are sure that they do may be left in the uterus for months or a 3 or 4 month period. This is useful
not want any more children. even for years. Strings attached to the for women who might forget to take
lower end allow the coil to be removed the contraceptive pill.
via the vagina.
Female sterilisation Quite reliable, particularly for women
The oviducts are tied and cut during an who have already had children. The contraceptive pill
operation. Released ova cannot reach the Irritates the lining of There are two kinds of contraceptive pill.
part of the oviduct where sperm are the uterus so that The mini-pill contains progestogen
present. implantation of the (synthetic progesterone) which causes
A permanent method which is 100% zygote does not changes in the uterus lining so that
reliable. occur. implantation of a zygote is difficult.
The combined pill contains oestrogen
and progestogen, and prevents
ovulation.
Almost 100% reliable if used according
to instructions.
Diarrhoea or vomiting can remove
the pill from the gut before it has
been absorbed fully, reducing its
effectiveness.
Spermicide
A chemical, applied as a cream,
gel or foam, which kills sperm.
Very unreliable on its own
Diaphragm or cap
but makes barrier methods
A thin rubber barrier with a springy outer
of contraception more
ring to ensure a close fit. Prevents sperm
effective.
from entering the uterus.
Female condom or ‘femidom’

A thin sheath which lines the vagina,
and prevents entry of sperm. The ‘closed’ Morning-after contraception
end has a ring to make fitting easier, and These are pills used after intercourse
the ring at the open end lies flat against has taken place. They are not for
the labia. regular use, but a doctor might
prescribe them if there is a risk of
unwanted pregnancy which might
lead to an abortion at a later date.
Very reliable if properly fitted and used The morning-after pill contains
with a spermicide. hormones which cause the uterus
lining to be shed. It is taken 48–72
Correct size must be used – requires a
hours after intercourse. A coil fitted
trial fitting at a family planning clinic.
within 72–96 hours of intercourse
Must be fitted before intercourse and
usually prevents pregnancy as well.
remain in place for 6 hours afterwards.
p Methods of contraception for women include physical, chemical and surgical methods
Q
1 List the methods of contraception mentioned on these 3 Why is sterilisation unsuitable for a short-term
two pages. Mark each one P, C or S for physical, relationship?
chemical or surgical. 4 Why do you think the rhythm method has such a high
2 Which contraceptive method(s) might be suitable for a rate of failure?
short-term relationship?
181
3.10 Pregnancy: the role of the placenta

Objectives division is called mitosis (see page 198). Each cell
also takes up its correct position in the embryo.
■ To know the sequence of events in the development
The cells become organised into tissues (see
of a baby
page 19) and start to take on special functions
■ To understand the role of the placenta
such as nerve cells and skin cells.
Growth and development A controlled environment

From the time of conception it takes about The time taken for the development of a baby
nine months, or 40 weeks, for a fertilised ovum from an implanted zygote is called the gestation
to become a fully formed baby. This progress period. The developing fetus needs a stable
involves two closely linked processes: environment which is provided by the placenta,
a structure that is only found in mammals.
■ growth – the repeated division of the zygote to
The placenta forms early in pregnancy, partly
provide the many cells that make up the baby
from the lining of the uterus, and partly from the
■ development – the organisation of the cells
outside cells of the developing embryo. The fetus
into tissues and organs.
is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord
During growth, the zygote divides into many as shown below. It is surrounded by the amniotic
identical cells – one zygote at conception becomes sac which is filled with amniotic fluid; this
30 million million cells at birth! This type of cell protects the fetus from knocks and bumps.
Placenta – this disc-shaped Wall of uterus

Amniocentesis is a test to
organ has a number of
check for abnormalities of
functions:
the fetus. A sample of
exchange of soluble
amniotic fluid is collected in
materials such as foods,
a syringe through the
wastes and oxygen
abdominal wall of the
between mother and fetus
mother. The fluid contains
physical attachment of the
cells from the fetus, which
fetus to the wall of the
are cultured and then
uterus
analysed. There is a risk of
protection
miscarriage following the
1 of fetus from mother’s
test.
immune system
The procedure is usually
2 against dangerous
offered to older women
fluctuations in mother’s blood
because fetal abnormalities
pressure
are more common in older
secretion of hormones which
mothers.
maintain the lining of the
The test gives information
uterus as the corpus luteum;
about chromosome
breaks down by the third
mutation (e.g. Down’s
month.
syndrome) and gene
Umbilical cord mutation (e.g. cystic
– contains blood vessels which carry fibrosis).
materials for exchange between mother Usually carried out at
and fetus. The cord connects the fetus to 16–18 weeks.
the placenta.
Amnion
– the membrane that encloses the Amniotic fluid
amniotic fluid. This is ruptured just – protects the fetus against
before birth. mechanical shock
drying out
temperature fluctuations.
p The placenta protects and nourishes the developing fetus
182
The placenta begins to develop at implantation Exchange of materials across the

and after about 12 weeks it is a thick, disc-like placenta
structure with finger-like projections called villi At the placenta, materials are exchanged quickly
that extend deep into the wall of the uterus. and selectively between the mother’s blood and
The placenta continues to grow to keep pace with that of the fetus to keep a constant internal
the developing fetus and is about 15 cm across, environment inside the fetus. The placenta has
weighing about 500 g, at the time of birth. After adaptations that make this process efficient, as
the baby has been born the placenta, amniotic outlined in the diagram below. Towards the end
sac and umbilical cord are expelled from the of pregnancy, protective antibodies also cross the
uterus as the afterbirth. The structure of the placenta so that the baby has some immunity to
placenta, and some of its functions, are illustrated certain diseases.
in the diagram below.
Vein to mother takes away blood which is: DANGER! Some harmful materials can cross
low in nutrients and oxygen the placenta and affect the fetus.
high in carbon dioxide and urea. • Nicotine – a toxin in tobacco smoke. Babies of
mothers who are smokers can be born already
addicted to nicotine.
• Rubella virus – a pathogen which causes
German Measles. This disease causes damage
to the developing brain and nervous system.
Wall of uterus is well supplied with
blood vessels.
Umbilical artery –
Umbilical cord
Blood-filled space in lining carries deoxygenated
of uterus. blood containing
wastes such as urea
away from fetus to
placenta.
Placental villi are finger-like
projections which provide a large,
thin surface for exchange of
Umbilical vein –
materials between mother
carries oxygenated
and fetus.
blood cleared of
wastes from
placenta to fetus.
Blood contains a
There is no direct contact high concentration
between maternal and fetal of soluble foods such
blood – they are separated as glucose, amino
by a membrane which can, acids and iron.
to some extent, select the Artery from mother delivers blood which is:
materials that cross it. high in nutrients and oxygen
low in carbon dioxide and urea.
p The placenta is the site of exchange – useful substances such as glucose and oxygen pass from
mother to fetus and wastes such as urea and carbon dioxide move in the opposite direction
Q
1 What name is given to the complete period from more (a total of four), and so on. Calculate
fertilisation to birth? approximately how many divisions were necessary to
2 The growth of the fetus is due to an increase in the produce the baby from the zygote.
number of cells of which it is made. A newborn baby 3 Cell division is only part of the overall process of
has about 30 million million cells. Remember that each production of the baby. Which other process runs
cell divides into two, and each of those two into two alongside cell division? Define this process.
183
3.11 Pregnancy: development and

antenatal care
Objective
■ To know about prenatal care
Antenatal care Checks on the mother
Antenatal care includes ■ advice on diet Weight check: from about the 3rd month
■ guidance on motherhood of pregnancy a woman gains about 1 lb
■ checks on fetus and mother (450 g) per week. During the whole
pregnancy she will gain about 30 lb (12 kg).
This includes the weight of the baby, the
placenta and the amniotic fluid, as well as
Signs of pregnancy
some fat under the skin. If she gains too
■ first sign – a missed period
much weight she will be advised to diet.
■ second sign – another missed period,
perhaps with feelings of nausea, tender
Blood tests include
breasts and more frequent urination.
■ Haemoglobin – to check that the
Testing for pregnancy
mother is not anaemic (see page 83)
Measures the amount of HCG hormone in the
■ Blood group – in case an emergency
urine, using monoclonal antibodies.
blood transfusion is needed, and to
check for Rhesus compatibility
■ German measles antibodies – to check
Checks on the fetus that she is immune and there is no risk
of the Rubella virus crossing the
Size and position can be felt by gentle pressure on
placenta (see page 183)
the uterus. Towards the end of pregnancy the best
position for the baby is head downwards and facing Urine tests
the mother’s back. ■ Blood sugar (glucose) – to check for
diabetes (see page 133)
Heartbeat can be measured, using a stethoscope,
■ Protein (albumin) – to check for any
during the second half of pregnancy. The fetal heart
damage to the kidneys (page 124)
rate is usually 120–160 bpm, about twice as high as
its mother! Vaginal examination – on the first visit
to the ante-natal clinic the vagina is
Ultrasound scanning is used to produce a picture
checked for
of the fetus in the uterus. It provides information on
■ presence of infection e.g. thrush
■ baby’s age, size, sex and position
■ to obtain a cervical smear to identify
■ position of the placenta
cancer cells.
■ whether there are twins!
Late in pregnancy the vagina is checked
Amniocentesis (see page 182) to make sure that it will be big enough for
provides valuable early information the baby’s head to pass through.
about the developing fetus
Blood pressure: checked at every visit as high b.p. may indicate
toxaemia of pregnancy which can be very serious for both
mother and baby.
Hormones: the level of oestrogen in the blood indicates how

well the placenta is functioning to supply the fetus with food
and oxygen.
184
From conception to birth: development

of the human fetus
1 month actual length 7 mm 2 months actual length 13 mm
Drugs administered during this

nose period may severely affect
eye development e.g. thalidomide leads
heart
to loss of or abnormal limbs.
umbilical forelimb
cord
All adult organs are present,
hindlimb though tiny and immature.
Muscles begin to differentiate
and embryo is capable of
By this time the basic pattern of the body has been movement. Sex organ
laid down – the nerve tube is forming, the heart distinguishable as ovary or testis. Bones begin to
begins to beat, the limb buds appear and the three harden. From now on the developing organism is
regions of the brain are formed. The developing know as the fetus.
organism is an embryo.
Birth is a compromise –
the fetus has outgrown
the placenta’s supply
systems but must adjust
to a much more variable
environment.
At this stage, preterm

babies have a good
chance of survival with
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 appropriate respiratory
Time since fertilisation / months and thermoregulatory
assistance.
4 months
3 months Fetus may kick, actual length
actual length curl toes, squint 95 mm
and frown. Sex can
70 mm
be determined by
external inspection.
Face begins to look
Lymph nodes
‘human’. Lobes of
develop.
the forebrain
develop. Eye, ear
and nose begin
to look ‘normal’.
Movements may begin to be
vigorous, and may be detected
by mother (the fetus ‘kicks’).
185
3.12 Birth and the newborn baby

Objectives
Feeding the newborn baby
■ To describe the events leading to birth When a newborn baby is placed close to its
■ To describe the early care of a young baby mother’s breast it sucks at the nipple. This
■ To appreciate the benefits of breast feeding is known as the suckling reflex. Suckling
stimulates the mother’s brain to release more
oxytocin. The hormone causes tiny muscles
Hormones are responsible for birth in the mammary glands to squeeze out milk.
The sequence of events that leads to the birth
This process is lactation.
of a baby is called labour. Labour begins with
the contractions of the uterus muscle. These The mother’s milk is an ideal food for the baby –
contractions are: it contains all the nutrients the baby needs in
■ prevented by progesterone – the level of this the correct proportions. It also contains some
hormone falls as birth approaches antibodies from the mother which help to protect
■ stimulated by oxytocin, a hormone released the baby during its early months. Milk made in
from the pituitary gland of the mother the first few days is called colostrum. It contains
■ helped by oestrogen (which makes the uterus mainly antibodies and very little food. The mother
more sensitive to oxytocin) – the level of this continues to produce milk as long as the baby
hormone rises as birth approaches. suckles. A newborn baby cannot eat solid food
because it has no teeth and its digestive system
Labour is not developed enough to deal with solids.
By the end of pregnancy the baby normally At around four to six months when the first teeth
lies with its head against the cervix. At first are starting to appear, the baby can begin to eat
the contractions come every 20 minutes or so, some solid food. The gradual changeover from
but as birth approaches they become more milk to a solid food diet is called weaning.
frequent and more powerful. The contractions
cause the amniotic membrane to break and Bottle feeding
release the amniotic fluid – this is known as The artificial or formula milks intended for use
breaking the waters – and the cervix to dilate in bottle feeding are based on cows’ milk. Various
(get wider). The first stage of labour is complete sugars and other substances are added to the
when the cervix is wide enough for the baby’s dried powder to make it more like human milk.
head to pass through. Labour continues as the The differences between cow and human milk are
baby’s head is pushed past the cervix into the shown opposite.
vagina, which is now acting as a birth canal. The main advantages of bottle feeding are that
From now on the process is quite rapid and the exact quantity of the baby’s food intake can
needs only gentle contractions by the mother, be measured, and that people other than the
helped by the midwife or the obstetrician baby’s mother can help with feeding. The main
(doctor who specialises in birth). The birth disadvantages of bottle feeding are that formula
process is quite traumatic for the baby, and it milk is expensive and it is not as easily digested as
may become short of oxygen as the umbilical breast milk. Also, unless the bottles are carefully
cord is compressed by the walls of the birth cleaned and sterilised and unless the milk is made
canal. The baby’s heartbeat is monitored during with boiled cooled water, microbes can be passed
birth, and the blood soon reoxygenates once to the baby.
the baby begins to breathe. When the baby is In some parts of the world, bottle feeding is
breathing properly the umbilical cord is clamped a leading cause of gastrointestinal upset and
(to prevent bleeding) and cut. The placenta deficiency disease in babies. There is an ongoing
comes away from the wall of the uterus and campaign to encourage breast feeding.
leaves the vagina as the afterbirth.
186
Human milk is low in bacteria and Artificial milk (‘formula’) is based on cow’s milk, but it must be modified since
contains antimicrobial factors so the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys of the human infant are immature and
that breast-fed infants suffer fewer incapable of dealing with the ‘richness’ of cow's milk.
infections, particularly the Cow's milk compared with human milk
dangerously dehydrating Fat High in long-chain, Difficult to digest, inhibits calcium
gastroenteritis. Bottle-fed infants in saturated fatty acids absorption
the developing countries may have Protein Three times higher Infant kidneys cannot cope, excess
a 10–15 times greater mortality amino acids may cause brain damage
than breast-fed babies. High casein : whey ratio Causes hard curd in stomach – not
easily digested
Minerals Very high (particularly Infant kidney cannot cope –
Human milk is low cost, is sodium) severe (often fatal) dehydration
delivered at body temperature, Lactose Very high Lactose intolerance – may lead
requires no preparation and (milk sugar) to severe disease, the symptoms
breast feeding encourages a social of which may include brain damage
bond between mother and infant.
Suckling may have a contraceptive
effect, although this is not certain.
Postnatal care of mother and baby* Baby It takes a few weeks before the baby’s
Mother Soon after the baby is born, the mother temperature-regulating mechanism begins to
should start doing regular exercises to strengthen work efficiently and before the baby builds up a
the muscles which have stretched out of shape layer of fat under its skin. At first, the baby’s room
during birth. needs to be heated to about 20 °C. If a heater is
used, the air may become very dry, which can
Where the placenta was attached inside the
damage the baby’s respiratory passages. So it is
uterus, a wound remains which takes four to
beneficial to take a baby out of doors in warm
six weeks to heal. During this time a substance
clothing for an hour or two of fresh air each day.
called lochia is discharged from the wound and
passes out of the vulva. This area needs to be A baby should be bathed once a day, ideally before
kept very clean because, until the uterus heals, a meal. The mother should wash her hands before
the reproductive and urinary passages can easily and after she feeds her baby. If bottles are used they
become infected with microbes. Regular bathing should be cleaned in hot water and detergent with a
is essential, preferably with a little salt added to bottle brush and placed in sterilising solution. Teats
the water. should be washed and boiled after use.
Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph about the released. Further powerful contractions push the baby
birth of a human baby. through the or birth canal (usually head first, but
An expectant mother knows when she is about to give occasionally feet or bottom first in what is called a
birth because her begins to experience waves of breech birth). Once the baby has been delivered it is
contraction. These contractions are caused by an important that it takes deep breaths because it may
increased release of the hormone from the have been deprived of as the cord is
pituitary gland, and become more and more powerful compressed during delivery. This cord is clamped and
as the concentration of the hormone falls. cut, and relatively mild contractions of the uterus cause
Eventually the contractions are so powerful that the the to come away from the wall of the uterus
dilates, the bursts and the ‘waters’ are and pass out of the vagina as the .
187
3.12 Birth and the newborn baby
Twins multiple birth. This is quite common in women

Humans usually give birth to a single baby. who have been treated with a fertility drug. The
Occasionally two embryos develop together, uterus cannot expand enough to contain several
each with its own placenta and umbilical cord, fetuses growing and developing at the same time,
resulting in twins. There are two kinds of twins, and the mother often gives birth early, usually
and they arise in different ways, as shown in the around the seventh month of the pregnancy.
diagram below. Increasingly, medical care (including the use of
incubators) means that the babies may survive.
Very occasionally three or more ova are released
and fertilised at the same time, resulting in a
The development of twins. A VERY RARE EVENT!
Ovary Ovary Ovary
Two ova are

A single ovum is released from One ovum A second ovum is released
released from the ovary at is released. before the ovary is
the ovary. the same time.
‘switched off’ by feedback
The ovum is Each ovum is but is fertilised inhibition (see page 177).
fertilised by fertilised by a late in the The ovum could be
on sperm. different sperm. menstrual cycle. fertilised a month later,
maybe by a sperm from
The zygote divided a different man.
Each zygote
to form an embryo.
forms an ambryo.
The embryo
splits into
two identical
embryos.
Each embryo Each embryo

completes its completes its
development. development. Two children are born as a result of conjugative
conception. These children may be very different, as
Twins are identical because Twins are non–identical they may receive genes from different fathers.
they each contains copies because they each contain
of the same set of genes. different set of genes.
p Identical twins have the same genes p Non-identical twins are no more p Multiple births can
alike than any other brothers and happen naturally, or
sisters following treatment
with fertility drugs
Q
2 Describe the role of hormones in the birth and early c They each have their own placenta and umbilical
growth of a human baby. cord.
3 Consider this list of statements about identical twins, d They may be of the same sex or different sexes.
and say whether each is true or false. e They are also known as fraternal twins.
a They each have the same genes. f They are formed from a single fertilised egg that
b They are formed from two separate ova. splits in two.
188
3.13 Sexually transmitted infections

Objectives
Communities must offer testing and treatment,
■ To understand that disease-causing organisms can be
e.g. by family doctors.
transmitted between partners during sexual activity
■ To name some organisms responsible for sexually ■ Individuals at greatest risk, (e.g. drug users),
transmitted infections can be offered testing for HIV.
■ Sexual contacts can be traced to identify
sources of infection.
The control of sexually transmitted infections
(STIs) requires the interaction of individuals Worldwide involvement can include, for example,
and communities. These diseases, some of which ■ education programmes to prevent infection
are listed below, are most likely to be transmitted ■ provision of antibiotics
by body fluids through sexual contact (the ■ development of vaccines and antiviral drugs.
responsibility of the individual) but can only
be controlled by a concerted effort both locally STIs can be caused by bacteria, viruses or fungi.
and worldwide. Gonorrhea is a common STI caused by a
Individuals must take care with sexual habits. bacterium.
An STI can be transmitted quickly through a Bacterial STIs are treated with antibiotics
population, so individuals should: (e.g. penicillin) but resistant strains are
■ know the sexual history of their partners developing.
■ use a condom for barrier protection Viral STIs are increasing in frequency. These
■ have a medical check if any symptoms occur. include AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
syndrome).
The causes, effects and treatment for gonorrhea
and AIDS are summarised in the table below.
Name of STI and Signs and symptoms Transmission Treatment

infective organism
Gonorrhea (caused 1 Pain or burning when passing Usually by penetrative sex – i.e. when the Once diagnosed (an easy test in a
by bacterium) urine penis enters the vagina, mouth or anus clinic), treatment is
2 A creamy discharge from the straightforward, involving a
penis or vagina course of antibiotics
3 Inflammation of the testicles
AIDS (caused by A flu-like illness in the early 1 Unprotected sex with an infected person There is no cure. Antiviral
virus, HIV–human stages. Many AIDS-related 2 Contact with an infected person's blood treatment slows down the
immunodeficiency conditions may follow as the 3 From mother to child, during pregnancy progression from HIV status
virus) immune system begins to fail – or childbirth to full-blown AIDS. Modern
e.g. fungal infection of the lungs. 4 Sharing syringes while injecting drugs treatments inhibit the enzymes
The virus reduces the number of which the virus uses to copy itself.
lymphocytes and decreases the
ability to produce antibodies.
Q
1 Suggest two steps an individual can take to reduce the 3 Name one viral and one bacterial sexually transmitted
risk of named sexually transmitted infections. infection (STI).
2 What are the responsibilities of a community health 4 For any one named STI suggest how individuals, local
service? communities and scientists worldwide might be
involved in its control.
189
Questions on human reproduction

1 The following table provides information about 2 A newspaper headline incorrectly stated, ‘The use
the body temperature of a young woman on of condoms can result in erectile dysfunction’.
each day throughout a single menstrual cycle. Erectile dysfunction is a medical problem which
a Plot this information in the form of a graph. results in problems with sexual intercourse.
b i What is the range of the body Scientists are concerned that this incorrect
temperature during the cycle? statement could lead to an increase in HIV.
day of menstrual cycle body temperature / °C a Describe the process of sexual intercourse
1 36.5 in humans.
2 36.2 b Condoms are used as one form of birth
3 Menstruation 36.2 control.
4 36.2 i What name is used to describe this
5 36.2 method of birth control?
6 36.2 ii Explain how a condom acts as a method
7 36.3 of birth control.
8 36.2 c Some readers of the newspaper may believe
9 36.4 the newspaper and stop using condoms
10 36.3 during sexual intercourse.
11 36.2 i Explain how a decrease in the use of
12 36.1 condoms may lead to an increase in the
13 36.2 incidence of HIV.
14 Ovulation 36.2 ii State two ways by which a person who
15 36.5 does not have sexual intercourse might
16 36.7 still become infected with HIV.
17 36.8 iii Explain why the immune system is less
18 36.7 effective in a person with HIV.
19 36.7 d Another sexually transmitted disease is
20 36.8
gonorrhoea. For this disease, state
21 36.7
i one sign or symptom,
22 36.6
ii one effect on the body,
23 36.6
iii the treatment.
24 36.7
25 36.6
Paper 3 Variant 1 Q4 November 2008
26 36.6
27 36.7
3 The temperature of the human fetus whilst
28 36.6 in the uterus is about 0.5 °C above that of its
mother. At birth it emerges into a relatively
ii These measurements were made at the cool, dry atmosphere and immediately
same time each day, in the same room encounters a problem of temperature control.
and while the woman was wearing the a Suggest why the temperature of the fetus is
same clothes. Why is this important? above that of its mother.
c i The times of menstruation and ovulation b Explain how the following help the newborn
are shown in the table. What changes in baby to control its temperature:
temperature coincide with these events? i from about the fifth month of pregnancy
ii How could this information be used: onwards a layer of subcutaneous fat is
a as a method of contraception developed by the fetus
b to increase the chance of conception? ii at birth the blood vessels to the baby’s
d Which other methods of contraception skin constrict very quickly.
are available to a woman? Why are these c A baby born prematurely is less able to
methods more successful than the one control its body temperature and must be
190 outlined in part c? kept in an incubator (see photograph).
i A constant temperature is maintained a i Complete Table 1 by listing the blood

within the incubator, using a thermostat vessels that carry oxygenated blood. Use
and an electric heater. Use this example the letters in the diagram to identify the
to explain the meaning of the term blood vessels.
negative feedback. circulatory system blood vessels that carry
ii Suggest two functions of the hood that oxygenated blood
covers the incubator. maternal
fetal
p Table 1
ii Name structure T and describe what

happens to it after birth.
iii The placenta is adapted for the exchange
of substances between the maternal
blood and the fetal blood.
Describe the exchanges that occur across
the placenta to keep the fetus alive and
well.
p An incubator provides a constant warm b The placenta secretes the hormones oestrogen
environment for a premature baby
and progesterone.
d The premature baby must be fed through a Describe the roles of these hormones during
plastic tube going through its nostril into pregnancy.
its stomach.
i The food supplied to the baby contains
substantial quantities of carbohydrate
and protein. Suggest one function of each
of these substances in the body of the
newborn baby.
ii Name one substance normally supplied
across the placenta in the late stages of
pregnancy which the artificial diet is
unlikely to supply. What problem might
this cause for the newborn baby?
4 The diagram shows the structure of the
placenta and parts of the fetal and maternal
circulatory systems.
191
3.14 Variation and inheritance

Objectives ■ How can characteristics be passed on
accurately from one cell to another?
■ To know that there is variation between individuals of
■ How are the characteristics of two different
the same species
organisms combined at fertilisation?
■ To appreciate that some differences are inherited
■ How do characteristics vary from one
whereas others are acquired during the life of the
organism to another and from one generation
individual
to another?
■ To understand that genetics has a major impact on the
lives of humans Answers to questions such as these help us in many
■ To understand that chromosomes, located in the ways, for example to increase our understanding
nucleus, carry information about inherited characteristics about genetic diseases, and to develop techniques
to ‘add’ desirable characteristics to our domestic
animals and plants.
Inherited and acquired characteristics
Living organisms vary in many ways. For Sexual reproduction and inheritance
example, humans all have the same general The production of offspring by sexual
shape and the same set of body organs, but some reproduction always involves the production
features differ from one person to the next, such of gametes and fertilisation (see page 172).
as height, weight, eye and hair colour, shape of In sexual reproduction:
nose, language, knowledge and skills. These are ■ The only part of the male gamete (sperm in
examples of individual variation. mammals) that goes to form the zygote is the
Some of these features that vary from person nucleus.
to person may be inherited from the parents. ■ The gametes are formed by cell division.
Inheritance is the transmission of genetic ■ The young organism develops from a single
information from generation to generation. fertilised egg by cell division.
Examples of these inherited (or hereditary) So, if we are to understand how characteristics
characteristics include the tendency to are passed on during reproduction, we should
develop some diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, look carefully at the structure of the nucleus, and
and the permanent colour of the skin. Some, how the nucleus behaves during cell division.
such as a temporary suntan or a scar, cannot
be inherited – these are called acquired
characteristics. Many acquired characteristics
can be changed (for example, body mass can be Tail
changed by an adjustment to the diet). Inherited
characteristics cannot usually be altered (except
temporarily).
Genetics
The study of inherited characteristics, and the way
they are passed on from one generation to another, Mid-piece
is called genetics. Our knowledge of the subject of
genetics is expanding extremely rapidly, and this
knowledge depends upon our understanding of the
molecule DNA (see page 194).
Head (contains nucleus)
When we study inheritance we are looking for
answers to several important questions:
p Human sperm 1000. Only the ‘head’ (containing
■ What is a characteristic? Why does a cell or the nucleus) enters the egg at the time of fertilisation.
organism develop a certain characteristic?
192
The contents of the nucleus

Special stains can be used to show up the contents of the nucleus.
If the cell is not actually dividing, these contents are rather unclear
but as the cell begins to divide the contents show up as a series of
thread-like structures. As the threads shorten they take up the stain.
For this reason they were called chromosomes (literally ‘coloured
bodies’). The structure of a chromosome is outlined below.
Each chromosome is divided

into short sections of DNA
Centromere (attachment called genes. Each gene carries
point for spindle fibres the coded information for the
during cell division). production of a protein by
the cell.
The nucleus of a cell

contains chromosomes.
In humans there are 23
pairs of chromosomes
(i.e. 46 chromosomes
in total).
Q
There is about 2 m of DNA in
1 Look around your class. Each chromosome each human nucleus. In each
This group of humans shows contains a very long human there ís enough DNA
many variations between coiled strand of DNA. to stretch to the Moon
individuals. Suggest one and back!
variation that is inherited and

one that is acquired. p The structure of a chromosome
2 Find three newspaper articles
that include the words ‘gene’, A great deal of evidence suggests that the chromosomes carry
‘genetic’ or ‘inheritance’ in genetic information – the information that gives the particular
their headings. Summarise one characteristics to a cell:
of the articles in three or four ■ If sections of chromosome are transferred from one cell to
sentences.
another, the characteristics of the recipient cell change.
3 a What is a chromosome?
■ If chromosomes are deliberately damaged, the characteristics of
What evidence is there that
the cell change.
chromosomes carry genetic
information?
■ In some cells, the chromosomes are seen to swell when proteins
b When can chromosomes be are being manufactured in the cell.
observed? Explain why this ■ The only difference between the nuclei of male and female cells
is possible. is the presence of one particular chromosome (see page 206).
(Males and females certainly have different characteristics!)
Remember these definitions!

Chromosome: a thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form
of genes.
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein.
193
3.15 DNA, proteins and the characteristics

of organisms
Objectives the enormous molecule called deoxyribonucleic
acid or DNA for short. In other words:
■ To know that cell characteristics depend on proteins
■ To understand the principle of the genetic code DNA as gene
■ To be able to describe the replication of DNA
⎯⎯→
controls production of
Characteristics depend on proteins protein

It has been discovered that the characteristics that
⎯⎯→
a cell or organism possesses depend on the proteins responsible for
that the cell can manufacture. For examples of
this, look at the picture at the top of the opposite characteristic
page.
For cells to specialise in the many different ways DNA carries its instructions as coded messages
that they do, they must make different proteins. using just four different chemical compounds
The instructions as to which proteins should be called nucleotide bases or organic bases (see
manufactured at any one time in a cell are carried page 29). The names of the bases are shown in the
as genes on the chromosomes. Chemical tests have diagram below, but you only need to remember
shown that chromosomes are largely composed of their initial letters (A, T, G and C) to understand
how the code works.
The DNA molecule is made up of

nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a Backbone
One nucleotide base, and a sugar–phosphate backbone.
Base pair
There may be millions of nucleotides in a
DNA molecule, but there are only four Adenine Thymine
A
different ones. Some contain the base Cytosine
T adenine (A), some contain guanine (G), Guanine
G some thymine (T) and some cytosine (C).
C
A T A very short section

of a DNA molecule
G C (about 600 base pairs
The nucleotides form very long
are needed to code for
‘ladders’ with bases as the ‘rungs’
an average protein)
of the ladder. The base pairs are G C
always one of two types, either
adenine with thymine T A
or
guanine with cytosine. A T Certain physical forces cause the ‘ladder’ to
twist around itself to form a shape similar
C G to a spiral, called a double helix.
p The structure of DNA. The exact length of the DNA molecule is not known
even for humans. It is very important to remember that: adenine always pairs
with thymine, and guanine always pairs with cytosine.
194
Hair cells contain keratin

a structural protein.
antibodies are proteins
which play a part in the
Base pairing can explain how DNA
immune response. is replicated*
For one organism to pass on characteristics to
its offspring, it must be able to copy the coded
instructions for these characteristics and hand
them on. In other words, DNA in the chromosomes
must be copied or replicated. This replication
Saliva
must be carried out with great accuracy, since a
contains
Neurotransmitters the enzyme change in characteristics might be harmful to the
in the nervous (protein) organism. The base pairing rule means that the
system bind to amylase.
coded sequence on one chain of the double helix
receptor proteins
in the synapse. automatically determines the coded sequence on
the other chain, ensuring accurate replication. The
principles of DNA replication are outlined below.
Enzymes
(proteins) control The replication of DNA is a vital part of cell
photosynthesis. division. It is particularly obvious in copying
p Cell characteristics depend on proteins. division (mitosis), as we shall see on page 198.
A T A T A T
G C G C G C
A short section of DNA,
with six base pairs. The
G C G C G C
molecule is shown
‘unwound’ for simplicity,
T A T A T A
and letters are used for
the bases.
A T A T A T
C G C G C G
A T There are now two short

The two chains separ ate. sections of DNA.
Each strand acts as a G These ar e:
C C
template for making G identical to one another
another strand using G identical to the original
C C
a supply of nucleotides. G short section.
The base pairing rule T A In other wor ds, the DNA
means that the order of A has been replicated.
bases on each new strand A T T
is determined by the T A
order of bases on the C G
template. G C
p Replication is essential for characteristics to be passed from one generation of cells to the next.
The discovery of DNA

The discovery of DNA structure depended on the work of many scientists. These included
■ Rosalind Franklin: she made many measurements on DNA, using patterns obtained
by directing a beam of X-rays onto crystals of this molecule.
■ James Watson and Francis Crick: used the measurements made by Franklin, and
results of the chemical analysis of DNA which showed that the number of (adenine +
guanine) bases was always equal to the number of (thymine + cytosine) bases, to
produce a working model of the DNA molecule. This model was the double helix with
which we are familiar.
Watson and Crick were awarded the Nobel prize (the highest scientific award) for their
work of DNA. Sadly, Rosalind Franklin died before her part in the discovery of DNA
structure was properly recognised.
195
3.16 How the code is carried
Objectives
Passing the messages to the
■ To understand that the genetic code is carried as a
sequence of bases on the DNA molecule ribosomes
This coded information in the genes is located on
■ To understand the need for a messenger molecule in
protein synthesis the chromosomes, which are in the nucleus. You
■ To define the terms transcription and translation may remember that the protein-manufacturing
stations, called ribosomes, are found outside the
nucleus, in the cytoplasm. How does the code
DNA ‘code words’ for amino acids pass from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the
How does the DNA in the genes instruct the cell cytoplasm? It is carried by another type of nucleic
to make particular proteins? The following points acid, called messenger RNA (mRNA).
are important in understanding this link:
Transcription and translation
■ Each gene carries a series of coded instructions
The mRNA is made by a process called
(‘code words’) for the synthesis of proteins.
transcription, which literally means ‘cross
■ Each ‘code word’ on the DNA is made up of
writing’. The base sequence in the DNA is
three bases (three ‘letters’) in a certain sequence.
transcribed into another base sequence in the
■ Each ‘code word’ – called a triplet – corresponds
mRNA, using very similar base pairing rules to
to a single amino acid in a protein.
those used in the replication of DNA. There is one
The sequence of bases in DNA is therefore a series important difference – RNA never contains the
of coded instructions for the building up of amino base thymine (T). Thymine is replaced by a fifth
acids into proteins. The proteins then give the base called uracil (U) so instead of the base pair
cell or organism a particular characteristic. This A–T used in DNA replication, in transcription we
relationship between DNA bases and amino acids have the base pair A–U.
is called the genetic code, and is outlined below.
Once it has been made, the mRNA leaves the
nucleus and travels to the ribosomes. The
A DNA strand carries instructions in the form
sequence of bases in the mRNA is used to build
of three-letter ‘code words’ called triplets.
up a sequence of amino acids into a protein in the
G
ribosome. This process is called translation – it
This triplet instructs the cell to build one
A
particular amino acid into a protein ... involves rewriting the language of bases into
T
a language of amino acids. The processes of
transcription and translation are outlined in the
A
diagram on the next page.
This triplet instructs the cell to build a
G
different amino acid into the protein ... Summary of replication, transcription
T and translation
T It is quite easy to confuse the various processes
involving nucleic acids. Remember:
C and another different amino acid ...
■ Replication makes a DNA copy, using DNA.
A
■ Transcription makes mRNA, using DNA.
G ■ Translation makes protein, using mRNA.
G and another different amino acid ...
p The four different bases in DNA can be arranged in

enough different triplets to code for all 20 amino acids
normally found in a cell.
196
DNA Transcription
The base-pairing rules G–C and A–U are used to
make a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule against
one strand of the DNA double helix.
mRNA
Translation
Genetic coding rules are used to make a
protein (string of amino acids) against
Nuclear membrane the strand of mRNA.
Nucleus Protein tRNA

mRNA leaves nucleus
through small holes in
amino
the nuclear membrane.
acid
Cytoplasm
Ribosome – an organelle, present Transfer RNA (tRNA)
in the cytoplasm or on rough brings amino acids to
endoplasmic reticulum (page 17) the ribosome.
that links amino acids into proteins.
Summary These processes are extremely rapid. It only takes

about 10 seconds for a ribosome to build up a molecule
of haemoglobin (which contains over 600 amino acids!).
DNA mRNA protein characteristic The protein haemoglobin gives the characteristic of oxygen
transport to red blood cells.
p How information in DNA codes

for characteristics in cells. Cell specialisation depends on proteins.
■ All body cells in an organism contain the same genes but many genes in a particular
cell are not expressed.
■ The cell only makes the specific proteins it needs to carry out its specialised function.
Q
1 What are the subunits of a nucleic acid called? c What is the importance of the SEQUENCE of organic
2 Name the four bases in DNA. bases along a DNA strand?
3 DNA exists as a double helix. Name the base pairs that Key:
hold the double helix together. Why is base pairing
Organic base Symbol
important?
Adenine (A)
4 Define the term DNA replication.
5 Name four proteins that give particular characteristics X
to named cells. Y
6 Name one process of which DNA replication is a vital part. Guanine (G)
7 The diagram on the right represents the behaviour of
DNA strands during the early part of cell division.
Use the information in the diagram to help you answer
the following questions.
a Identify the organic bases X and Y. (Edexcel June 1995)
b Name the process shown in the diagram.
197
3.17 Cell division

Objectives
chromosomes in an homologous pair have the
■ To understand why it is necessary to copy genetic
same genes in the same positions. The diagram
material accurately
below shows cell division in which the new cells
■ To know that copying division is called mitosis, and
are copies of the parent cell – mitosis.
results in cells with an identical number and type of
chromosomes as their parent cells Mitosis is for growth
■ To know how chromosomes behave during mitosis Both plants and animals grow by mitosis.
■ To know where mitosis takes place in the bodies of
■ In animals each tissue provides its own new
mammals and flowering plants
cells when they are needed, e.g. liver produces
■ To understand the need for a special cell division in the
liver cells.
formation of haploid gametes
■ Stem cells are unspecialised cells that divide
by mitosis to produce daughter cells that can
Mitosis is copying division become specialised for specific functions.
Characteristics are transmitted from one ■ In plants, cell division in the cambium increases
generation of cells to the next. For this to happen, the plant girth (the plant gets thicker), and cell
the chromosomes must be accurately copied and division in the meristems at the tips of the
passed on when cells divide. Each chromosome roots and shoots leads to an increase in length
has a partner, forming homologous pairs. Both (see page 9).
A zygote results from the All cells contain two sets of

DNA is
fusion of egg and sperm. chromosomes e.g. human body
replicated
cells have two sets of 23, a Each chromosome now becomes
exactly.
total of 46 chromosomes. two identical chromatids joined
at the centromere.
For simplicity, only one
homologous pair of Centromere
chromosomes is shown here.
Chromosomes become
Mitosis – copying division which attached to a spindle
produces identical daughter cells (fibres which run from
one pole to the other).
The individual
The centromere divides and spindle fibres chromosomes line
shorten so that the two chromatids in up at the equator
each chromosome separate. They move (midline) of the cell.
to opposite ends of the cell.
An adult human
has about 50
billion cells,
all containing The original cell
the same has now become
genetic two daughter cells:
information identical to The cell
as the zygote. one another membrane
identical to ‘pinches in’
parent cell to separate
same number the two sets
of chromosomes of chromatids
as parent cell. into two cells.
p Mitosis – copying division. Note that cell division is a continuous process. Although the
198 diagram shows mitosis in a series of stages, in reality each stage merges into the next one.
Meiosis is reduction division q Reduction division ensures

During sexual reproduction two gametes fuse to that the number of chromosomes
form the zygote. The gametes must contain only in sexually reproducing organisms
one set of chromosomes, otherwise the zygote is kept constant
would have twice as many chromosomes as it Adult cells contain
needed! This principle is outlined in the diagram chromosomes in
on the right. homologous pairs.
(2n)
Each cell of an organism has a fixed number of
chromosomes within the nucleus. The number of
chromosomes in a normal body cell is the diploid
number (or 2n); the number of chromosomes
in a gamete is the haploid number (or n). Gametes must contain haploid haploid
single chromosomes, (n) (n)
Fertilisation is the fusion of haploid gametes one from each
to restore the diploid number in the zygote. homologous pair.
Gametes are formed by a type of cell division
called meiosis or reduction division, shown in
the diagram below.
Meiosis only happens in the gamete-producing Offspring’s cells contain
diploid
chromosomes in homologous
organs: the testes and the ovaries in animals, and pairs. Each pair contains one
(2n)
the pollen sacs of the stamens and the ovules in chromosome from the mother
and one from the father.
the ovary in plants.
Meiosis is called reduction division because it halves

the number of chromosomes in cells.
For simplicity, only one pair Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up.
Each parent cell contains of homologous chromosomes is This is the key difference from mitosis
two sets of chromosomes. shown here. (and is important in offering
The total number of the chance of variation).
chromosomes,
the diploid number ( 2n), DNA replication – each
is double the number of chromosome becomes two
pairs of chromosomes, identical chromatids.
the haploid number ( n ).
Homologous pairs line
up at cell equator.
Spindle fibres separate
Four gametes, each the whole chromosomes.
Each chromosome The cell divides. Each cell
containing only one set,
separates into two now has only one
the haploid number
chromatids. The chromosome from each
of chromosomes.
cell divides. homologous pair.
Q
1 Cells in bone marrow undergo mitosis. Some of these d The human circulation contains about 5 dm3 of
cells become red blood cells, to replace those lost blood. Each mm3 of blood contains 5 000 000 red
as they wear out. A typical red blood cell lasts for blood cells. (1 dm3  1 000 000 mm3.)
120 days before it is removed from the circulation. i Calculate how many red blood cells there are in
a Suggest why red blood cells last for a short time. the human circulation.
b Which organ removes red blood cells from blood? ii The total number of red blood cells is replaced
c This organ stores the main metal ion that forms part every 120 days. Calculate how many cells are
of the red blood cell. Which ion is this, and what replaced each day. How many are replaced each
molecule is it a part of inside the red blood cell? second?
199
3.18 Inheritance
Objectives
In sexual reproduction, a mixture of genes is
■ To recall the features of sexual and asexual reproduction
passed from parents to offspring. This handing
■ To be able to define the terms gene and allele,
down of genes is not random, and there are
homozygous and heterozygous, dominant and recessive
certain rules that govern how genes will be passed
on and which ones will show up in the offspring.
Reproduction: a reminder
Living organisms can pass on their characteristics
The inheritance of characteristics
Chromosomes carry genetic information as a
to the next generation (reproduce) in two ways
series of genes, such as the gene for eye colour,
(page 160).
the gene for earlobe shape and the gene for hair
Remember, for sexual reproduction: texture. Each chromosome in the nucleus of a
■ two organisms of the same species, one male diploid organism has a partner that carries the
and one female are required same genes. Such a pair of chromosomes is called
■ each individual produces sex cells (gametes) an homologous pair.
■ sexual reproduction always involves Each chromosome in a pair may carry alternative
fertilisation – the fusion of the gametes forms of the same gene. These alternative forms
■ offspring receives some genes from each are called alleles. For example, the gene for eye
parent, so shows a mixture of parental colour has alleles that code for blue or brown. If
characteristics. both alternative alleles are present in a particular
cell nucleus, then the cell is heterozygous for that
characteristic. On the other hand, if the nucleus
carries the same allele on both members of the
homologous pair, then the cell is homozygous.
The meaning of these genetic terms is outlined in
the diagram at the top of the next page.
Sexual reproduction
Diploid (2n) Diploid (2n)

nn nn
cell in testis cell in ovary
Meiosis Meiosis
Haploid (n)
n n n n
gametes
Fertilisation
The offspring is diploid, but

has received one set of genes
nn
from the father (n) and one
set from the mother (n)
200
Eye colour Hair texture Ear shape Each chromosome has a partner that carries the same
genes in the same positions. One of the chromosomes
in this homologous pair came from the mother, and
one came from the father.
Eye Hair Ear
Chromosomes carry genetic information
as a series of genes. Each gene has its own
position on the chromosome.
This is a simplified picture!

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes,
and the biggest chromosomes carry
Eye Hair Ear
more than 1000 genes!
This cell is heterozygous for eye colour

and ear shape (both alternative alleles Blue Straight Lobed Genes code for characteristics,
are present) but homozygous for hair such as having colour in the eye.
texture (only one of the alternative Alleles are different forms of the
alleles is present, although there are gene that code for alternatives of
two copies of it). Two individuals the same characteristic, such
which are homozygous for the same as blue or brown.
characteristic and breed together will The two chromosomes in a
be pure-breeding. This means that the homologous pair can carry
Brown Straight No Lobe
characteristic will always be passed on alternative alleles of the same gene.
to the offspring.
p Diploid organisms have homologous pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus.
In a heterozygous cell, when the members of the homologous pair

separate during meiosis the gametes will contain different alleles.
This means that when gametes fuse at fertilisation, the resulting
zygote may have a number of different possible allele combinations.
The production of gametes and the formation of different zygotes in
this way are explained in the diagram below.
Fertilisation is completely random – either of the male
gametes can fuse with either of the female gametes.
Diploid The easiest way to work out the possible combinations
heterozygous of gametes to form zygotes is to draw out a square like
cell in testis Lobed the one below.
of male
These offspring have
Lobed the heterozygous
Lobed
Meiosis No lobe combination of alleles
No lobe for ear shape. Which
Lobed
characteristic – lobed
Meiosis produces haploid No lobe Lobed or no lobe – will show
gametes which carry only up? This depends
Lobed No lobe
one of the chromosomes which allele is
from each homologous pair. No lobe dominant and which
Lobed one is recessive. The
No lobe dominant allele is the
Lobed one that shows up in
the phenotype of these
No lobe Meiosis No lobe
cells, and the recessive
allele is the one that is
Diploid hidden in the
heterozygous phenotype of
cell in ovary these cells.
of female
p The recombination of alleles during Q

sexual reproduction gives rise to a 1 Define the terms homologous pair, heterozygous and homozygous.
great variation among offspring. This 2 What is the difference between a gene and an allele?
leads to the evolution of new strains, 3 What is a meant by a dominant allele?
races and, eventually, new species.
201
3.19 Studying patterns of inheritance

Objectives
Scientists called geneticists study the inheritance
■ To understand the method for describing genetic crosses
of characteristics by carrying out breeding
■ To know the result of crosses involving two
experiments. There is a conventional pattern for
heterozygous parents
describing the results of such experiments – a
■ To understand the principle of the test cross
sort of genetic shorthand, shown in the
example below.
At fertilisation, any male gamete can fuse with any female gamete
Drawing out chromosomes carrying Consider a cross between a homozygous brown-eyed man (BB) and a homozygous
alleles of genes is very time-consuming. blue-eyed woman (bb):
Geneticists write out the stages of
crosses using symbols to replace the Parents BB × bb
chromosomes and genes. These symbols
should always be identified at the start Gametes B and B b and b
of a cross.
At fertilisation B b
Let B = brown and b = blue Remember, gametes
are haploid so receive
The capital letter is used for the
only one allele from
dominant allele.
Bb the two present in the
Brown (B) and blue (b) are alleles of the parent cell.
A male gamete fuses
gene for eye colour.
with a female gamete
Bb This genotype would
give a brown-eyed
First generation phenotype, since brown
(called the F1 generation) is dominant to blue.
Now consider a cross between two heterozygous parents (Bb), i.e. with the same
genotype as the F1 above:
Parents Bb × Bb
Gametes B and b B and b At fertilisation,

any male gamete
At fertilisation can fuse with any
b B female gamete.
Male Female
Bb
B b
BB bb
Bb
F1 generation
Genotype BB Bb Bb bb
Phenotype brown brown brown blue
3 brown 1 blue
The inheritance of eye colour. There are two important points about this cross.
In theory a cross between two heterozygous
parents should produce offspring in the ratio 1 These results are probabilities (chances). The offspring should be in the 3:1 ratio
of 3 showing dominant to 1 showing recessive. shown, but each fertilisation is random so they may not be. This ratio is more
This can be restated as: ‘The probability of any likely to be seen in very large numbers of offspring. For human families a 3:1
offspring showing dominant is 3/4 or 75%;
the probability of it showing recessive is 1/4 ratio is unlikely since very few mothers give birth to four children at one time.
or 25%’. 2 Every cross between the same two parents is a different event. If two
heterozygous parents produce a child with blue eyes (a 1/4 probability)
202 there is still a 1/4 probability that their next child will have blue eyes.
Test cross The brown-eyed phenotype

could have two different
In the eye colour example, both of the genotypes genotypes.
BB and Bb give the same phenotype – brown
eyes. It might be important to know whether BB To distinguish homozygous brown Bb
from heterozygous brown, they
a particular organism is homozygous or
are each crossed to blue.
heterozygous, particularly in the breeding of
domestic animals. To do this, geneticists use BB × bb Parents Bb × bb
a test cross (often called a back cross to the B or B b or b Gametes B or b * b or b

recessive). The principle is outlined on the right.
All Bb At fertilisation Bb or bb
Reminder! All brown eyed F1 generation 1 brown eyed: 1 blue eyed

Ratio: dominant to recessive Phenotypes of parents
3:1 Both heterozygous *The heterozygous brown
can supply the b allele for If any offspring showing the
1:1 One heterozygous, one recessive characteristic result
a gamete even though it is
homozygous recessive ‘hidden’ in the phenotype from a test cross, the parent
of the diploid parent. must have been heterozygous.
The results of genetic crosses are sometimes

shown as a pedigree. p A test cross can distinguish different genotypes with
the same phenotype
Rules for for
Rules showing a pedigree
showing (‘family
a pedigree tree’)
(‘family tree’)
ThisThis
line line
linkslinks
the the
father andand
father the the
mother
mother A key is used
A key to identify
is used to identify
different phenotypes:
different phenotypes:
ThisThis
line line
linkslinks
the the = ‘normal’ female
parents to their = ‘normal’ female
parents to their
offspring = ‘affected’ female
= ‘affected’ female
offspring
= ‘normal’ malemale
= ‘normal’
= ‘affected’ malemale
= ‘affected’
ThisThis
shows the the
shows offspring fromfrom
offspring the the
same mother
same andand
mother father.
father.
solVing pEdigrEEs – an ExamplE
A A This family
This treetree
family (‘pedigree’) refers
(‘pedigree’) to to
refers
the the
inheritance of fur
inheritance of colour in rabbits.
fur colour in rabbits.
B Brown fur is dominant to white
Brown fur is dominant to white fur. fur.
B
What can can
What you you
deduce about
deduce the the
about
genotype of individuals A, B and
genotype of individuals A, B and C? C?
C C
Let BLet
= Bbrown and b = white
= brown and b = white
andandmustmust be bb, this this
be bb, is the starting
is the point
starting sincesince
point the the
onlyonly
certainly is that
certainly animals
is that animals
withwith
the the
‘recessive’ phenotype
‘recessive’ phenotype mustmust
havehavethe the
homozygous
homozygous recessive genotype.
recessive genotype.
A must be Bb
A must be because
Bb becausehe has brown
he has fur but
brown can can
fur but passpass
on the b allele
on the to one
b allele of his
to one of his
daughters (his (his
daughters partner mustmust
partner be Bbbe too!).
Bb too!).
B must be Bb
B must be for
Bb the same
for the reason
same as Aasis.A is.
reason
C must be Bb
C must be because
Bb becausehe has brown
he has fur but
brown mustmust
fur but havehave
received the the
received b allele fromfrom
b allele his mother.
his mother.
Q
1 Draw a diagram to explain how two brown-eyed 1 showing the recessive characteristic. Explain why
parents can have a blue-eyed child. such crosses rarely give an exact 3:1 ratio.
2 Gregor Mendel suggested that a cross between two 3 Use a suitable example to explain the value of a test
heterozygous individuals produces offspring in a ratio cross.
of 3 showing the dominant characteristic to
203
3.20 Inherited medical conditions and

codominance
Objectives
■ To know some examples of inherited conditions Inherited medical conditions
There are several important medical examples of
■ To understand inheritance when neither allele
is dominant monohybrid inheritance, including albinism and
sickle cell anaemia.
Albinism is caused by a recessive allele.
Let A = normal allele and a = mutant (albino) allele.

If both parents are heterozygous (ie Aa)
Parents Aa × Aa
Gametes A and a A and a
a A
Male Female
Aa
A a
AA aa
Aa
F1 generation
Genotypes AA Aa Aa aa
Phenotype Normal Normal skin Albino:

skin colour colour but genotype pale skin
is carrier of colour
albino (a) allele
3 'normal' skin colour 1 albino–pale skin colour ■ Albinism is caused by a recessive allele.
Heterozygous individuals are not affected by
the condition, but they are carriers of the
mutant, recessive allele.
People with albinism do not produce the
pigment melanin. This pigment normally
makes skin, the iris of the eye and hair
a dark colour. These people have pale
skin, light hair and pink eyes (the pink is
actually the blood in the retina showing
up). They are very sensitive to bright light
and the skin burns very easily in sunlight.
■ Sickle cell anaemia is a condition in
which a homozygote has the disease, but
a heterozygous individual may gain some
benefit in certain environments (see also
page 205).
204
Sickle cell anaemia – carriers are anaemic but are

resistant to malaria Q
Sickle cell anaemia is caused by a recessive allele. 1 Cystic fibrosis is a common inherited disease caused
Let HbS = normal allele and HbA = sickle cell allele. by a recessive allele. A blood test can detect this
Consider a cross between two heterozygous parents: allele. A man and his wife were both found to be
Parents HbSHbA HbSHbA carriers of the cystic fibrosis allele.
a What is meant by a carrier of the allele?
Gametes HbS or HbA HbS or HbA
b Draw a genetic diagram to show the inheritance
F1 generation HbSHbS HbSHbA HbSHbA HbAHbA
of cystic fibrosis in any children of this couple.
What is the chance that a child will have cystic
fibrosis?
Phenotype Phenotype Phenotype 2 Huntington’s disease (HD) is caused by a dominant
– normal – some symptoms – very anaemic, allele (H) – the other allele (h) results in normal
of anaemia, in may well die
working of the central nervous system. This diagram
severe cases may without medical
be very weak care shows how one family is affected by HD.
1st
A
generation
2nd
B C
generation
But ... the s allele gives some

3rd
resistance to malaria so in parts
generation
of the world where malaria occurs,
for example equatorial Africa:
Key
= Normal female
HbSHbS HbSHbA HbAHbA

die of malaria some anaemia, die of anaemia = Normal male
but are resistant
to malaria = Affected female
= Affected male
The inheritance of these two conditions is a What was the genotype of the grandmother, A?
described on these two pages. Explain your reasoning.
b Draw a genetic diagram to show how parents b
Codominance and c passed on HD to their children.
Some genes have more than two alleles. For c If parents b and c have a sixth child, what are the
example, the gene controlling the human ABO chances that it will have HD?
blood groups has three alleles, given the symbols d Most serious genetic diseases are caused by
IA, IB and IO. Neither of the IA and IB alleles is recessive alleles. Explain why a dominant allele
dominant to the other, although they are both that causes a serious disease may quickly
disappear from a population.
dominant to IO. This is called codominance.
3 a Draw a genetic diagram to explain the inheritance
It results in an extra phenotype when both
of blood group in the Wilson family. Mr Wilson
alleles are present together. The genotypes and
has the genotype IAIB and Mrs Wilson has the
phenotypes are shown in the table. genotype IOIO.
Genotype Phenotype b What is the probability of the Wilsons’ first child
IAIA or IAIO Blood group A being female?
IBIB or IBIO Blood group B c What is the probability of this child being female
A B
and having blood group A?
I I Blood group AB
d A person with alleles IA and IB shows the effect of
O O
I I Blood group O
both alleles in the phenotype. What term is used
The human blood groups are easily detected to describe this?
by a simple test on a blood sample.
205
3.21 Sex is determined by X and Y

chromosomes
Objectives
Note that:
■ To understand how sex is determined and inherited
in humans ■ The man’s sperm determines the sex of his
■ To know that some genes are sex linked children since the woman can only produce
■ To understand the pattern of inheritance of gametes with an X chromosome.
sex-linked genes ■ The sex chromosomes carry genes concerned
with sexual development, such as development
The photograph below shows a complete set of of the sex organs and position of fat stores.
human chromosomes (a karyotype). When all of ■ The sex chromosomes also carry a few genes
the chromosomes are arranged in pairs, there that code for characteristics that are not
may be two left over which differ in size and concerned with sex. Since these genes are
do not form an homologous pair. These are the carried on the sex chromosomes, they may
sex chromosomes. The importance of these sex show their characteristics only in one sex.
chromosomes is outlined below. For example the gene for colour blindness is
carried on the X chromosome. We say that colour
blindness is sex linked.
q The inheritance of sex

Each human body cell has 46 chromosomes. There are
22 pairs of chromosomes plus another two chromosomes
which may not look alike. These are the sex chromosomes.
Female cells have two sex chromosomes that are alike
(called XX) and male cells have two sex chromosomes that
are not alike (XY).
Cell in testis Cell in ovary

(male sex organ) (female sex organ)
XY XX
p A karyotype – a photograph of human chromosomes

Meiosis Meiosis
arranged in pairs. The 23rd pair is an X and a
Y chromosome – this cell comes from a male.
X or Y X or X
XY
XX XY
XX Theoretical sex ratio is

1 male : 1 female
206
The inheritance of sex- Male (XY) Female (XX)
linked characteristics The genes concerned with sex

One well-known sex-linked are located on this part of the
characteristic is red-green colour sex chromosomes.
blindness. This is a disease in

which the person cannot tell This part of the sex
Gene for colour chromosomes can carry genes
the difference between red vision – the not concerned with sex.
and green. It is an X-linked recessive allele
causes colour
condition. The inheritance of Any allele, dominant or
blindness.
this disease is shown below. recessive, located in this
region will show up in the
Haemophilia (a failure in blood
phenotype of the male
clotting) is inherited in a similar (because he has only
way – there are many more one copy).
males than females who cannot

clot their blood efficiently. p Any gene carried on the sex chromosomes is sex-linked
The inheritance of colour blindness For haemophilia
Let C = normal allele and Consider a cross between a carrier woman and Parents XHXh × XHY
c = mutant allele. a normal man: Female – normal Male – normal
Because these alleles are carried on phenotype but phenotype
the X chromosome, it is necessary to Parents XCY × XCXc a carrier of the
show the sex chromosomes in the mutant allele
Male: not Female:
pattern of inheritance. For example:
colour blind carrier
Gametes XH Xh XH Y
Female
XCXc Gametes XC Y XC Xc
F1 generation
Female, so two Heterozygous for F1 generation
X chromosomes colour blindness gene XhXH
Male X CY
X CY Remember – no XHXH XhY
‘colour blindness’ XcY
XCXC
Male, so only one gene on the XHY
Y chromosome Colour-
X chromosome
XCXc blind male
Airline and military pilots must be tested Carrier Female Key

for colour blindness, red and green signals
mean very different things! Carrier female Normal male/female
Male with haemophilia
Q
1 Use a simple genetic diagram to explain why there are 3 Haemophilia is a sex-linked characteristic. The diagram
approximately equal numbers of male and female babies. above shows how the allele for haemophilia is inherited.
2 Why are males more likely to have red–green colour a Explain why the mother is described as a carrier of
blindness than females? How could you explain, this condition.
genetically, a colour-blind female? b If she has one child, what is the probability of her
having a haemophiliac son?
207
Questions on inheritance
1 The figure below shows family tree for a 3 a Describe the effect sickle cell anaemia has
condition known as nail-patella syndrome (NPS). on red blood cells.
Key b i The allele for normal haemoglobin
1 2 production is IN. The allele for sickle
female without NPS
cell haemoglobin production is IS. Two
female with NPS
parents who are heterozygous have a
male without NPS
3 4 5 6 7 child. With the help of a genetic diagram,
female with NPS predict the probability that this child
8 9 would be heterozygous.
Key
ii Explain why, under some circumstances,
people who are heterozygous for this
2 female without NPS
condition have a greater chance of
female with NPS
survival than homozygous people.
male without NPS Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
5 6 7
female with NPS Paper 3 Q7 November 2005
8 9 4 a Select the correct term from the list below

and write it in the box next to its description.
a i State whether NPS is controlled by a
dominant or a recessive allele. allele dominant gene
ii Explain which evidence from the family genotype heterozygous homozygous
tree confirms your answer to (i). phenotype recessive
b Explain what the chances are for a third child
of parents 6 and 7 having NPS. You may use description term
a genetic diagram to help your explanation. a form of a gene that always has
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 its effect when it is present
Paper 2 Q7 May 2008 a form of a gene that codes for one
2 Choose words from the list to complete each of of a pair of contrasting features
the spaces in the paragraph. Each word may be an organism having two different
used once only and some words are not used all. forms of a gene for a particular
feature
allele diploid dominant
gene haploid heterozygous the alleles that an organism has in
its chromosomes
homozygous meiosis mitosis
recessive
In humans there is a condition known as cystic b Two red flowered plants were crossed. The
fibrosis. seeds produced were germinated and grew
This is controlled by a single into 62 white flowered plants and 188 red
which has two forms. One form causes cystic flowered plants.
fibrosis while the other does not. i Which flower colour is controlled by the
Gametes are formed by . When recessive form of the gene?
two humans reproduce, their gametes fuse at ii Using the symbols R and r, construct a
fertilisation to form a zygote. genetic diagram to explain the results of
Neither of the two humans has cystic fibrosis this cross.
but one of their three children does have the iii One of the white flowered offspring was
condition. This means that cystic fibrosis is crossed with a red flowered offspring.
controlled by a allele and that Predict the two possible ratios of red and
each of the parents is . white flowered plants that their seeds
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 would produce.
Paper 2 Q4 November 2008 Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
Paper 2 Q5 May 2005
208
5 The figure shows a method used by a student Using the information in the table above and
to understand how characteristics are inherited crosses V and W,
when two plants of species X are crossed. Both i state which colour is dominant and
cubes had three of their faces marked with the which of cross V and cross W could
letter T and three with the letter t. produce the results seen in the table.
Shaking ii Explain why you chose this cross.
c i Using the letters T and t, draw a full
genetic diagram for another cross, Y,
between plants of species X shown below.
parental generation: red  yellow
cross Y
offspring: red flowers and yellow flowers
ii In the method shown in the figure above,

the student put T on three faces and t on
the other three faces of each cube, so that
cube 1 had T, T, T, t, t, t and cube 2 T, T,
T, t, t, t.
State what letters the student should
write on the faces of each cube to
represent the cross in (c) (i).
Cube 1 Cube 2
Cambridge O Level Biology 5090
Paper 2 Q5 May 2006
In this example, the letters appearing on the 6 The gene for the ABO blood group has three
upper faces are Tt. alleles, IA, IB and I°.
The student shook each container and then a A person with blood group O has parents
tipped both cubes out at the same time and who have blood groups A and B. Complete
recorded the letters appearing on the upper the genetic diagram to show how this is
faces of the cubes. possible.
The student tipped both cubes out a total of Use the symbols, IA, IB and I°, for the blood
405 times. group alleles.
a i Copy and complete the table to show the
parental phenotypes blood group A  blood group B
results obtained.
parental genotypes 
letters appearing on the upper faces tt TT Tt
of the cubes gametes 
number of times each pair of 98 ....... 202
letters appeared offspring genotype
ii State what the letters on the faces of the offspring phenotype blood group O
cubes represent.
b Use your answer to a to give examples of the
iii State the reason for shaking the containers.
following. The first one has been completed
b In living plants of species X, items T and t
for you.
control flower colour. The genetic diagrams
below show a sequence of crosses (V and W) term example
between plants of species X, some with red a dominant allele IA
flowers and some with yellow flowers.
Heterozygous genotype
parental generation: red  yellow
cross V codominant alleles
F1 generation: all red flowers
phenotype
F1 generation from cross V: red  red

cross W
F2 generation: red flowers and yellow flowers
209
3.22 Variation
Objectives
46
■ To recall that living organisms differ from
one another 42
Percentage of British population in each category

■ To distinguish between continuous and discontinuous
variation Discontinuous variation
is due to the effect of
genes only.
Living organisms differ from one another. Even
members of the same species have slightly different
The bar chart of
sets of characteristics. Some of these differences ‘percentage in class’
are inherited from their parents, and others are cannot become a
smooth curve because
the result of the environment. The differences there are no
between individuals of the same species are called intermediate classes.
variations. Scientists who study variation are
interested in questions such as:
9
■ Are all of the variations of the same type? There can be no dispute
about these categories
■ How do the variations come about?
– in the ABO blood group
■ How are the variations in characteristics 3
system there can only be
passed on from parents to offspring? AB A B O A, B, AB or O.
■ What is the importance of these variations? p Human blood groups are an example of discontinuous
variation. Another example is gender – you are either male
There are two types of variation – discontinuous
or female.
variation and continuous variation.
Discontinuous variation ■ These characteristics are usually

Characteristics that show discontinuous variation
quantitative – they can be measured.
have several features:
■ They result from several genes acting together,
■ An organism either has the characteristic or or from both genes and the environment.
it doesn’t have it. There is no range of these
characteristics between extremes. An organism An example of continuous variation is shown in
can easily be placed into definite categories, the diagram at the top of the opposite page.
and there is no disagreement about the Characteristics can be both
categories.
discontinuous and continuous
■ These characteristics are usually qualitative –
Some characteristics are difficult to classify as
they cannot be measured.
either discontinuous or continuous variation.
■ They are the result of genes only – they are not
Human hair colour, for example, appears in a
affected by the environment.
range from black to blond with many intermediate
An example of discontinuous variation is shown colours (it shows continuous variation as a result of
in the diagram above right. the involvement of many genes). However, the gene
for red hair is masked by every other hair colour
Continuous variation gene (which gives a discontinuous situation – hair
Characteristics that show continuous variation is either red or not red). Eye colour can be
have different features: identified as brown or not brown, which would
■ Every organism within one species shows the classify it as a discontinuous variation, or it can
characteristic, but to a different extent. The be put into a range of many intermediate classes,
characteristic can have any value within a range. which would make it a continuous variation. A
Different scientists might well disagree about simple guideline is: ‘if it can be measured and given
210 which category any single organism falls into. a numerical value, it is a continuous variation’.
Continuous variation is due to the combined

Number of 11-year-old effects of genes and the environment.
children in each class
The bar chart of ‘number in class’ can be redrawn as a
smooth curve because there are many possible
intermediate classes between the two extremes (the
curve becomes smoother if the classes become smaller,
e.g. 1 cm rather than 5 cm).
There could be a dispute about the boundary of these

9
9
5–
0–
5–
0–
5–
0–
5–
0–
5–
classes. One observer might use, for example, 127–31,
12
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
16
Classes: height / cm 132–6, etc. rather than the boundaries shown.
p Human height is an example of

continuous variation. Other examples
Phenotype and genotype
include quantitative characteristics such Variations in characteristics allow us to recognise different
as chest circumference, body mass and organisms, and to place them in different categories. The overall
hand span. appearance of an organism is a result of the characteristics that it has
inherited from its parents and the characteristics that result from the
Francis Galton was a cousin of Charles effects of the environment. The following equation summarises this:
Darwin. He investigated intelligence as
an example of phenotype, and believed
that 'nature' (genotype) was much more
important than 'nurture' (environment).
phenotype  genotype  effects of the environment
He suggested that: the observable the full set of
a children from families where the
parents were uneducated would characteristics genes it possesses
always have low intelligence of an organism
b females were less intelligent than
males – he suggested the 'ideal' child
would be born to 'a man of genius
Some characteristics result from both genes and environment. For
and a woman of wealth'.
His ideas have rightly been updated, example, a bean seedling has the genes to develop chlorophyll (and
but he does deserve some credit – his turn green) but it won’t do so unless it receives enough light. A
studies showed that identical twins
were genetically the same. young mammal has the genes to develop a rigid bony skeleton, but
it won’t do so unless it receives calcium in its diet.
Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. 3 Two students in the first year of secondary school were
Variation occurs in two forms, , which shows clear- carrying out a mathematical investigation. They decided
cut separation between groups showing this variation, to measure the heights of all of the other students in
and , in which there are many intermediate forms their class. The results are shown in the table below.
between the extremes of the characteristic. The first of a Plot these results as a bar chart.
these is the result of alone, whilst the second is also b Does this illustrate continuous or discontinuous
affected by factors. The sum of the genes that an variation? Explain your answer.
organism contains is called its and the total of all its c Suggest one characteristic that the students could
observable characteristics is called the . have recorded to illustrate the other kind of variation.
The two are related in a simple equation: equals
plus . Height category / cm Number in category
2 Which of the following is an example of discontinuous 121–125 2
variation? 126–130 4
Body mass, chest circumference, blood group, hairstyle, 131–135 9
height
136–140 6
Explain:
141–145 4
a why you chose one of these characteristics
146–150 1
b why you rejected the others. 211
3.23 Causes of variation

Objectives
Chromosome mutations occur when
■ To identify mutation and sexual reproduction as sources
cell division fails to work with complete
of variation
accuracy. For example, when human gametes
■ To understand that mutations may involve whole
are formed each gamete should receive 23
chromosomes or genes within them
chromosomes. Occasionally an error occurs.
■ To recognise that environmental factors may increase
the likelihood of mutation The consequences of chromosome mutations
are often serious.
Gene mutations occur when part of the base
Permanent changes to the phenotype sequence of the DNA on a single chromosome
Permanent characteristics that can be inherited are is changed. As a result a defective protein may
due to the genetic make-up of an organism. This be produced, or no protein at all. This can lead
may be altered, thereby increasing variation, as a to a considerable change in a characteristic.
result of mutation or of sexual reproduction. There are many examples, including sickle cell
Mutation anaemia, shown below.
A mutation is a change in a gene or chromosome Beneficial mutations
and can arise because of: Not all mutations are harmful. Many of them give
■ mistakes in the copying of DNA as cells get ready benefits to the organisms that have them, and aid
to divide – pairing with the ‘incorrect’ base adaptation to the environment (see page 214).
■ damage to the DNA – some environmental Some may cause harm in one environment but be a
factor might alter the bases present in the DNA benefit in another! Sickle cell anaemia is an example
■ uneven distribution of chromosomes during of this (see page 205) people who are heterozygous
the division of cells. for sickle cell anaemia are resistant to malaria.
Haemoglobin gene
Normal gene for
has mutated – one
haemoglobin
base has changed
Normal mRNA made Faulty mRNA made

by transcription by transcription
Weakness
Aching joints
Normal haemoglobin Poor circulation Faulty haemoglobin
made by translation made by translation
p Sickle cell anaemia. (A sickle has a curved blade for

cutting grass.)
212
Radiation can increase mutation rates Mutations may be linked with cancer. A mutagen
Mutations occur spontaneously (for no apparent that causes uncontrolled cell division is called a
reason), though they are very rare events. carcinogen (‘cancer maker’).
However, a number of factors (called mutagens)
Sexual reproduction leads to variation
can increase the rate of mutation. Important
Sexual reproduction mixes up genetic material
mutagens are:
in three ways, as shown below, producing new
■ radiation – gamma, ultraviolet and X-radiation genotypes and so variations in phenotype.
can all damage DNA and so cause mutations
■ chemicals – tars in tobacco smoke, high
concentrations of some preservatives and some
plant control hormones can cause mutation.
Crossing over
Homologous
chromosomes
pair up as Genetic material New
meiosis begins. is exchanged combination
between of genetic
chromatids. Virtually limitless number
material.
of different gametes
Fertilisation
Both of these occur randomly in the production
of both male and female gametes.
Any male gamete
can combine with
Independent assortment any female gamete
There are four

different gametes
from just two pairs
of chromosomes.
Homologous pairs may or
Each human produces
line up in different ways,
many different
producing different
gametes
combinations of genes Enormous variation
in this way.
in the gametes. amongst offspring
p Crossing over, independent assortment and fertilisation all lead to variation. There is very
little chance that any two gametes from one individual will be identical. The combined effects of
mutation and sexual reproduction lead to enormous variation between individuals.
Q
1 What is a gene mutation? Give an example of: 2 What is a carcinogen?
a a harmful Give two examples of carcinogens.
b a beneficial 3 How does sexual reproduction lead to variation
gene mutation. amongst members of a population?
213
3.24 Variation and natural selection: the

evolution of species
Objectives
■ To understand the meaning of adaptation, and to
provide examples of this
■ To realise that Darwin’s theory benefited from the ideas
of other scientists
Adaptation
As we have seen, living organisms differ from
one another. Some of these variations make an
organism well suited to its environment, some
make no difference, and others make the organism
less well suited to its environment. An organism
that is well suited to make the most of the limited
resources within its environment is said to show
adaptation to its environment, as shown opposite.
The cactus (a xerophyte) and the water lily (a
hydrophyte) (see page 81) are both well adapted to
their environments.
Organisms that are well

adapted show high fitness - Other species similar
the probability that an to the large ground
organism will survive and finch had adapted to
reproduce in the environment take advantage of the
in which it is found. feeding opportunities
An adaptive feature on the different
(adaptation) is an inherited islands. Darwin
functional feature of an suspected that they
organism that increases its had evolved from the
fitness. large ground finch.
p A lion has adaptations that enable it to capture prey Evolution by natural selection
efficiently. These are: At the time that Darwin lived, most people
■ structural (e.g. teeth and claws) believed that each species was fixed, and had
■ biochemical (e.g. extra protein-digesting enzymes)
been put on Earth in its current form by a
■ behavioural (e.g. hunting in groups).
creator – God. Darwin thought that species
were not fixed, and that they changed through
The work of Charles Darwin*
time to produce new species. He called this
Charles Darwin (1809–82) was a British naturalist
changing through time evolution. At first
who took part in a world voyage on a ship called
he was unable to convince other scientists
HMS Beagle. The voyage, which began in 1831
because he could not suggest a mechanism for
and lasted for five years, allowed Darwin to see
evolution. However, he eventually published his
many examples of adaptations. His most famous
ideas in a famous book, The Origin of Species
observations were made on the Galapagos Islands
by Means of Natural Selection. An outline of the
off the west coast of South America. Some species
events leading to this publication is shown on
seemed to have adaptations to life on particular
the opposite page.
islands, but had similarities, and Darwin suspected
214 that they all originated from a single species.
As a result of many observations made

during his voyage on HMS Beagle, Charles
Darwin began to think that living organisms
could change in structure. Darwin suggested
that species became adapted to meet the
challenges of their environment.
The Rev. Thomas Malthus was a mathematician Charles Lyell was a geologist who showed
who showed that populations of living organisms that the Earth's rocks were very old. He
would increase indefinitely unless they were kept pointed out that rocks of different ages
in check by limited resources. contained the fossilised remains of
different animals and plants.
Darwin proposed a mechanism of

evolution by natural selection
Alfred Russell Wallace was a

professional animal collector
working in Malaysia. He wrote
to Darwin, and Darwin realised
that Wallace had reached the
same conclusions about natural
selection.
Darwin was stung into action, and published

his ideas in The Origin of Species.
p Darwin and The Origin of Species
Update! We can now

Q
define natural selection 1 What is meant by the term adaptation?
as the greater chance of
2 Name one animal and one plant with which you are familiar, and describe
passing on genes by the
best adapted organisms. how each is adapted to its environment.
215
3.25 Natural selection

Objectives
If two populations of this antelope were
■ To understand how adaptation leads to natural selection
separated from one another, natural selection
might favour different adaptations in the two
Darwin’s ideas about natural selection can be environments. Eventually the two different
summarised under a number of headings, as populations of antelope could have so many
shown in the diagram below. different adaptations that they can no longer
interbreed – they are said to be different species.
Natural selection may lead to new
species i
Some organisms are better suited to their Alternative theories of evolution
Early scientists and religious leaders believed that a
environment than others. These organisms
creator had placed all living organisms on the Earth
will be more likely to survive and breed
in their present-day forms. Even once the evidence for
than some of their competitors. Because of evolution had been accepted, not everyone agreed with
this, the characteristics they possess will Darwin’s idea of natural selection. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
become more common in the species over was a Frenchman who lived about 70 years before
successive generations. If we consider one Darwin. He believed that organisms adapted to their
environment by ‘use and disuse’, that is, a giraffe might
such characteristic, for example neck length
gain a long neck by stretching up for food in a tall tree.
in antelopes, we should be able to draw a
However, Lamarck was never able to show how these
graph showing how this characteristic is acquired characteristics could be passed on from one
distributed in the population (see page 211). If generation to another. The major difference between
the environment applies a selection pressure the theories of Darwin and Lamarck was that:
such as a limited availability of leaves for food, ■ Lamarck suggested that the environment caused
the variations
one part of the population may be favoured.
■ Darwin suggested that the environment selected the
In a few generations’ time the graph may look
variations, which had arisen purely by chance.
rather different, as shown on the opposite page.
Over-production – all organisms produce more Survival of the fittest – individuals that
offspring than can possibly survive, and yet are most successful in the struggle for
populations remain relatively stable. existence (i.e. that are the best
e.g. a female peppered moth may lay 500 suited/adapted to their
eggs, but the moth population does not environment) are more likely to
increase by the same proportion! survive than those without these
advantages.
e.g. peppered moths: dark-coloured
moths resting on soot-covered tree
Struggle for existence – organisms trunks will be less likely to be captured
experience environmental resistance i.e. by predators than light-coloured moths.
they compete for the limited resources
within the environment.
e.g. several moths may try to feed on the
same nectar-producing flower.
Advantageous characteristics are passed on
to offspring – the well-adapted individuals
are more likely to breed than those that are
Variation – within the population there less well-adapted – they pass on their genes
may be some characteristics that make the to the next generation. This process is called
organisms that have them more suited for natural selection.
this severe competition. e.g. dark-coloured moth parents will
e.g. some moths might be stronger fliers, produce dark-coloured offspring.
have better feeding mouthparts, be better
camouflaged while resting or be less
affected by rain.
p Evolution by means of natural selection
216
Forming new species

Height is a characteristic that shows Two populations of the same
continuous variation in antelopes. species could be separated,
e.g. by a mountain range.
Different selection pressures
Natural selection by might exist on opposite sides. Natural selection by food
Number in category
predators, who can see tall availability on high trees

antelopes more easily, favours only, favours the
the small antelopes. tall antelopes.
Small Average Tall

When food is only available from The two populations now have so
high branches, natural selection many different adaptations that
picks out the taller antelopes. they cannot interbreed. They have
Small Average Tall now become two species, e.g. the Small Average Tall
Many generations later dik-dik and giraffe in east Africa.
Many Many
generations generations
Number in category
later later
Small Average Tall

The formation of new species
p The development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria (see page 248) is a well-known example of natural selection
Q
1 Using only the following information, answer
Number of snails
questions a to d.
Cepaea is a type of snail which shows considerable Banded Unbanded Total % Banded
variation in its shell colour. The basic colour can be Live snails 264 296 560 47.0
yellow, brown, fawn, pink, orange or red. Over the top Shell remains 486 377 863 56.0
of this basic colour up to five bands of a darker colour from ‘anvils’
may occur, around the shell. Colour of shell provides in the area
camouflage for the snail because some colours are more c Which type of shell, banded or unbanded, would
difficult to see than others against the background. you expect to occur most frequently in a live snail
Cepaea is an important part of the diet of thrushes. These population
birds collect snails and break open their shells by banging i amongst dead leaves in a wood?
them on a stone. Thrushes tend to use the same stone, ii amongst grasses growing on a sand dune?
called an ‘anvil’, whenever feeding in a particular area. d The main points of the theory of evolution by
It is possible to collect the remains of the shells and natural selection are listed below.
count the number of each shell type. It is also possible A The number of offspring is far greater than the
to collect the live snails in the same area and count the number surviving to adult stage.
numbers of each shell type. B Variation exists among the offspring.
Collections of both live snails and broken shells were C Some variations are useful and help the
made in an area where the ground layer plants gave a organisms to survive.
fairly evenly coloured background. The results are D Competition occurs between the offspring.
shown in the table. E Only those surviving can breed.
a How many more live, unbanded Cepaea were Natural selection can change the proportions of the
collected than banded? different colours in a snail population. Use the five
b Suggest an explanation for thrushes taking more points A to E above to describe how this change
banded snails even where there appear to be more might come about.
unbanded snails in the live populations.
217
3.26 Artificial selection

Objectives
Some examples of artificial selection are shown
■ To understand the process of artificial selection
below and opposite. The same species can be bred
in different ways for different purposes. Early
Making organisms useful to humans horses have become specialised as carthorses or
Variation occurs naturally and randomly in all for racing, for example.
living organisms, but the natural environment
Maintaining variation
is not the only agent of selection. Ever since
What appears to humans as a valuable
early humans began to domesticate animals
characteristic might not always be valuable in
and plants, they have been trying to improve
a natural situation. For example, a Chihuahua
them. This improvement is brought about by
dog would probably not survive in the wild
selecting those individuals that have the most
because its hunting instincts have been bred
useful characteristics and allowing only these
out to make it more suitable as a pet. It is very
individuals to breed. This process is called
important that humans preserve animal and
artificial selection. Humans have replaced the
plant genes for characteristics that do not offer
environment as the agents of selection. There are
any advantage to us at the moment. A cow
many important examples of selective breeding:
with a limited milk yield may carry a gene that
■ Jersey cattle have been bred to produce milk makes it resistant to a disease which is not yet
with a very high cream content. a problem in domestic herds, for example. This
■ All domestic dogs are the same species, but resistance gene might be extremely valuable if
some have been bred for appearance (e.g. ever such a disease did become established. For
Pekinese), some for hunting (Springer Spaniels) this reason many varieties of animals and plants
and some as aggressive guards (Rottweilers). are kept in small numbers in rare-breed centres
■ Wheat has been bred so that all the stems are up and down the country. Plant genes may be
the same height (making harvesting easier) and conserved as seeds, which are easy to store, and
the ears separate easily from the stalk (making some animal genes may be kept as frozen eggs,
collection of the grain easier). sperm or embryos.
In this group of calves, two are larger Artificial insemination

than the others. Large cattle carry Male animals, no matter how many useful
more meat so are valuable to a characteristics they have, cannot give
butcher. birth to young animals! So:
These two animals with the Most male offspring will be fattened
desirable characteristic are allowed up for selling as meat.
to breed, and produce a litter. ‘Desirable’ males may be electrically
stimulated to ejaculate – the sperm is
To increase the chances that the collected and frozen. One male can
two individuals will mate, the easily produce several hundred samples.
cattle breeder will spray cattle sex The sperm can be taken to a cattle
hormones in the breeding pen. breeding farm and used to inseminate
many females.
If the ‘size’
characteristic
A very large individual is inherited, the
may be mated with one next generation
of its parents. may contain
individuals
that are even
bigger.
Even larger animal
with more meat.
218
Cabbage Cauliflower
The plant breeder can transfer pollen from the

stamen of one flower to the stigma of another
Select for large (using a fine paintbrush). The pollinated flower
Kohlrabi Select for single flower head. can be protected from unwanted pollination by
large bud. enclosing it in a fine gauze bag. Self-pollination
can be avoided by removing stamens or carpels
from flowers.
Select for a
swollen stem.
Select for many

flower heads Ancestor – a ‘wild
and thick stem. mustard’
Broccoli Select for many

small side buds. Select for
large leaves.
No sex please!
Selective breeding involves the ‘mixing’ of
genes at meiosis and fertilisation. However,
once a plant breeder has bred a plant with
a desirable characteristic, then asexual
reproduction (vegetative propagation) must
be used to make many copies of it.
Brussels sprouts Kale
p Artificial selection has produced many vegetables

from one ancestor species
Q
Three major differences between 1 A potato grower wanted to produce a new variety of
artificial and natural selection potato which grows quickly and makes good chips.
■ In artificial selection, humans are the agents of She has one variety which grows quickly but makes
poor chips, and another which grows more slowly but
selection, while natural selection depends upon
makes good chips.
the natural environment.
When plants of these two varieties produce flowers
■ Artificial selection is much quicker than
she crosses the two varieties. Later she collects the
natural selection.
seeds and plants them.
■ Artificial selection offers no advantage to the a To cross the two varieties, the grower pollinates a
animal or plant in its natural environment. flower of one variety with pollen from the other.
Describe how the grower should do this.
It is likely that selective breeding will be replaced
b From the seeds she collects, she finds that one of the
by genetic engineering in the future. This
new plants grows very quickly and produces potatoes
technique, explained on page 252, is much more
which make good chips. How would she produce a
predictable than selective breeding and produces
crop of potatoes which are exactly the same?
useful results more quickly.
219
Questions on variation
1 Three species of zebra are shown below. ii Suggest which species of zebra lives in
the hottest environment.
c Occasionally, zebras are born that are almost
completely black. The change in appearance
is the result of mutation.
i State the term that is used to describe the
appearance of an organism.
ii Define the term mutation.
Equus burchelli d Tsetse flies attack animals with short fur,
sucking their blood and spreading diseases.
A tsetse fly is shown below. This fly is an
insect, belonging to the arthropod group.
Equus grevyi
i State one feature, visible in this diagram,

which is common to all arthropods.
ii State two features, visible in this
vertical stripe
diagram, which distinguish insects from
other arthropod groups.
e Scientists have discovered that zebras with
horizontal stripe more horizontal stripes attract fewer tsetse
flies.
Equus zebra
i Suggest why the stripes on the head and
neck of the zebra would be an advantage
when it feeds on grass on the ground.
ii Describe how a species of zebra could
gradually develop more horizontal
a Describe one method a scientist could use stripes.
to show that the zebras shown are different Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
species. Paper 3 Variant 1 Q4 May 2008
b Studies have shown that the hotter the

environment, the more stripes zebras have.
i State the type of variation which would
result in different numbers of stripes.
220
2 After an accident at a nuclear power plant in 4 A survey of berries from a number of bushes
1986, particles containing radioactive strontium of one species in a school grounds showed
were carried like dust in the atmosphere. variation in their mass. Berries were collected
These landed on grassland in many European at random and 50 had their mass determined.
countries. When sheep fed on the grass they This table shows the results of their
absorbed the strontium and used it in a similar investigation.
way to calcium.
a Explain where in the sheep you might mass of berry / g
expect the radioactive strontium to become 1.3 0.6 1.6 1.3 1.2
concentrated. 1.0 1.3 1.2 0.4 1.1
b Suggest the possible effects of the radiation, 1.3 0.9 0.4 1.4 1.2
given off by the strontium, on cells in the 1.0 1.0 0.6 1.5 1.2
body of the sheep. 1.1 0.5 1.1 1.3 1.1
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 0.3 1.3 0.5 1.2 0.5
Paper 2 Q3 November 2008 1.1 1.3 1.0 0.6 1.4
3 a The graph below shows the variation in 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.3
the height of human adults in an African 0.6 1.3 1.2 0.7 1.2
population. 0.5 0.6 1.3 1.3 1.4
a i Complete the table below for the number

of berries of mass 1.2 g and 1.3 g.
percentage
of mass of berry / g number of individuals
population 0.3 1
0.4 2
0.5 4
height/cm 0.6 5
0.7 1
State the type of variation shown by this data.
0.8 0
b In Britain 42% of the population have blood 0.9 1
group A. The frequency of the other blood 1.0 4
groups is: B (9%), AB (3%) and O (46%).
1.1 5
i Plot the data as a bar chart.
1.2
ii Complete the following sentence.
1.3
Height is controlled by environment and by
1.4 5
genes but human blood groups are controlled
1.5 1
only by .
1.6 1
c Sometimes human characteristics are
altered by mutations. ii Plot the data in the second table as a
i Define the term mutation. histogram.
ii Suggest two factors that could increase b State, with a reason, the type of variation
the rate at which mutations occur. illustrated by the berries with masses
between 0.3 g and 0.7 g.
Paper 2 Q3 May 2007
221
ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Ecology and ecosystems
Objectives
living organisms – and some are abiotic – the
■ To understand that living organisms require
non-living components of the habitat. Ecology
certain conditions for their survival
is the study of living organisms in relation to
■ To understand that living organisms interact with one
their environment. The interactions between the
another, and with their non-living environment
organism and its environment are summarised
■ To define population, community and ecosystem
below.
■ To realise that available resources change through
the year Changing with the seasons
The ability of the habitat to supply living
organisms with their requirements may vary
Environmental survival kit at different times of year. The ecosystem in the
All living organisms depend upon their
photograph opposite will only exist for a certain
environment for three ‘survival essentials’.
period of time – as food or water becomes
These are a supply of food, shelter from
exhausted some animals may leave. These will
undesirable physical conditions and a breeding
then be followed by the predators which feed on
site. The living organism interacts with its
them. The great animal migrations seen in East
environment – for example, a living plant:
Africa result from the changing conditions in the
■ removes carbon dioxide, water and light
animals’ environment, for example:
energy from its habitat
■ poor rain means little growth of grass
■ may be eaten by an animal or a parasite
■ herbivores leave for areas of fresh growth
■ depends upon soil for support.
■ carnivores follow herbivores
Factors in the environment affect the growth of ■ (then scavengers follow carnivores!).
the plant. Some of these factors are biotic – other
Living together
Carbon dioxide Living organisms normally exist in groups.
Carbon dioxide The names given to these groups, and the way
they interact with the abiotic environment, are
explained opposite.
A living organism
interacts with its
environment
Food Abiotic Biotic (‘living’)

‘Fertiliser’
(‘non-living’) factors e.g.
in faeces
‘Fertiliser’ Food factors predators
in faeces food
Water and mineral mates
ionsand
Water frommineral
soil
ions from soil
A giraffe feeds on a thorn tree. The tree requires water,
mineral
A giraffeions,
feedscarbon dioxide
on a thorn andThe
tree. light to requires
tree grow. The giraffe
water,
may provide carbon dioxide from respiration, and
mineral ions, carbon dioxide and light to grow. The giraffeions Physical e.g. Climatic e.g.
from decomposition
may provide of its faeces.
carbon dioxide from respiration, and ions oxygen and carbon temperature
from decomposition of its faeces. dioxide concentration humidity
light intensity
water availability
222
A population is all of the

members of the same species
(e.g. wildebeest) in a
particular area.
Air, water and soil

A community is all of the
make up the abiotic
populations of living organisms
environment.
in one area (e.g. acacia trees,
zebra, wildebeest and grass).
The community is the biotic
environment.
An ecosystem is all the living organisms and A habitat is a part of the environment that
the non-living factors interacting together can provide food, shelter and a breeding site
in a particular part of the environment. for a living organism (e.g. a patch of grassland).
p Organisms exist in groups within an ecosystem
Q
1 Define the terms population, community and The students measured the amount of sunlight
ecosystem. reaching each layer at different times in the year.
2 Name two abiotic factors that might determine Their results are shown on the graph.
whether or not a habitat is suitable for a living
organism.
3 Suggest two ways in which a plant and an animal in
the same habitat may interact.
Light intensity
4 What must a habitat provide? Light reaching

tree layer
5 How are the following observations related?
■ Very few flying insects are found in Britain during
Light reaching
the winter.
ground layer
■ Swallows migrate to Africa when it is winter in the UK.
■ Hobbies (small bird-eating falcons) leave Britain in Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
late autumn. Month
6 What is meant by the term ecology?
7 a A group of students were studying a forest.They i During which month did most light reach the
noticed that the plants grew in two main layers. They tree layer?
called these the tree layer and the ground layer. ii During which month did most light reach the
ground layer?
iii Suggest why the amount of sunlight reaching
tree layer the ground layer is lower in mid-summer than in
the spring.
b The pupils found bluebells growing in the ground
layer. Bluebells grow rapidly from bulbs. They flower
in April and by June their leaves have died.
i Suggest why bluebells grow rapidly in April.
ii Suggest why the bluebell leaves have died
by June.
ground layer
223
4.2 Flow of energy: food chains and

food webs
Objectives
lost but is converted into some other form.
■ To know that the feeding relationships in an ecosystem
During respiration, some energy is transferred
can be expressed as food chains
to the environment as heat. The flow of energy
■ To understand why energy transfer through an
through a food chain, and the heat losses to
ecosystem is inefficient
the environment, are illustrated in the diagram
■ To understand why complex food webs are
the most stable opposite.
Food webs
Food chains Since so little energy is transferred from the base
The most obvious interaction between different to the top of a food chain, a top carnivore must eat
organisms in an ecosystem is feeding. During many herbivores. These herbivores are probably
feeding, one organism is obtaining food – energy not all of the same species. In turn, each herbivore
and raw materials – from another one. Usually one is likely to feed on many different plant species. All
organism eats another, but then may itself be food these interconnected food chains in one part of an
for a third species. The flow of energy between ecosystem can be shown in a food web.
different organisms in the ecosystem can be The more complicated a food web, the more stable
shown in a food chain, as in the diagram below. the community is. For example, in the forest food
web shown opposite, if the number of squirrels
Energy transfer is inefficient fell, the owls could eat more worms, mice and rats.
The amount of energy that is passed on in a The mice and rats would have less competition for
food chain is reduced at every step. Since energy food from squirrels, and so might reproduce more
can be neither created nor destroyed, it is not successfully.
Sunlight provides the Producers, usually green plants, Consumers are organisms that obtain Secondary consumers
energy to drive the make their own organic nutrients, food energy by feeding on other organisms. are carnivores. They obtain
food chain. usually using energy from sunlight their energy by eating
Primary consumers are herbivores.
through photosynthesis. other animals.
They obtain their energy in food
compounds obtained from producers
(i.e. plants).
Arrows point in
the direction of Secondary consumers may be
energy flow along eaten by tertiary consumers.
the food chain. These longer food chains are
Decomposers, fungi and many bacteria,
more common in aquatic
obtain their energy and raw materials
habitats. The final consumer
from the wastes (e.g. faeces) and remains
in the food chain is called the
(e.g. dead bodies) of other organisms.
top carnivore.
p Food chains show energy flow through an ecosystem. The position of each
organism in the food chain represents a different trophic (feeding) level.
224
Energy transfer
Less than 1% of the Respiration losses occur from each trophic

energy released from level. Respiration is not 100% efficient and
the Sun falls onto leaves. eventually all of this energy is lost as heat.
Because of this, food chains rarely have
more than 4 or 5 trophic levels.
R Energy transfer to Energy transfer to

primary consumer secondary consumer R R
R
is only 5–10%: is between 10% and 20%:
much of plant body animal material has a higher
Energy ‘fixed’ by producers is indigestible energy value
is only 5–8% of the energy consumer rarely eats animal material is more
that falls onto their leaves, whole plant – roots digestible.
because: or stems may be
some is transmitted left behind.
(passes right through)
some is reflected
some is not the correct
wavelength (only red or
blue light is absorbed –
see page 44).
Key
R respiration
Note that energy flow is not cyclic!

chemical
sunlight bond heat
energy Energy transfer to decomposers is very
As a result there must be a variable, but eventually the entire energy content
continuous input of light energy to of the animal and plant remains will be released
‘drive’ life in an ecosystem. as heat from inefficient respiration.
It is more efficient for humans to eat plants

than to feed plants to animals, and then to
eat the animals. Every step in the chain loses
80–90% of the available energy as heat, so THE
FEWER ‘STEPS’ THE BETTER!
A simple forest food web
Trophic level Q
Tertiary 1 Define the terms producer,
Hawk
consumer consumer and decomposer.
Which of these could be
omitted from an ecosystem?
Secondary Explain your answer.
Starling Owl
consumers 2 Write out a food chain from a
named ecosystem which you
have studied.
Primary 3 Why are food chains usually
Snails Woodlice Worms Rats Mice Squirrels
consumers restricted to three or four
trophic levels?
Producers Fallen leaves Living leaves Grasses Seeds
225
4.2 Flow of energy: food chains and food webs
Humans and food webs More examples of feeding relationships

Humans can have negative effects on food chains Food chains and food webs in aquatic (watery)
and food webs environments can be longer than those on the
■ by over-harvesting food species such as cod land. This is because this type of environment
(so species eaten by cod increase in numbers, has space and ideal growth conditions for many
and species which eat cod may switch to eating producers. Even with energy losses at every stage
other foods). there is enough ‘trapped’ energy for more steps in
■ by introducing foreign species to a habitat. the chain. Many of these food chains begin with
Rabbits, for example, were introduced to phytoplankton (tiny green plants) or algae.
Australia for hunting but bred very quickly.
This reduced grass available for native
Australian species.
A freshwater food chain
Algae Water Guppy Bass

(small green fleas (small fish) (large fish)
plants)
Green heron
A seashore food chain

Algae on rocks Crabs Gull
(seaweed) Limpets
The seashore is an excellent environment for animals, at least as

far as food is concerned, because fresh supplies are delivered with
every tide!
Some of the top predators on seashores need so much food that
they need to travel between different parts of the habitat. A gull,
for example, might have to fly to several different parts of the
same shore.
Q
1 Look at the three aquatic feeding relationships shown on this page and the next. Make a table like this one:
Producers Herbivores Carnivores Top carnivores
2 Shark fishing is a popular sport. Explain what might happen if all of the sharks living around a section of reef were
captured by fishermen.
226
Coral reef food web

The most complex food webs are found in the ocean. Catching crabs for human food could:
■ increase number of anemones,
which could…
■ reduce amount of zooplankton,
which could…
■ increase the amount of
phytoplankton, which could…
■ increase the number of jelly fish...
Shark
... OUCH!
Octopus
Sea Turtle
Crab
Butterflyfish
Parrotfish
Anemone
Jellyfish
Coral
Zooplankton
Phytoplankton
Q
3 Use words from the following list to complete the paragraph about ecosystems. You may use each word once, more
than once or not at all.
decomposition, producer, chemical, carnivore, consumer, photosynthesis, energy, light, elements,
decomposers, herbivore.
In each ecosystem there are many feeding relationships. A food chain represents a flow of through an
ecosystem, and always begins with an organism called a which is able to trap energy and convert it to
energy. An organism of this type is eaten by a , which is a kind of that feeds only on plant material.
This type of organism is, in turn, eaten by a (an organism that consumes other animals).
227
4.3 Feeding relationships: pyramids of

numbers, biomass and energy
Objectives
Food chains and food webs provide qualitative
■ To be able to describe pyramids of numbers,
information about an ecosystem – they show which
biomass and energy
organism feeds on which other organism. How do
■ To understand how data can be gathered to make
we show quantitative information, for example
ecological pyramids
how many predators can be supported by a certain
number of plants at the start of the chain? We
can use a pyramid of numbers or a pyramid of
Pyramids of numbers biomass, as shown in the diagram below.
Look at the food chain on page 224. Two things
should be clear: Pyramids of energy*
■ The organisms tend to get bigger moving along A pyramid of biomass describes how much
the food chain. Predators, such as the owl, biomass is present in a habitat at the time the
need to be large enough to overcome their sample is taken. This can be misleading, because
prey, such as the mouse. different feeding levels may contain organisms that
■ Energy is ‘lost’ as heat on moving from one reproduce, and so replace themselves, at different
trophic level to the next, so an animal to the right rates. For example, grass in a field would replace
of a food chain needs to eat several organisms itself more quickly than cattle feeding on the grass,
‘below’ it in order to obtain enough energy. For so when the pyramid of biomass is constructed
example, a rabbit eats many blades of grass. there would be more ‘cattle biomass’ than ‘grass
Pyramid of numbers – a diagrammatic representation Top carnivore

of the number of different organisms at each trophic level
Small carnivore
in an ecosystem at any one time
Herbivore
Note
1 The number of organisms at any trophic level is Producers
represented by the length (or the area) of a rectangle.
2 Moving up the pyramid, the number of organisms But
generally decreases, but the size of each individual wait!
increases.
Problems Bird lice

a The range of numbers may be enormous – 500 000 Tawny owl
grass plants may only support a single top carnivore –
so that drawing the pyramid to scale may be very Blue tits
difficult. Insect larvae
b Pyramids may be inverted, particularly if the Oak tree
producer is very large (e.g. an oak tree) or parasites
feed on the consumers (e.g. bird lice on an owl).
So …
Biomass expressed as
Pyramid of biomass – which represents the biomass Bird lice
units of mass per unit
(number of individuals × mass of each individual) at Tawny owl area (e.g. kg per m2)
each trophic level at any one time. This should solve
the scale and inversion problems of the pyramid of Blue tits
numbers. Insect larvae
Oak tree
p Ecological pyramids represent numerical relationships between successive trophic levels.

The pyramid of biomass is useful because the biomass gives a good idea of how much
energy is passed on to the next trophic level.
228
biomass’ and the pyramid would be inverted. To

overcome this difficulty a pyramid of energy
can be constructed. This measures the amount
of energy flowing through an ecosystem over a
period of time. The time period is usually a year,
since this takes into account the changing rates of
growth and reproduction in different seasons. It
is even possible to add an extra base layer to the p Pyramid of energy: energy values are expressed as units
of energy per unit area per unit time (e.g. kJ per m2 per year)
pyramid of energy representing the solar energy
entering that particular ecosystem.
GatherinG data for ecoloGical pyramids
To construct a pyramid of numbers or of biomass, Wing nut

organisms must be captured, counted and (perhaps)
weighed. This is done on a sample (a small number) of
the organisms in an ecosystem. Counting every
individual organism in a habitat would be extremely
time-consuming and could considerably damage the
1m
environment. Wire
The sample should give an accurate estimate of the total

population size. To do this:
■ The sampling must be random to avoid any bias. For 20 cm 20 cm Metal or
example, it is tempting to collect a large number of wooden
frame
organisms, by looking for the areas where they are
most common. To avoid this, the possible sampling 1m
sites can each be given a number and then chosen
using random number generators on a computer. A quadrat is a square frame made of wood or metal. It is simply
laid on the ground and the number of organisms inside it is counted.
■ The sample must be the right size so that any
‘rogue’ results can be eliminated. For example, a A quadrat is used most commonly for estimating the size of plant
single sample might be taken from a bare patch of populations, but may also be valuable for the study of populations
of sessile or slow-moving animals (e.g. limpets).
earth, whereas all other sites are covered with
vegetation. The single sample from the bare patch
should not be ignored, but its effects on the results
will be lessened if another nine samples are taken.
A mean value can then be used.
Sampling plants and sessile animals

Once the organisms in a sample have been identified
and counted, the population size can be estimated. For
example, if 10 quadrats gave a mean of 8 plants per
quadrat, and each quadrat is one-hundredth of the area
of the total site, then the total plant population in that
area is 8  100  800.
229
4.4 Decay is a natural process

Objectives
■ To understand that nutrients in dead organisms Decomposition by microorganisms
are recycled The remains that are left are decomposed by the
■ To know that the process of decay often begins with the feeding activities of microorganisms. These fungi
activities of scavengers and bacteria feed by secreting enzymes onto the
■ To know how saprotrophic nutrition is responsible for remains and absorbing the digested products.
decomposition This form of nutrition is called saprotrophic
feeding.
The diagram on the opposite page illustrates some
Recycling nutrients
of the features of the decomposition process. The
Humans have an unusual skill – they can
decay process provides energy and raw materials
modify their environment to suit themselves.
for the decomposers. It also releases nutrients from
For example, we cut down forests and plant
the bodies of dead animals and plants, which can
crops, and we build houses. Many building
then be reused by other organisms, for example:
materials are natural, such as wood and straw,
and the environment treats these materials as
the dead remains of once-living organisms – the sugar in dead rabbit
environment reclaims the nutrients and returns respiration by microorganisms
them to the ecosystem. carbon dioxide
photosynthesis in plant
Starting with scavengers
sugar in plant
When an organism dies, the nutrients in its body
are returned to the environment to be reused.
The nutrients are recycled by a series of processes In this way substances pass through nutrient
carried out by other living organisms. The first cycles as microbes convert them from large,
ones to appear are usually the scavengers which complex molecules in animal and plant remains
break up the dead bodies into more manageable to simpler compounds in the soil and the
pieces. Scavengers eat some of the dead body, but atmosphere. The next sections describe the
leave behind blood or small pieces of tissue. recycling of the elements carbon and nitrogen.
Importance of decomposition
i
processes to humans
■ Organic waste in sewage is decomposed and made
‘safe’ in water treatment plants (see page 275).
■ Organic pollutants such as spilled oil may be removed
from the environment by decomposing bacteria (see
page 233).
■ Food is spoiled due to decomposition by fungi and
bacteria. Many food treatments alter physical
conditions to inhibit enzyme activity.
■ Wounds may become infected by saprotrophs,
leading to tissue loss or even to death. Many medical
treatments inhibit the multiplication or metabolism
p Scavengers such as the vulture feed on of saprotrophs.
dead bodies
230
Saprotrophs cause decay.

Cytoplasm
Cells of saprotrophs (bacteria
and fungi) nourish themselves
by secreting enzymes onto ‘food’ Complex organic compounds
and absorbing the products. include fats, proteins and starches.
Cell wall
Lipases
fats fatty acids
+ glycerol
Environmental
Metabolism inside the bacterial Amylase
factors may
or fungal cells uses the absorbed starch maltose
affect
products for respiration or for cell
decomposition*
growth and division. glucose
Absorbed Proteases
simple compounds protein amino acids
Absorption by
diffusion and/or
by active transport.
Antiseptics and disinfectants
kill the living organisms that
carry out the decay process. Simple compounds
Good news! in hospitals and include fatty acids,
for food preservation glucose, amino acids
but and mineral salts.
Bad news! in compost heaps
and in sewage works.
*Oxygen is required for aerobic *Water – many decomposition

*Heat – for rapid decomposition, respiration, which releases energy reactions are hydrolysis reactions,
need to maintain an optimum in bacteria and fungi to drive their i.e. they use water to split chemical
temperature for the activity of metabolism. In the absence of bonds. Water is also necessary to
enzymes. Heat is generated by oxygen decomposition is slow and dissolve the breakdown products
the respiration that occurs during very smelly, as methane and before they can be absorbed by the
the decomposition process. hydrogen sulfide may be produced. saprotrophs or other organisms.
Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. 2 Gardeners often place vegetable waste on a compost
During the process of decay, and convert heap. Over the course of time the waste will be
complex chemicals into ones. For example, decomposed.
proteins are converted to , and to fatty a What do gardeners gain from the decomposed
acids and glycerol. These decay processes involve the waste?
biological catalysts called , and so the processes b Why do gardeners sometimes spray water over the
are affected by changes in and . Humans heap in warm summer weather?
exploit decay, for example in the treatment of to c Why do gardeners often build compost heaps on a
provide drinking water, and may deliberately limit pile of loose-fitting sticks or bricks?
decay, for example in the preservation of .
231
4.5 The carbon cycle

Objectives
■ Sometimes conditions are not suitable for
■ To recall why living organisms need carbon-containing
respiration by decomposers, and carbon
compounds
dioxide remains ‘locked up’ in complex carbon
■ To appreciate that carbon is cycled between complex
compounds in the bodies of organisms.
and simple forms by the biochemical processes of
photosynthesis and respiration For example, anaerobic, low pH or extreme
■ To understand that formation and combustion temperature conditions will inhibit
of fossil fuels may distort the pattern of the carbon cycle decomposition – this is how fossil fuels
have been laid down in environments where
decomposition is not favoured.
Carbon-containing nutrients – ■ Over millions of years the formation of fossil
a reminder fuels has removed carbon dioxide from the
The Sun keeps supplying energy to food chains. environment. Humans have exploited fossil
However, the supply of chemical elements to living fuels as a source of energy over a relatively
organisms is limited, and these elements must short time, and the combustion of oil, gas,
be recycled. The nutrient elements are cycled coal and peat has returned enormous volumes
between simple forms in the non-living (abiotic) of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. As a
environment and more complex forms in the result carbon dioxide concentrations are
bodies of living organisms (the biotic component increasing (see page 265).
of an ecosystem). Living organisms require ■ The burning of biomass fuels such as wood
carbon-containing compounds as: and alcohol uses up oxygen also returns carbon
■ a source of energy, released when carbon- dioxide to the atmosphere, and can have a very
containing compounds are oxidised during severe local effect although worldwide it is less
respiration (particularly carbohydrates and significant than the combustion of fossil fuels.
fats)
The way in which these different processes
■ raw materials for the growth of cells
contribute to the cycling of carbon is illustrated
(particularly fats and proteins).
opposite.
Recycling carbon compounds
Plants, and some bacteria, manufacture these
compounds from carbon dioxide during the Q
process of photosynthesis (see page 38). Animals 1 Refer to the carbon cycle opposite.
obtain them in a ready-made form by feeding a Name the simple carbon compound present in the
on other living organisms (see page 52), and abiotic part of the ecosystem.
decomposers obtain them as they break down the b Name two compounds present in the biotic part
dead bodies or wastes of other living organisms. of the ecosystem.
c Which processes raise the concentration of carbon
These processes of feeding, respiration,
dioxide in the atmosphere?
photosynthesis and decomposition recycle the
d Which process reduces carbon dioxide
carbon over and over again. Theoretically, the
concentration in the atmosphere?
amount of carbon dioxide fixed by photosynthesis e Name the process that distributes carbon dioxide
should equal the amount released by respiration. throughout the atmosphere from places where it
As a result the most accessible form of carbon is released.
in the non-living environment, that is carbon f Suggest a reason why some fossil fuels were
dioxide, remains at about the same concentration formed as sediments at the bottom of ancient seas.
year after year after year (about 0.03% of the
atmosphere). Other processes may affect this
regular cycling of carbon.
232
The processes of photosynthesis, feeding, death, excretion and

respiration lead to the cycling of carbon between living organisms
and their environment. Fossil fuel formation and combustion affect
the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis – uses light energy Organic compounds in plants

to convert carbon dioxide into
organic compounds in plants. Carbohydrates and fats
Proteins
The amount of respiration in Carbon dioxide

the different groups of living (CO2) in air
organisms varies: and water
overall, plants respire less Feeding
than they photosynthesise
(otherwise they would
not grow) Respiration – converts carbohydrates
decomposer respiration can to carbon dioxide with the release of
be very high in some energy
environments, e.g. the warm,
moist conditions on the
floor of a rainforest, and Organic compounds in animals
decomposers can contribute Carbohydrates and fats
80% of the CO2 in that
environment.
Combustion – releases
carbon dioxide by the
burning of fossil fuels.
This increases the Proteins
concentration of CO2
available in the
environment.
Organic compounds Death and

in fossil fuels e.g. excretion
peat, coal, oil provide plant
and animal
material for
decay
Organic compounds in
POLLUTO decomposers – bacteria
– lead and fungi
free
Some conditions e.g. low temperature,

low oxygen concentration and low pH
prevent action of decomposers. This
leads to carbon compounds being ‘locked
up’ in fossil fuels. Fossil fuel formation
lowers the concentration of CO2 which
is available in the environment, as it
continues to be removed by photosynthesis.
p The carbon cycle 233

4.6 The nitrogen cycle

Objectives
to use so much nitrogen-containing fertiliser.
■ To recall why nitrate is an essential mineral for plant
This saves money, and also limits pollution of
growth
water (see page 268).
■ To know how nitrate is made available in the soil
■ To understand that a series of biochemical processes Nitrification
results in the cycling of nitrogen between living In nitrification, ammonium ions produced by
organisms and the environment the decomposition of amino acids and proteins
■ To appreciate the part played by microorganisms are oxidised, first to nitrite and then to nitrate.
in the cycling of nitrogen The process is carried out by nitrifying bacteria
which live in the soil. Nitrification only happens
Plants need nitrate if oxygen is present. In the absence of oxygen the
Plants need nitrogen for the synthesis of proteins process is reversed, and denitrifying bacteria
and other compounds, including DNA and vitamins. obtain their energy by converting nitrate to
Nitrogen gas makes up about 80% of the Earth’s nitrogen gas. This is why waterlogged soils, for
atmosphere, but plants do not have the enzymes example, tend to lose nitrate as nitrogen gas.
necessary to use the nitrogen directly – instead they
Recycling nitrogen
must absorb it as nitrate. Nitrate is formed by two
Once nitrate has been formed by either nitrogen
sets of processes carried out by microorganisms –
fixation or nitrification, it can be absorbed by plants
nitrogen fixation and nitrification.
through their roots. Eventually the plant dies, and
Nitrogen fixation its body is added to the animal wastes and remains
In nitrogen fixation, nitrogen and hydrogen in the soil. Decomposers break down the nitrogen
are combined to form ammonium ions and then compounds in these wastes and remains and the
nitrate. The process depends upon enzymes that formation of nitrate can begin again.
are only possessed by certain bacteria called In a typical ecosystem the processes shown
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Some of these bacteria opposite recycle nitrogen between living
live free in the soil, but one important species organisms and the environment. However, some
lives in swellings called nodules on the roots processes cause the loss of nitrate from the
of leguminous plants such as peas, beans and environment. This happens naturally as a result
clover. Nitrogen fixation only happens if oxygen is of denitrification (see above), and less naturally
present. It also occurs naturally in the atmosphere when crops are harvested and removed from
when the energy from lightning combines the site where they have grown. These losses of
nitrogen directly with oxygen. Farmers can plant nitrate can be made up either by nitrogen fixation
legumes in a crop rotation scheme to avoid having or by adding nitrate in the form of fertilisers.
Q
1 Use your knowledge of the nitrogen cycle to explain c planting peas or beans every third year
how the following farming practices might improve soil d adding NPK fertiliser
fertility. e adding well-rotted compost
a ploughing in stubble rather than burning it 2 Explain why farmers drain waterlogged fields.
b draining waterlogged fields
234
The nitrogen cycle

The processes of nitrification, absorption, feeding, death, excretion and decay lead Some plants, called legumes (beans and
to the cycling of nitrogen between living organisms and their environment. In a natural peanuts are examples), have swellings
ecosystem nitrogen fixation can ‘top up’ the cycle and make up for losses by denitrification. on their roots. These root nodules
contain bacteria, which can convert
nitrogen gas to nitrate ions. These
plants reduce the need for artificial
fertilisers.
Organic compounds in plants Nitrogen gas (N2)

Proteins in the atmosphere
Nitrogen fixation
Denitrification
Absorption by diffusion
and active transport Farmers drain and
plough fields to
improve oxygenation
of soil and so reduce
denitrification.
Feeding They also add
nitrogen-containing
fertilisers to directly
increase the nitrate
content of the soil.
Organic compounds in animals

Proteins,
amino acids
and urea
Nitrate ions (NO3–)
in soil solution
Nitrification
Death and
excretion
Organic compounds in
decomposers – bacteria
Farmers are encouraged and fungi Amino acids Ammonium
to plough roots and and urea ions (NH4+)
stalks of harvested crops
back into the soil. This
provides raw material
for the action of Decay – enzymes digest
decomposers. organic molecules to
simpler forms
235
4.7 Water is recycled too!
Objectives
■ the most important factor in water recycling
■ To know that all living organisms are largely
is heat energy from the Sun. This evaporates
water, and that biological reactions always take place in
an aqueous (watery) environment water, and also creates the temperature
gradients which lead to winds.
■ To understand that the biological properties
of water result from the structure of the The steps involved in the water cycle are shown in
water molecule the diagram opposite.
■ To list some of the biological functions of water
The special properties of water
The picture of the kangaroo shows the importance
Water and life of the properties of water to living things.
Life first evolved in water for a number of reasons:
■ The molecules that were used by living
The high specific Evaporation of Because water is
organisms, and that made up their structure, incompressible,
heat capacity water from
were dissolved in the first seas. of water means a surface allows it provides
■ In the muddy estuaries and shallow seas of the that cells or bodies loss of heat. excellent support.
with a high water Water has a high Water helps
primitive Earth, the molecules could become content tend to latent heat of support a whole
concentrated enough to react together. resist heating up vaporisation. organism (e.g. a
or cooling down, fish), or part of
■ Water acted as a protective shield for the
even when the an organism
first living organisms against the damaging temperature of (e.g. the eyeball,
ultraviolet rays from the Sun. their environment or the erect penis
changes. of a mammal).
Recycling water
Life continues on this planet because water has
special properties. In particular, all three states of
water – solid ice, liquid water and gaseous water
vapour – exist at the temperatures found on the
Earth’s surface. The temperature varies at different
times and at different places on the planet, but
the average temperature over the Earth’s surface
is about 16.5 °C. This means that ice, liquid
water and water vapour are all present and are
continually interchanging. Water is recycled
between different parts of the environment, as
shown in the water cycle opposite.
The water cycle

All of the elements that make up living organisms, Water is an Water can be a Water is an excellent
not just carbon and nitrogen, are recycled. The excellent biological reagent, transport medium
lubricant, for example in the for many biological
water cycle is different to the cycles of carbon and
for example in processes of molecules, such as
nitrogen because: saliva or in the photosynthesis oxygen, glucose,
■ only a tiny proportion of the water which is synovial fluid of and digestion. amino acids, sodium
movable joints. ions and urea.
recycled passes through living organisms
236
Precipitation Condensation
Droplets collect vapour water droplets,
and fall as snow, which collect to form clouds
rain and hail.
Evapotranspiration
liquid vapour
Evaporation Melting/refreezing
liquid vapour solid liquid
p The water cycle is maintained by heat energy from the Sun
Q
1 a Explain how nitrogen in the muscle protein of a prey. They will also eat larger herbivores such as kudu
herbivore may be recycled to form protein in that have been killed by larger predators such as lions.
another herbivore some years later. A farmer in South Africa found that a number of his
b Explain how the activities of some bacteria form a sheep, while feeding on grassland, were being killed by
part of both the carbon and nitrogen cycles. jackals. He noted that jackals always kill sheep by
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 Paper 2 Q8 June 2004 attacking their necks. He designed a plastic collar for
2 Use words from the following list to complete the the sheep that covered their necks. None of his sheep
paragraphs about ecosystems. You may use each word have been killed since fitting these collars. Other
once, more than once or not at all. farmers are now buying the collars to protect their
respiration, decomposition, producer, chemical, sheep from jackal attack.
carnivore, consumer, photosynthesis, energy, light, a The prey species of the jackal are usually primary
elements, decomposers, herbivore consumers. State the type of food that all primary
consumers eat.
In each ecosystem there are many feeding relationships.
b Name the two carnivores identified in the text.
A food chain represents a flow of through an
c Construct a food chain for the jackal to show its
ecosystem, and always begins with an organism called
relationship with sheep.
a which is able to trap energy and convert it
d Suggest a reason why jackals survive better when
to energy. An organism of this type is eaten by a
they hunt in packs.
, which is a kind of that feeds only on plant
e When the farmer started to use collars on his sheep,
material. This type of organism is, in turn, eaten by a
although none of his sheep were being killed, the
(an organism that consumes other animals).
population of jackals did not decrease. Suggest why
The process in which light energy is transferred into a the number of jackals did not decrease.
chemical form is called – eventually the energy is f Name two structures, found in the neck of a sheep,
released from its chemical form during the process of that could be damaged when jackals attack it.
This process provides energy for all living g Some of the protected sheep die of old age and
organisms, including which are microbes that their remains are eaten by other animals. Suggest
feed on the remains of animals and plants. and explain why the collars of the dead sheep could
3 In Africa, mammals called jackals are quite common. create an environmental problem.
They feed on small herbivores such as young Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
springboks and dik-diks, hunting in packs to catch their Paper 3 Q1 June 2004
237
Questions on ecosystems, decay and cycles

1 Over a period of several months, a student each buffalo. These birds eat ticks that are
recorded some activities of the wildlife in a parasites on the buffalo’s skin.
particular habitat. The following observations i Draw a pyramid of numbers to represent
appeared in her notebook. these feeding relationships. Label
the pyramid with the names of the
organisms.
1. Young shoots of a crop of bean plants covered with greenflies ii Draw a pyramid of biomass to represent
(aphids) sucking food from the stems. the same feeding relationships. Lable the
2. Saw a large bird (hawk), which usually catches mice, swoop
to take a small bird visiting the bean field to eat some of trophic levels on this pyramid.
the aphids or butterflies. b Explain how the nutrition of consumers
3. Flowers of beans being visited by many different species
of butterfly. differs from that of producers.
4. Mice seen nibbling at some dispersed bean seeds. Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
5. Spider’s web constructed between two bean plants Paper 2 Q6 November 2008
with 5 large black flies caught in it. Rotting body of a mouse
nearby attracting similar flies. 3 The figure shows parts of some natural cycles
in the environment.
a Copy and complete the figure by filling in

S
the names of the organisms to show the
feeding relationships in this community. R
a With reference to the carbon and

Bean plants nitrogen cycles, explain what is happening
at Q and R.
b i What name is given to a chart of feeding b Identify two gases that may be released at
relationships as shown in the figure? S and describe the possible harmful effects
ii Name two top carnivores observed by they may have on the environment.
the student. Cambridge O Level Biology 5090
c i Draw and label a pyramid of biomass for Paper 2 Q6 May 2007
the hawks, mice and bean plants in this 4 Caribbean farmers sometimes:
habitat. a Plant peas and corn together to ensure that
ii Draw and label a pyramid of numbers for the corn plants could grow well. Use your
a bean plant, small birds and aphids. knowledge of the nitrogen cycle to explain
Cambridge O Level Biology 5090 this practice.
Paper 2 Q3 May 2008 b Use manure from farm animals as fertiliser
2 a Cape buffalo graze on grass. While the for their crops, which are sold in the organic
buffalo are grazing, two or three oxpecker produce section at the greengrocer’s store.
birds are often seen standing on the backs of Comment on this practice.
238
5 a The figure below shows the carbon cycle. b Over the last few decades, the carbon
i Name the processes that cause the dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has
changes shown by the arrows labelled been rising.
A–D. Suggest how this has happened.
ii Name one type of organism that brings Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
about decomposition. Paper 2 Q7 November 2008
Carbon dioxide
in air
A
Decomposition C
by B B
microorganisms
Fossil fuels Carbon compounds D Carbon compounds

in animals in plants
Death Death
Fossilisation
over millions
of years
Carbon compounds
in dead plants and
animals
6 The figure below shows the water cycle. c A logging company wants to cut down the
a i The arrows labelled P represent forest area.
evaporation. Which type of energy is i Suggest what effects this deforestation
needed for this process? might have on the climate further inland.
ii State what causes the formation of Explain your answer.
clouds at Q. ii State two other effects deforestation
b i What process is represented by the could have on the environment.
arrows labelled R? Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
iii Name three factors that could alter the Paper 2 Q4 May 2009
rate at which process R happens.
land
Q R
forest area
river
sea
239
4.8
4.9 Factors affecting population size
Objectives
Important abiotic factors affecting population
■ To understand what is meant by environmental
growth include:
resistance
■ Temperature – higher temperatures speed
■ To list examples of biotic and abiotic factors which limit
up enzyme-catalysed reactions and increase
population growth
growth.
■ To explain the form of a typical growth curve
■ Oxygen availability – affects the rate of energy
production by respiration.
Environmental resistance ■ Light availability – for photosynthesis. Light
By taking samples and counting the numbers of may also control breeding cycles in animals
organisms in a particular habitat, an ecologist and plants.
can study how any factor affects the size of a ■ Toxins and pollutants – tissue growth can
population. For example, a woodland manager be reduced by the presence of, for example,
might wish to know whether thinning the trees in sulfur dioxide (see page 266), and reproductive
the wood affects the population of low-growing success may be affected by pollutants such as
plants, or a farmer might wish to know whether oestrogen-like substances.
the time of grass-cutting affects the population of
bank voles. These factors may be living (biotic) or
Growth curves and carrying capacity
When a small population begins to grow in
non-living (abiotic). Together they affect the rate
a particular environment, the environmental
at which a population grows, and also its final
resistance is almost non-existent – there may
size. All the factors that affect population growth
be plenty of food and no accumulation of
and size together make up the environmental
poisonous wastes. The diagram opposite shows
resistance.
how environmental resistance eventually limits
Some significant biotic factors that affect
population growth, and the environment reaches
population growth include:
its carrying capacity. Unless the environmental
■ Food – both the quantity and the quality of
resistance is changed, perhaps by a new disease
food are important. Snails, for example, cannot
organism, the size of the population will only
reproduce successfully in an environment low
fluctuate slightly. Organisms that are able to
in calcium, no matter how much food there
maintain their population, or even increase it, must
is, because they need this mineral for shell
be well adapted to their particular environment.
growth.
■ Predators – as a prey population becomes
larger, it becomes easier for predators to find Humans exploit environmental
i
the prey. If the number of predators suddenly resistance
falls, the prey species might increase in People use their understanding of environmental
number extremely quickly. resistance to manage populations. For example:
■ Competitors – other organisms may require ■ Predators are eliminated from farm situations.
■ More food is made available to domestic animals.
the same resources, such as food, from the
■ Nitrogen fertilisers and artificial light are used to
environment, and so reduce the growth of a
boost plant growth.
population. ■ Predators may be used to control pests.
■ Disease – often caused by parasites, and may ■ Anaerobic conditions or low temperatures are used
slow down the growth and reproductive rate of to prevent populations of microbes from consuming
organisms within a population. our food.
■ Competitors are eliminated from crops using
pesticides.
An example can be found on page 248.
240
Factors affecting population growth
Population exceeds Environmental

carrying capacity resistance increases
Population falls Birth rate and death rate
balance one another resulting
‘Normal’ Feedback control ‘Normal’ in an equilibrium. The population
population size of population size population size oscillates (rises and falls) ar ound
the carrying capacity of the
Population rises environment.
Population less than Environmental
carrying capacity resistance decreases
Population Population Population Population constant

growing slowly growing exponentially growth decelerates (STATIONARY
(LAG PHASE) (EXPONENTIAL PHASE) PHASE)
Population falls
(DEATH PHASE)
Population size
The carrying capacity (K) is

the maximum number of a
species that the habitat can
Environmental resistance
hold. It is determined by the
(limiting factors)
availability of nutrients,
becomes dominant,
shelter and breeding sites.
increasing the death rate
The population falls when
and/or decreasing the
resources are used up faster
birth rate.
than they are replaced.
Time
Slow start to population Maximum observed growth rate –

growth as the number of a compromise between biotic Food availability
mature, reproducing potential and initial environmental Biotic Predators
individuals is low and they resistance. Disease
may be widely dispersed.
Biotic potential is the ability to breed. Asexually reproducing Water

organisms with a short generation time, such as bacteria, have a Oxygen
high biotic potential. Sexually reproducing organisms with a long Abiotic
Light
generation time, such as humans, have a low biotic potential.
Toxins/pollutants
Q
1 What is meant by the term environmental resistance? 3 Give examples of the ways in which humans exploit
Give an example. their knowledge of the factors affecting population
2 Define the terms biotic and abiotic factors, and give growth.
examples of each.
241
4.9
0.0 Human population growth
Objectives
difficult and humans began to settle in the most
■ To know that the evolution of humans from
suitable areas. This meant that the environment
hunter-gatherers to permanent settlers caused changes
in the environment did not have time to recover.
■ To understand the form of a human population growth Growth of the human population
curve As with other organisms, the growth of the human
population can be presented as a population
Humans, like other organisms, must find food, growth curve. The number of humans increases,
shelter and a place to breed. The first humans by reproduction, until the carrying capacity of
were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to the environment has been reached. Humans have
place, taking what they needed to satisfy these the ability to alter their environment to raise the
requirements (but allowing the environment carrying capacity. Three major changes in human
to recover once they moved on). After the most activities led to significant surges in the world
recent Ice Age this method of living became more population over the past 300 years, as shown below.
6000 Counting human populations The UK population is static as socio-economic factors

Human populations, unlike those of limit family size ...
other organisms, are counted directly ... but
rather than by sampling. This is called greater affluence leads to greater demand for leisure
a census, and may be difficult and and recreation space
5000 time-consuming to carry out smaller families increase the demand for housing
(particularly in remote rural areas). greater expectations of population for a variety of
foods at all times of the year
more cars per household increases demand for roads
4000
Number of individuals / millions
great competition for available land

and
greater effects on the environment
3000
Medical revolution – improvements in sanitation

and the control of infectious diseases reduced the
2000 number of deaths.
Industrial revolution – the development of machinery

increased agricultural efficiency and improved housing
conditions. More people earned enough money to be
1000
able to afford larger families, and the number of
births increased.
Agricultural revolution – human settlers became

0 more efficient in their farming. More food became
0 500 1000 1500 2000 available, and this part of environmental resistance
Time / years AD to the human population was reduced.
Human success may be This is largely due to behavioural skills which:

measured as: allow solution of complex problems
worldwide distribution allow control/modification of environment
large number of individuals leading to changes in carrying capacity
dominance over other species. of the environment.
p Human population of the world
242
The shapes of populations Less economically developed nations (LEDNs)

A population grows if the number of births plus typically have a high birth rate but a high
the number of immigrants is greater than the mortality rate amongst young people. The
number of deaths plus the number of emigrants. population pyramid tends to have a wide base
This relationship is shown in the figure below. (lots of births) but sloping sides (high death rate
in younger age groups). The population pyramids
Immigration for more economically developed nations
(MEDNs) have a narrower base but almost

vertical sides, reflecting a lower birth rate and few
Births

Population

Deaths
deaths amongst young people.
All population pyramids show a higher proportion
of females in the older age groups (the two
X chromosomes offer genetic benefits against
Emigration
sex-linked conditions).
p Factors affecting population size Population pyramids for two contrasting nations
are shown here.
If immigration and emigration remain stable,
the population size will depend on the relative Age (population) pyramids show the age structure of a
numbers of births and deaths. If the population population.
size is measured, and then the data is broken They can be compared with respect to:
down into different age groups, a population
■ width of base (proportion of young people in population)
pyramid can be drawn. A population pyramid
■ height (number of individuals surviving to old age)
shows the age structure of a population – the
■ angle of sides (death rate affects slope).
percentage of males and females in each age
group in a country.
LEDN Males Females
This age structure is affected by:
■ wide base
■ Food availability: this is particularly 65
■ low height
significant in those countries where a balanced
■ sloping sides
diet might be difficult to obtain. Deficiencies
in protein and vitamins can lead to a very high
death rate amongst infants.
■ Hygiene: food poisoning and water-borne
15
infections can cause an increased death rate
from diarrhoea and dehydration. Provision of 0
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
a ‘safe’ water supply has a huge impact on the
Percentage of total population
stability of a population.
■ Medical provision: vaccination programmes
MEDN Males Females
can prevent many deaths, and care during
childbirth can dramatically reduce deaths ■ narrow base
among young women. The availability of ■ considerable height

65
combination therapy for HIV infections has ■ vertical sides
significantly reduced death rates in the 25–40
age groups in sub-Saharan Africa.
■ Working conditions: unsafe work, for
example mining, can increase death rates
amongst young people (usually men), 15
particularly if medical care is poor.

0
■ Political instability: this can sometimes lead 4 2 0 2 4
to civil war, with serious effects on death rates. Percentage of total population
243
4.10 Bacteria are useful in biotechnology

and genetic engineering
Objectives
■ To know the structure of a typical bacterial cell
Cocci (singular
■ To know the requirements for bacterial growth
coccus) are
■ To know how bacteria reproduce spherical
■ To understand some of the ways in which bacteria can bacteria
Staphylococcus Pneumococcus
be used in human activities (causes boils) (pneumonia)
Requirements of bacteria
Bacteria have certain requirements that
Bacilli (singular
their environment must provide. An bacillus) are rod-
understanding of these requirements has shaped bacteria
been important in biotechnology and in the Lactobacillus Salmonella typhi

control of disease. If the environment supplies (sours milk) (typhoid)
these needs, the bacteria can multiply rapidly
by binary fission (see opposite). In this
process each bacterium divides into two, then
each of the two divides again and so on, until Spirilli (singular
spirillum) are
very large populations are built up. A bacterial spiral bacteria
colony can quickly dominate its environment,
making great demands on food and oxygen and Treponema Vibrio
(syphilis) (cholera)
perhaps producing large quantities of ‘waste’
materials. Some of these waste materials can be p Bacterial shapes
useful to humans. For example, bacterial enzymes
are used in a number of industrial processes. Bacterial structure
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are single-celled
Glycogen grains
may be a food store organisms that have no true nucleus. Bacterial
cells do not contain organelles like those found
Cytoplasm contains enzymes and Slime coat is present
food molecules but no organelles. in some species.
in typical animal and plant cells (see page 17),
but are able to carry out all of their life processes
0.1 m without them. A few can photosynthesise, but
Cell wall does not most feed off other organisms. They may be
contain cellulose. parasites, feeding off living organisms, or
saprotrophs, feeding off dead organisms.
Cell membrane Bacteria are very small, usually about 1–2 m
in length, and so are only visible using a high-
powered microscope. The structure of a typical
Flagella – may be Main DNA strand Plasmids are small
one (flagellum) is not contained rings of DNA,
bacterium is shown in the diagram below.
or several, which inside a nucleus. carrying only a Bacteria exist in a number of different shapes,
beat to move few genes.
bacterium some of which are shown opposite above. Shape
can be used to classify bacteria.
p Bacteria have a cell wall but do not have a nucleus or
organelles
244
The number of cells in a population, starting from just one cell,

The generation time (time taken for each cell to divide into two) n
is 2 (where n = number of generations)
can be as little as 20 minutes under ideal conditions. One E. coli
cell in the human gut could theoretically become 272 cells in
24 hours – this number of cells weighs about 8000 kg!
DNA replication
Cell divides into two

– binary fission Process is
repeated
This can be so
When conditions prevent growth, some Stationary phase – population remains constant as the rapid that a
bacterial cells survive by producing number that die is balanced by the number produced by bacterial population
hard-coated spores. binary fission. The rate of binary fission is limited by: can grow very quickly
This can make some availability of nutrients
species very difficult availability of oxygen, in aerobic species
to kill. temperature
Sterilisation kills availability of water
all bacteria and pH.
Number of bacteria
their spores The number of deaths may be increased by:

production of waste which increases in concentration
as population becomes more dense.
Death phase – population falls as number of deaths exceeds

number produced by binary fission. Caused by shortage of
resources affecting stationary phase.
Exponential phase – population grows rapidly, doubling

perhaps as often as every 20 minutes.
The bacteria require:
amino acids, for the synthesis of proteins
carbohydrate, e.g. glucose, for the release of energy by
Time respiration
water, as a solvent and a reagent in biochemical reactions
Understanding what a suitable temperature, for optimum enzyme activity.
bacteria need to Bacteria are particularly useful in biotechnology
reproduce can be and genetic engineering because:
useful in: they reproduce very rapidly so scientists can build up large
preventing food populations very quickly
spoilage – see they can produce complex molecules, such as enzymes
page 99 and the hormone insulin
controlling their genetic code is the same as that in more complex
infections organisms (even humans!)
providing the best they have extra pieces of DNA – plasmids – which scientists
conditions for can use to carry genes from one cell to another
growth of useful people are less worried about experiments on bacteria
bacteria. than on more familiar, larger, organisms such as mice,
rabbits and dogs.
245
4.11 Humans use enzymes from bacteria

Objectives
nitrogen-fixing bacteria can perform this process at
■ To understand that enzymes have many roles which
25 °C and at atmospheric pressure.
benefit humans
■ To know examples of a range of uses of enzymes The majority of enzymes used commercially are
■ To understand the benefits of enzyme immobilisation obtained from microbial sources, usually fungi or
bacteria.
Microorganisms that produce those valuable
Enzymes in industry
enzymes are grown under carefully controlled
Enzymes are biological catalysts that operate at the
conditions in a fermenter (bioreactor), like the
temperatures, pressures and moderate pH values
one shown on the opposite page.
found in living organisms (see page 33). Using
enzymes for industrial processes therefore does
not require extreme (and expensive) conditions.
For example, the Haber process for producing
ammonia requires a temperature of 750 °C and a
pressure of 30 times atmospheric pressure whereas Commercial applications of enzymes
Some enzymes are immobilised on a carrier

Food production of fibres. They can be re-used many times
eg. lactase for lactose-free milk
A protease from bacteria Raw materials in
softens gluten, making the e.g. milk containing
rolling of biscuits easier. lactose
Pectinase breaks down clumps
of plant cells: this changes fruit
juices from cloudy to clear.
Immobilised lactase
(breaks down lactose)
Some people
become ill if they
Economical
consume lactose – they
are lactose intolerant.
conditions
Product out e.g.
lactose-free milk
Enzyme + substrate Enzyme + products
Biological washing powders FUNGI CAN BE USEFUL TOO!

The most difficult stains to remove from clothes A lipase from fungi helps to make
often include lipids (e.g. from fatty foods or chocolate flow to cover biscuits and
greasy fingerprints) or proteins (e.g.es.from blood).
sweets!
These can be washed out using biological washing
powders that contain lipase and protease. These
powders have the added advantage of working
at lower temperatures (less water heating needed,
and clothes don't shrink).
246
A fermenter (or bioreactor)

Paddle stirrers continuously mix the
contents of the bioreactor: Fermenters are also used in fuel
ensures microorganisms are always production (see page 278) and the
in contact with nutrients manufacture of the antibiotic penicillin
ensures an even temperature throughout (see page 248).
the fermentation mixture
for aerobic (oxygen-requiring) fermentations
the mixing may be carried out by an airstream.
Gas outlet – gas may be evolved during
Microbe input – the organisms that fermentation. This must be released to
will carry out the fermentation avoid pressure build-up, and may be a
process are cultured separately valuable by-product, e.g. carbon dioxide
until they are growing well. is collected and sold for use in fizzy drinks.
Nutrient input –
the microorganisms require:
an energy source – usually Constant temperature water jacket –
carbohydrate the temperature is controlled so that it is
growth materials – amino acids high enough to promote enzyme activity
(or ammonium salts which can be but not so high that enzymes and other
converted to amino acids) for proteins in the microbes are denatured.
protein synthesis.
Heating/cooling
water out
Probes monitor conditions such as pH,
temperature and oxygen concentration.
Sterile conditions are essential. Information is sent to computer control
The culture must be pure and systems which correct any changes to
all nutrients/equipment sterile to: maintain the optimum conditions for
avoid competition for fermentation.
expensive nutrients
limit the danger of disease-
causing organisms contaminating
the product.
Heating/cooling
water in
In batch culture there is a fixed input of

nutrients and the products are collected
by emptying the bioreactor. The process is
then repeated. This method is expensive,
since the culture must be replaced and
the reactor must be sterilised between
batches, but has the advantages that:
the vessels can be switched to other uses
any contamination results in the loss of Further processing of product
only a single batch. may be necessary:
In continuous culture fresh nutrients are to separate the microorganism from the desired
added as soon as they are consumed, and product. In some fermentation systems these
the reactor may run for long periods. microorganisms may then be returned to the
Products are run off at intervals while vessel to continue the process.
the process continues. This is more to prepare the product for sale or distribution –
economical but has the disadvantages that: this often involves drying or crystallisation.
contamination causes greater losses
the culture may block inlet or outlet pipes.
247
4.12 Using fungi to produce antibiotics:

drugs to control bacterial disease
Objectives
infections, without harming human cells. Penicillin
■ To recall the mode of nutrition of fungi
prevents the bacterial cell walls forming (human
■ To understand that fungi may produce antibiotics
cells do not have cell walls). Antibiotics only
as part of their normal metabolic processes
affect bacterial cells – there is no benefit in taking
■ To define the term antibiotic
antibiotics to treat viral or fungal diseases.
■ To understand how penicillin works as an antibiotic
■ To describe the large-scale production of antibiotics Production of penicillin
■ To understand the problems of antibiotic resistance The large-scale production of penicillin takes
place in industrial fermenters. Penicillin is a
secondary metabolic product – it is made when
Natural antibiotics: penicillin growth of the producer organism is slowing down
A fungus such as Penicillium absorbs food rather than when it is at its maximum, as shown
molecules from its environment, and then in the diagram below.
uses these molecules for its own metabolism. Antibiotics do not always kill bacteria
Sometimes a Penicillium mould will make Bactericidal antibiotics kill the pathogen
substances that it secretes into its environment directly, whereas bacteriostatic ones prevent it
to kill off any disease-causing or competitive reproducing, leaving the host’s defences to kill
microorganisms. A product made by one the existing pathogens. The diagram opposite
microorganism to kill off another microorganism illustrates the different effects of a bactericidal
is called an antibiotic. agent and a bacteriostatic agent.
The first antibiotic to be discovered was called
Antibiotic resistance
penicillin after the organism Penicillium that
As the use of antibiotics increases, strains of
produced it. Antibiotics used in medicine work in
bacteria that are resistant to the antibodies are
various ways to inhibit the development of bacterial
developing, as shown opposite.
Population of Penicillium Optimum time to collect penicillin

grows rapidly, provided with: – always produced after main growth of the
food for energy and mould fungus.
protein synthesis
Concentration of fungus or antibiotic
oxygen for aerobic

respiration Collect batch and
correct temperature filter to remove
(24 C) and pH (7.5) fungus.
Filtered liquid
contains penicillin.
Keep sterile!
no microbes to Penicillin
compete for nutrients
no danger of toxic
chemicals being produced Penicillin extracted
and crystallised,
then put into
Penicillin
capsules.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time/days
p Penicillin is produced by batch fermentation (see page 35)
248
Antiseptics are not the same as antibiotics

An antibiotic is used to treat a bacterial infection. An antiseptic
can be used to prevent infection (‘anti’  prevent, ‘sepsis’ 
infection). Antiseptics are chemicals applied to the outside of the
body, such as the skin, to kill microbes.
Disinfectants are also chemicals that kill microbes, but they are
more powerful and are generally used on worksurfaces or lavatory
bowls, where potentially harmful bacteria may be growing.
Control – no antibiotic The effectiveness of antibiotics

treatment, or bacteria can be compared using ‘multidisks’
insensitive to a
particular antibiotic Bacterial population
multiplies on agar
growth medium
Number of bacteria
Bacteriostatic antibiotic
– number does not reach
dangerous levels and B D
eventually host immune
system removes bacteria
C
Paper multidisk
Clear area caused impregnated
by inhibition of with different
Bactericidal antibiotic bacterial growth antibiotics A,
B, C and D
Infection begins Time / hours
p Penicillin is bactericidal at high concentrations, but these may have some side-effects in humans
(and may lead to resistance – see below) so penicillin is usually given at bacteriostatic doses.
Some bacteria are The antibiotic is the

resistant to penicillin selection pressure
because they produce (see page 216).
penicillinase. This Resistance is the
enzyme destroys survival advantage.
Antibiotic Cell division
penicillin before it NB The antibiotic does
treatment
can take effect. not create the resistance,
but selects it in a population.
Mutation (see page 212) Only resistant Whole population

results in one resistant cell cell survives. is now resistant.
in normal population.
p Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria are formed by artificial selection. This is more likely to
happen if antibiotics are used unnecessarily, or if people do not finish a course of prescribed
antibiotics. This allows some of the bacterial population to recover, and possibly develop strains
that are resistant to the antibiotic.
Q
1 Distinguish clearly between the following pairs of 2 Purified penicillin is normally taken orally (by mouth).
terms: The crystals of the drug are enclosed in a capsule for
a antiseptic and antibiotic distribution. Suggest three important properties of the
b antibiotic and antibody material used to make the capsules.
c resistance and immunity.
249
4.13 Baking and brewing: the economic

importance of yeast
Objectives
■ To appreciate that some microorganisms are useful to Yeast performs alcoholic fermentation
humans Much of the commercial use of microorganisms
■ To recall an equation for anaerobic respiration is based on the process of fermentation. This
■ To understand the industrial production of alcohol and term covers any metabolic process carried out by
bread microorganisms using carbohydrate as a starting
material. The best-known fermentation reaction
Bread production is the anaerobic respiration of glucose by the
single-celled fungus yeast:
Flour, sugar, water and salt are
mixed with yeast. This process
is called kneading and glucose carbon dioxide 1 ethanol 1 energy
produces dough.
Since one of the products is ethanol (ethyl
alcohol), this process is often known as
alcoholic fermentation. As well as making
alcohol, the carbon dioxide produced is valuable
The dough is rolled into shape, If a loaf is not left to rise,
commercially. For the yeast, the useful product
then kept in a warm (about it will be small and dense
28 °C), moist environment.
is energy – the alcohol and carbon dioxide are
The yeast ferments the sugar, by-products.
and the bubbles of carbon
dioxide are trapped by the Alcohol has a high energy content
sticky proteins of the dough. and is toxic
The dough expands or rises.
Alcohol contains a great deal of energy, a fact
that is exploited when alcohol is used as a fuel
source (see page 278). Alcohol is also toxic
(poisonous) and the yeast excretes it into the
If a loaf is left to rise for too
surrounding liquid medium. If the alcohol
Cooking at 180 °C – baking : long too much carbon dioxide
kills the yeast and stops is produced and there are too concentration in the medium gets higher than
fermentation many large holes 8–9%, the yeast is killed and fermentation stops.
causes alcohol to evaporate
Alcohol is toxic to humans too (page 152)
hardens the outer surface to
form a crust. Baking and brewing use fermentation
The processes of baking and brewing have both
been around for thousands of years. The process
of baking is outlined on the left.
The product is bread, which

Fine tuning the fermentation process
should be: Because of the enormous commercial significance
spongy in texture, because of of these processes, much research has gone into
trapped carbon dioxide
fresh smelling (partly alcohol The perfect loaf making them as efficient as possible. For example:
vapour!). ■ strains of yeast that are tolerant to higher
‘Wholemeal’ bread is made with flour which has not had the concentrations of alcohol have been developed
husk removed from the wheat – hence ‘whole’ meal. It is rich in ■ high-yielding strains of wheat have been
B vitamins and dietary fibre.
selectively bred
Bread may be fortified – in Britain, bread often has added protein,
■ genetic engineers have developed yeasts which
calcium and vitamins A and D – not to mention preservatives and
whitening agents. can convert starch to maltose, and thus remove
the need for the ‘malting’ stages in brewing.
250
Questions on bacteria
1 Yeast ferments glucose (C6H12O6) to ethanol b i Calculate the dry mass of mycoprotein
(C2H5OH) and carbon dioxide. Write out a not represented by protein, fat, fibre or
balanced chemical equation for this process. carbohydrate. Show your working.
2 Bread may be fortified with vitamins A and D, ii Suggest one nutrient that this dry mass
and the mineral calcium. What benefit would might contain.
these give to the consumer? Suggest why bakers c The antibiotic penicillin is produced by
often add: a preservative and b whitener to fungi that are grown in a fermenter, as
their product. shown in the figure. The process is similar to
3 Mycoprotein is similar to single cell protein and the manufacture of enzymes.
is sold as an alternative to meat such as beef. i Name the two raw materials likely to be
The table shows the composition of present in the feedstock.
mycoprotein and beef. ii State the function of X.
iii Suggest the name of the main gas present
nutrient dry mass / g per 100 g
in the waste gases.
mycoprotein uncooked beef
d During the fermenting process, the
protein 49.0 51.4
temperature in the container would rise
fat 9.2 48.6
unless steps are taken to maintain a constant
fibre (roughage) 19.5 0.0
temperature.
carbohydrate 20.6 0.0 i Suggest a suitable temperature for the
a i State two differences in composition feedstock.
between mycoprotein and beef. ii Explain why the temperature rises.
ii Using data from the table, suggest two iii Explain why a constant temperature has
reasons why eating mycoprotein is better to be maintained.
for health than eating beef. Explain your iv Using the information from the
answers. figure below, suggest how a constant
temperature is maintained.
waste Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
gases Paper 3 Variant 1 Q3 November 2008
water
out
water
jacket
feedstock
extract
air mycoprotein
filtrate
water
in
251
4.14 Genetic engineering

Objectives
■ The host organism might not show the
■ To understand the term genetic engineering
valuable characteristic, for example it may not
■ To understand the value of enzymes in genetic
make a particular protein, even though it now
engineering
has the DNA that codes for the protein.
■ To be able to describe a technique in genetic
engineering Technological advances have overcome these
■ To list some products of genetic engineering that are of potential problems. Key to success has been the
value to humans discovery of:
■ enzymes that can cut DNA from one
What is genetic engineering? chromosome and paste it into another, acting
The examples of selective breeding described on like scissors and glue
page 218 are a form of genetic engineering, since ■ vectors that can carry the gene from one
humans are interfering with the natural flow of organism to another
genetic material from one generation to the next ■ culture techniques that allow large quantities
when they choose the animals or plants that will of the valuable product to be produced and
be allowed to reproduce (and pass on their genes). collected, even if the host organism would not
However, what we now call genetic engineering is normally produce it.
a much more predictable and refined process than Many compounds can be manufactured by
selective breeding. In this process: genetically engineered bacteria, including insulin
■ Genes that code for characteristics valuable to and other products which are used directly by
humans are identified. humans. These products are otherwise often
■ These genes are removed from the animal or taken from animals. For example, insulin can be
plant that normally shows this characteristic. isolated from the pancreas of a pig.
■ The genes are transferred to another organism, Recombinant DNA technology has several
usually one that grows very quickly. advantages:
■ This organism ‘reads’ the gene it has received,
■ The product is very pure, and can be the
and shows the characteristic that is valuable
human version of a protein rather than
to humans.
a version produced by another animal.
Recombinant DNA technology The human protein is likely to work more
In many cases the characteristic is the ability to efficiently in a person, and is less likely to be
manufacture a product that has some medical rejected by the body’s defences.
or industrial value. Because DNA (a gene) from ■ The product can be made in large quantities,
one organism is being transferred to the DNA of making it less expensive and more readily
another organism to make a new combination of available. Insulin produced in this way costs
DNA, this ‘modern’ genetic engineering is often about 1% as much as insulin produced from
referred to as recombinant DNA technology. pig pancreas.
The principle of this technique sounds very ■ The process can be switched on or off easily
straightforward, but in practice it is extremely as the bacteria can be stored until needed again.
difficult. The product can be made as required rather
than just when animal carcasses are available.
■ The genetic material is microscopic in size. A
technician can’t use a pair of scissors to cut out
a gene!
■ The host organism, that is, the one that will
receive the valuable gene, would not normally
take in DNA from another organism.
252
The desirable gene (section of DNA)

Opened
is identified and located, e.g. the
vector
gene coding for human insulin
in a pancreas cell.
Plasmid – small circle
of DNA in harmless
The desirable gene is ‘cut’ from bacterial cell.
chromosome fragments using
a specific restriction enzyme
and leaving sticky ends. The plasmid (gene vector)
is cut open at specific points
using the same restriction
enzyme leaving complementary
sticky ends.
The enzyme ligase splices the

desirable gene into the vector.
Recombinant DNA – human
gene plus bacterial plasmid.
Vector (carrying gene) is now

re-inserted into the host bacterial cell.
Bacteria containing the desirable

gene are selected and then cultured
in a nutrient medium to provide a
large population capable of producing
the desired gene product.
Selected bacteria are cultured in

a fermenter or bioreactor under
optimum pH, temperature
and nutrient levels.
Product
After some processing, for example to remove the bacterial cells for recycling, the product is extremely pure and relatively inexpensive.
Important examples of such gene products are:
insulin (required for the treatment of diabetes)
human growth hormone
factor VIII (blood clotting factor for haemophilia)
BGH is an important animal hormone used to speed up the growth of beef cattle (see page 150).
p Genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technology) depends on enzymes and the culture of microorganisms
253
4.14 Genetic engineering
p A plasmid of bacterial DNA
Q
1 The following table lists events from the identification of a human gene
coding for a hormone ‘‘X’’ to the commercial production of hormone ‘‘X’’.
Genes can be transferred into plasmids, tiny circles of DNA which are found
in bacteria.
Show the correct sequence of events 1 to 8 by copying the table below and
writing the appropriate number in each box provided. The first (number 1)
and last (number 8) have been completed for you.
Event Number
Cutting of a bacterial plasmid using restriction enzyme
Cutting of human DNA with restriction enzyme
Identification of the human DNA which codes for 1
hormone ‘‘X’’
Many identical plasmids, complete with human gene,
are produced inside the bacterium
Mixing together human gene and ‘‘cut’’ plasmids to
splice the human gene into the plasmid
Some of the cloned bacteria are put into an industrial 8
fermenter where they breed and secrete the hormone
The bacterium is cloned
Using the plasmid as a vector, inserting it, complete
with human gene, into a bacterium
254
Moral and environmental concerns

about genetic modification
The benefits claimed for genetically modified
products, and potential problems, are shown in
the table below.
Benefits Problems
Engineered organisms can offer higher yields from fewer resources. Plants engineered for pesticide resistance could cross-pollinate with
With plants, for example, this might reduce the need for pesticides and wild relatives, creating ‘superweeds’
fertilisers.
Crops engineered to cope with extreme environmental conditions will Engineered bacteria may escape from the laboratory or the factory,
open up new areas for cultivation, and reduce the risk of famine with unpredictable consequences
Genetic engineering gives much more predictable results than selective ‘New’ organisms might be patented. A company that has spent a lot of
breeding money on developing such an organism might refuse to share its
benefits with other consumers, making the company very powerful.
Foods can be engineered to be more convenient, such as potatoes How far should we allow research into human gene transfer to go?
which absorb less fat when crisps are made, or even to contain Will we allow the production of ‘perfect’ children, with characteristics
medicinal products such as vaccines seen to be desirable by parents?
Gene therapy*
Gene therapy is the transfer of healthy human
genes into a person’s cells that contain mutant
alleles which cause disease. The principle of gene
therapy is outlined below.
Gene therapy may be able to repair diseased human cells.
Empty virus
Virus takes up
coat to act as Virus infects
healthy gene
gene vector ‘diseased’ cell
and releases
healthy gene
Q
1 What might be the benefits of
Healthy copy
of gene transferring nitrogen-fixing
Cell can now make
genes from bacteria to other
Cystic fibrosis is a good candidate for protein product, organisms?
gene therapy because: and no longer has
the healthy gene has been identified
2 Describe one example of gene
disease
and is easily obtained therapy. Explain why this form
the diseased tissue in the lungs is easy of treatment is thought likely to
to reach via trachea and bronchi Healthy be successful in the example
the coat of an influenza virus can be gene ‘repairs’
used as a gene vector. which you describe.
diseased cell
255
4.15 Food supply: humans and agriculture

Objectives
■ increased use of inorganic fertilisers affects
■ To understand why agriculture is a threat to
plant diversity dramatically and can result in
conservation
excessive nitrate levels in rivers, leading to
■ To understand how careful management can help to
eutrophication (page 267)
conserve biodiversity
■ use of pesticides to eliminate competitors
for crop species has caused the reduction in
The human population is increasing and may population of many native wildflowers and
reach 9 billion (9000 000 000) by the end of the some non-target insects and birds by direct
century. More people means a demand for more toxicity or, more often, by removal of their
food. This food is mainly provided by agriculture – food sources. Pesticides include insecticides
the management of land for food production. to improve the quality and yield of crops by
Around the world, agriculture presents a serious killing insects, and herbicides which reduce
threat to conservation of existing habitats. competition with weeds
Although 75% of England is designated as ■ the tendency towards monoculture
farmland, only 2% of the UK population is ■ selective breeding of both crops and livestock.
involved in farming. In 1850, one farm worker
All of these can have negative effects on the
produced enough food for about 4 people; now in
environment.
advanced agricultural countries the same worker
produces enough for 60 people. The enormous It all boils down to monoculture!
rise in productivity of land is due to many factors. Farms used to be small and mixed, supplying
These include: enough food for just a few families throughout
■ increased and more efficient use of the year, but now tend to be large and specialised.
machinery has resulted in increased field sizes Growing a single crop in this way is called mono-
and the removal of hedges (see page 258) culture and, as ever, there are pluses and minuses.
Monoculture
(Bad points)
(Good points)
Poor wildlife foods: very
Specialised harvesting little variety of ‘weeds’ for
techniques: one type of insects and birds.
machine can collect all
of the crop. Spread of disease: plant
pathogens, such as potato
blight fungus and tobacco
mosaic virus, spread easily:
Highly selected strains: it’s not very far to the next
varieties of plants with ideal food plant!
desirable characteristics
(see page 161) can be Loss of genetic variety: may mean
‘matched’ to the conditions. that any change in environmental
resistance (see page 240) could
damage or kill all of the plants.
Mineral/water Damage to soil: the same

requirement: scientists minerals will be ‘drained’ away by
can work out exactly many copies of the same plant.
what the crop needs, and As the crop is harvested and taken
farmers can make sure away the minerals will be lost from
they use it. the soil.
256
Loss of amenity value!

Monocultures are boring to We must aim for sustainable
look at, and few people development.
enjoy walking in such a This means that we should not alter our
monotonous environment. environment so much that we take
things away and affect the value of the
environment for future generations.
We should still provide for the needs of
an increasing population.
Some farmers are returning to traditional crop rotations, which has

several benefits:
Crop rotations
Root crop
e.g. potatoes,
carrots
Can give grazing for Increase the

cattle and food/shelter
Fallow (usually rough Legume (see page 235) nitrate content
grass and 'weeds') e.g. peas, broad beans of the soil
for wildlife
Cereal
e.g. barley,
wheat
The good points (+) :
reduced build-up of pests because crop

rotation breaks their life cycles
reduced depletion of minerals it can increase costs

BUT and
reduces the need for pesticides and reduce efficiency
fertilisers
improves the soil texture, because different

types of plant have different roots
The problem for the world is how to balance productivity (more food
for humans) and biodiversity (keeping the wide range of wildlife).
257
4.16 Land use for agriculture

Objectives
■ To understand that chemical discharges may pollute Deforestation
land as well as air and water The removal of woodland provides firewood,
■ To understand that many human effects on the land building materials, cleared land for crops or for
involve loss of wildlife habitat grazing of cattle. For our first settler ancestors,
■ To know that there are ways to reverse loss of wildlife it also removed the habitat of predators of
habitat domestic animals.
Deforestation is also a result of clearing land so
Many of the pollutants described on pages 264–8 that natural resources (e.g. oil in the Amazon
have an effect on land, as well as on the air or basin and copper in Zaire) can be extracted.
water. The technique used to clear forest today is often
Pollution also includes the loss of wildlife habitat called slash and burn. The largest trees may be
that results from human competition for land. removed for sale as timber for furnishings but
the less valuable woods are simply chopped down
Removal of hedges (slashed) and then burned. The humans using the
Farmers remove hedges to increase the area where land gain a short-term benefit, but the damage to
they can grow crops. The benefits of hedgerows as
habitats, and the reasons why farmers feel justified
in removing them, are outlined below.
Hedges act as windbreaks which provide A hedge takes up spaces that could be
shelter for domestic animals, protect fragile occupied by crops and reduces economic use
crops, limit soil erosion and reduce water of modern agricultural machinery.
losses by evaporation from soil. A hedge 1m
in height provides these benefits for
approximately 2 m to its sheltered side.
Hedge may shade crop species (compete with
them for light).
Taller hedges offer secure nesting sites for
up to 65 bird species. These species may be May be a source of insects, and viral and
important predators on pest species on local fungal pests (although such species are often
crops. specific and are therefore unlikely to be pests
of local crop species).
Fallen leaves and fruits provide nutrient

enrichment for soil.
May act as a reservoir of weed species which
then invade and compete with crops.
Grassy strip provides shelter for game birds
and overwintering insects, and nesting sites
for small animals (e.g. voles). Hedge banks offer burrowing opportunities
to rabbits which may then consume crops,
especially in the young stages.
Hedges and associated herbs provide feeding
and breeding opportunities for pollinating Roots may consume water and nutrients
insects (including 23 species of butterfly). which otherwise would be available to crop
plants.
Roots improve soil stability and limit both Maintenance of hedges is labour intensive
wind and water erosion. compared with barbed-wire boundaries.
p The removal of hedgerows in Britain has averaged 8000 km per year

in the twentieth century. This represents a disaster for wildlife.
258
wildlife habitats is immediate and humans also Q

suffer in the long term. Newspaper and television 1 It has been estimated that more than 150 000 km of
headlines emphasise the loss of forest in tropical hedgerow have been removed from around Britain’s
areas of the world, but it should be remembered fields since the Second World War. Why has this
that most of the UK was once forested! Some been done? What are the possible effects on
of the penalties of large-scale deforestation are wildlife?
illustrated below. 2 What is deforestation? Give reasons why humans
should be anxious about this process.
Deforestation – the rapid Reduction in soil fertility

destruction of woodland
Deciduous trees may contain 90% of
the nutrients in a forest ecosystem. These
nutrients are removed if the trees are
cut down and taken away.
Soil erosion may be rapid in the absence
of trees because wind and direct rain
may remove the soil, and soil structure
is no longer stabilised by tree root
systems.
The soil below coniferous forests is often
of poor quality for agriculture because
the shed pine needles contain toxic
compounds that inhibit germination
and growth.
Flooding and landslips

Normally in a woodland, 25% of rainfall is absorbed by foliage or evaporates and 50%
is absorbed by root systems. After deforestation water may accumulate rapidly in river valleys,
often causing landslips from steep hillsides.
Changes in recycling of materials – fewer trees means:

atmospheric CO2 concentration may rise as less CO2 is removed for photosynthesis
atmospheric O2 – vital for aerobic respiration – is diminished as less is produced by
photosynthesis
the atmosphere may become drier and the soil wetter as evaporation (from soil) is slower than
transpiration (from trees).
Climatic changes
Reduced transpiration rates and drier atmosphere affect the water cycle and reduce rainfall.
Rapid heat absorption by bare soil raises the temperature of the lower atmosphere in some
areas, causing thermal gradients which result in more frequent and intense winds.
Species extinction Many species are dependent on forest conditions: Many plant species may have medicinal
orang utans depend on properties, e.g. as tranquillisers, reproductive
rainforest in Indonesia ItItisisestimated
estimatedthat
thatone
oneplant
plantand
and hormones, anticoagulants, painkillers
golden lion tamarins one
one animal species becomeextinct
animal species become extinct and antibiotics.
depend on coastal every
every30 30minutes
minutesdue
dueto
to The Madagascan periwinkle, for example,
rainforest of Brazil defor estation.
deforestation. yields a potent drug used to treat leukaemia.
ospreys depend on
mature pine forests
in northern Europe.
259
4.17 Damage to ecosystems: malnutrition

and famine
Objectives
As well as suffering from a deficiency disease, a
■ To recall that malnutrition is a condition resulting from
malnourished person is usually more at risk from
a defective diet where certain important food nutrients
(such as proteins, vitamins, or carbohydrates) may be other diseases (as the immune system may be
absent very much reduced in efficiency) and a society
■ To remember that malnutrition can lead to deficiency with many malnourished individuals experiences
diseases mounting problems:
■ To understand some of the reasons why famines occur ■ Adults become ill and cannot work, so little
including over-use of land for agriculture. money is available to buy food.
■ Children become ill, and so adults must
A high global death rate linked to malnutrition attempt to care for them (often going without
has arisen from famine situations caused by a food themselves).
number of natural problems as well as by socio- ■ Older, weaker people will die and the society is
political factors, such as alcohol and drug abuse, deprived of their experience and knowledge.
poverty, and war.
15%
of the
Famine world’s
population
Increasing population receive fewer
Improved medical services may than 10 000 kJ
mean that populations increase per day
(see page 242). As the number of
people increase the need for food
increases too. At the same time, Unequal distribution of food
greater numbers of domestic Some areas produce more food,
animals may reduce the amount of either because of a more suitable
land available for food production. environment (e.g. water availability)
or more advanced agriculture (e.g. use
of fertilisers). Food surpluses in one
Drought area cannot always be moved to areas
Water is essential for plant growth where food supplies are limited.
and for the health of domestic animals.
Global warming (see page 265) may
upset rainfall patterns and so make
less water available. This can
dramatically reduce crop yield.
Flooding
Although plants such as rice grow
in flooded conditions, unpredictable
flooding can reduce crop yield severely.
Plants (e.g. maize) can be damaged
and fertile soil can be washed away.
Cost of fuel and fertiliser

Crop yield may be low in developing
countries because poor farmers cannot
afford fertiliser, or fuel to run
machinery.
260
Can famine be stopped? others (including EU agricultural ministers) argue

The world probably produces enough food to feed that aid to poorer people should be mainly in the
all of its inhabitants. Agriculture in developed form of education and farming equipment. Direct
parts of the world is extremely efficient (see food aid should only be reserved for disaster
page 260). Even so, as many as 15% of the world’s situations, such as the earthquake in Pakistan
inhabitants suffer from malnutrition because the and flooding in Central America, where many
available food is not evenly distributed among individuals would quickly die if food were not
the world’s population. Some people believe that made available. The problem of unequal food
all surplus food from developed countries should distribution is outlined in the figure.
be made available to poorer countries, but many
Transportation
Bulky foods are expensive to transport.
Foods with a high water content (e.g. milk)
do not give good ‘food value per transport
cost’. Perishable foods may not remain in
good condition during long periods of transport.
Unequal distribution of food
Long distance transport
can increase atmospheric
pollution and global warming!
Grain
Food mountains
in
rich countries
STOP
Milk
Self-sufficiency
It makes more sense to help poor Price controls
people to grow food for themselves Taking cheap food from a rich country to a
than to send food surpluses to them. For example poor one can artificially lower food prices in
Education about agricultural methods the poor region. This can upset the local
Provision of water supplies by digging wells economy, and reduce the incentive for
indigenous people to grow their own food.
261
4.18 Human impacts on the environment:

pollution
Objectives
Humans may also have positive effects – we
■ To understand that humans can alter their environment
are able to use our skills and knowledge in
■ To understand how changes in human population have
conservation.
altered our impact on the environment
■ To consider human impacts in terms of cause, effect and Our demands on the environment
possible remedies Human success, measured as an increase in
population size, is largely due to our ability
Humans already are, or could easily become, to solve complex problems and modify the
the most significant biotic factor in every environment for our benefit. This places great
environment. Primitive humans had a temporary demands on the environment, causing changes in
effect on the environment – hunting, fishing and the atmosphere, the aquatic environment and
burning wood – because they were nomadic the land.
and allowed the environment periods of time to Humans have also, intentionally or otherwise,
recover. After humans became cultivators and seriously upset the balance of populations of
settlers (thousands of years ago) the following other living organisms. (see effects on food webs,
‘effects’ on the environment gradually became page 224).
noticeable:
■ The use of tools and the domestication of
Causes, effects and remedies for
animals meant a more efficient agriculture. pollution
■ The greater need for shelter, agricultural land Pollution is any effect of human activities upon
and fuel meant a greater rate of deforestation the environment, and a pollutant is any product
and desertification. of human activities that has a harmful effect on
■ The careless use of pesticides and fertilisers, the environment. When looking at pollution, we
together with increasing consumption of fossil shall consider three key points:
fuels, produced problems of pollution. These ■ What is the cause?
have been added to by the development of ■ What are the effects?
nuclear energy sources. ■ What are the solutions?
Q
1 The following table contains information on human a Plot these data in the form of a graph.
population changes since the year 1700. b Calculate the likely world population in the year
2050 if the growth rate shown between 1700 and
Year Population / millions
1800 had remained constant.
1700 700 c Calculate the likely world population in the year
1750 800 2050 if the trend in your graph continues.
1800 900 d Explain the difference between your answers
1850 1200 to b and c.
1900 1600
1950 2500
1980 4450
1990 5300
262
Pollution of the atmosphere There are also localised problems with lead
Two big problems with the Earth’s atmosphere compounds, and with smoke. The causes and
are: effects of, and possible solutions to, each of these
■ the greenhouse effect problems are outlined in the diagrams here and
■ production of acid rain. on page 266.
Burning of fossil fuels has a major effect on the

atmosphere. The combustion process oxidises carbon carbon monoxide (CO)
elements and compounds in the fuel, as shown in 1
oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO2)
the equations on the right.
sulfur
These oxides affect the atmosphere – carbon 1 sulfur dioxide (SO2)
oxygen
dioxide is a greenhouse gas and sulfur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen contribute to acid rain. The nitrogen nitrogen monoxide (NO)
other major pollutants of the atmosphere are the 1 and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
oxygen
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Causes of the increased greenhouse effect

Solar
Greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation (‘heat’) close to the radiation
Earth's surface. Solar radiation is allowed to enter the lower
atmosphere but is not allowed to escape. The greenhouse effect is
increasing because of raised levels of these greenhouse gases:
carbon dioxide released by combustion of fossil fuels in power
stations and internal combustion engines (in cars and lorries,
for example)
methane produced in the guts of ruminants such as cows,
More methane is produced by
and in the waterlogged conditions of swamps and rice fields
termites than by all the ruminant
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) from aerosol propellants and
mammals on the Earth!
refrigerator coolants.
Effects
Good and bad results Visible and
Global warming (raised temperatures close to the Earth's surface) infrared
causes:
35 km
greater climatic extremes – strong winds, heavier
rainfall and unseasonal weather
melting of polar ice and changes in density of sea all may
water – rising sea levels and flooding cause loss
evaporation of water from fertile areas – deserts of crops
form Lower
pests may spread to new areas stratosphere
But
higher temperatures and more carbon dioxide mean more
photosynthesis and more food production.
15 km
Solutions Troposphere
To limit the effects of greenhouse gases, humans should:
reduce burning of fossil fuels – explore alternative energy sources
reduce cutting of forests for cattle ranching or rice growing
replant forests. Earth's
surface
p Some gases added to the atmosphere act like the panes of glass in a greenhouse and raise the temperature close to the
Earth’s surface
263
4.18 Human impacts on the environment: pollution
Acid rain
Causes Solutions
Human activities release acidic gases Acid rain can be reduced

Sulfur and nitrogen in fossil fuels are converted to oxides during combustion. Clean up emissions Clean up emissions from
More oxidation occurs in the clouds. Oxidation is catalysed by ozone and by from power car exhausts with
unburnt hydrocarbon fuels. stations with catalytic converters.
The oxides dissolve in water, and fall as acid rain. scrubbers.
sulfur dioxide H2O sulfuric and Scrubber Catalytic converters

and nitrogen oxides nitric acids ‘Clean’ clean up exhaust
gases emissions by
encouraging several
Effects
pollutants to react
Polluted together to give less
Acid rain causes problems Water
gases harmful products:
Soils become very acidic. This causes leaching of minerals and inhibition of spray
decomposition.
From engine
Water in lakes and rivers collects excess minerals. This causes death of fish
and invertebrates so that food chains are disrupted. NO, NO2, CO2,
Forest trees suffer starvation because of leaching of ions and destruction of unburnt fuel
Water and
photosynthetic tissue.
dissolved
pollutants Metal
catalysts
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12
‘Acid’ rain ‘Pure’ rain ‘Acid’ lakes and fields can be improved by the addition
CO2, H2O,
Rain of pH 4 is 100 times more acidic of crushed limestone (CaCO3) – this is very expensive
and N2
than rain of pH 6. and time consuming.
To exhaust
p Acid rain damages both living organisms and buildings made by humans. Acid rain
also causes pollution of water. Some lakes are almost empty of life as a result of pH
levels as low as 4 or 5.
Radioactive pollution particles can be stopped by a few centimetres of

The Earth’s environment is naturally radioactive air or a sheet of paper, however they are intensely
due to cosmic radiation emitted from space, ionising in the matter they pass through and can
and terrestrial radiation emitted from the cause more damage to living tissue than particles
Earth’s crust. However, this background level of with a longer path. Like alpha particles, beta
radiation is exceeded in many parts of the world particles lose their energy within a short distance
by contamination from human-made sources of and their biological significance is greatest if
radioactivity. a beta emitter is taken into the body. Gamma
radiation particles are similar to x-rays – they
‘Radiation’ here means ionising radiation
are deeply penetrating and strongly ionising;
(as opposed to other non-ionising radiation,
gamma rays can only be stopped by thick layers of
e.g. UV, infra-red, microwave). Radiation is
concrete, lead or steel.
emitted from radioactive substances as they
spontaneously decay and takes several forms. The decay of radioactive wastes takes a very long
The types of most concern are: time. Some radioactive substances have a half-life
■ alpha particles (α) of more than 10000 years, which means they are
■ beta particles (β) dangerous for a very long time. (The half-life is
■ gamma rays (γ). the ‘period of time required for the disintegration
of half of the atoms in a sample of a radioactive
Each type of radiation has different properties substance’.)
and different penetrating power; e.g. alpha
264
There are two major ways in which the atmosphere can become
polluted by radiation:
Nuclear power plants

i
Nuclear power plant accidents can endanger life and the surrounding
environment if the radioactive core is exposed and meltdown is occurring
and releasing large amounts of radioactivity. This happened at Chernobyl,
a nuclear power station in the Ukraine: an accident here destroyed the
Chernobyl-4 reactor and killed 30 people, including 28 from radiation
exposure. Large areas of Belarus, Ukraine, Russia and beyond were
contaminated in varying degrees, and an increased number of birth defects
were noted in the years following the disaster.
In 2011 a tsunami severely damaged the nuclear power station at
Fukushima, Japan. There are fears that marine life will be contaminated,
and a large area near the reactors is still considered uninhabitable.
Nuclear weapons
i
Nuclear weapon tests that are conducted above ground or under water can
release radiation into the atmosphere. A nuclear test is the explosive test
of a complete nuclear warhead – some tests in the twentieth century were
conducted in areas occupied by soldiers. Most of the troops ordered to take
part in the testing programme were not equipped with any specialised
protective clothing. They were simply ordered to turn their backs or cover
their eyes to avoid being blinded by the flash of the explosion. One former
soldier remembers having his hands over his eyes but the flash was so bright
that it acted like an x-ray and he could see all the bones in his hands.
Exposure to radioactivity frequently leads to various forms of cancer,
including leukaemia. The troops involved have suffered much higher cancer
rates than normal. However since cancer may take years to develop, it is
difficult to prove that a particular case is linked to a particular cause.
Non-biodegradable plastics ■ They can be mistakenly consumed by animals,

Plastics are widely used as packaging and on both land and in water. They block the
transporting materials. They are useful because animal’s digestive system and cause many
they can be shaped to fir different products, they deaths.
are light and they protect products (especially ■ They do not allow the passage of oxygen, so
foods) from fungi and bacteria. when they are present in landfill sites they
Many plastics are made from large hydrocarbon inhibit natural decomposition of other wastes.
molecules and cannot be decomposed by ■ If they are burned in an attempt to remove
normal microbial methods. Because they are so them they release toxic ‘smoky’ particles,
widespread and they are non-biodegradable they which can affect breathing and have a long-
can have severe environmental effects. They can term effect on health.
pollute both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. These plastics are very light, and so when
■ They can block the passage of water through
discarded they easily blow from place to place.
drainage channels, leading to waterlogging of They make the environment less attractive (they
soils. This reduces oxygenation and so affects lower the amenity value of the environment) and
soil fertility. often become lined up against natural windbreaks
such as hedgerows and stands of trees.
265
4.18 Human impacts on the environment: pollution
Pesticides
Causes
Over-use of pesticides on agricultural land (e.g. to

protect a crop from insects) or directly on water
(e.g. to kill an aquatic stage of an insect) can raise DDT concentration in parts per million:
pesticide levels in water. The pesticide levels are
then amplified as they pass through food chains.
For example, one stickleback may consume 500
Daphnia. The living matter in the Daphnia will
be used for raw materials or lost as heat but Water Plankton Daphnia Stickleback Grebe
the pesticide remains concentrated in the 0.02 5 50 250 1500
tissues of the stickleback.
Effects Solutions
High concentrations of pesticides may accumulate in the Use degradable pesticides – DDT, for example, lasts for a long time and so
tissues of top carnivores. The pesticide may be toxic (and its use is banned in the UK.
kill the carnivore) or may affect its metabolism. DDT, used Explore alternative methods, such as biological pest control.
to control mosquitoes in malarial zones, severely reduced Crops that are genetically modified to resist attack by insects may reduce
breeding success in birds of prey. the need to use insecticides.
Female contraceptive hormones are washed into water

when they excreted in urine. They:
■ reduce sperm count in men
■ Iead to feminisation of aquatic organisms (causing
imbalance of gender in fish populations, for example).
Q
1 Sea otters eat fish, and fish eat small crustaceans such a Plot these data in the form of a line graph. Choose
as shrimps. The shrimps feed by filtering algae from the axes to display the information in the way that best
water. relates the abiotic factor to the biotic factors.
a Write out a food chain that links these organisms. b Suggest why the number of bacteria was high at
b Pesticides are washed from nearby farmland into 0 m.
rivers and then into the sea. Farmers say that the c Explain the shape of the curve for algae.
concentration of the pesticides is too low to directly d How is it possible for fish numbers to fall to zero
affect the otters. Explain how the pesticides might and then recover?
still cause the death of the otters. e Describe the changes in the concentration of oxygen
2 Untreated human sewage should not enter river water, dissolved in the water downstream from the point
but occasionally an overflow from a water treatment of sewage entry.
plant occurs. The tables below contain information on f Explain what might have caused these changes in
the changes that occurred in river water downstream oxygen concentration.
from a sewage overflow.
Distance downstream / m Concentration of dissolved Number / arbitrary units of

oxygen / percentage of Distance downstream / m bacteria algae fish
maximum 0 (point of sewage entry) 88 20 20
0 (point of sewage entry) 95
100 79 8 6
100 30
200 74 7 1
200 20
300 60 21 0
300 28
400 51 40 0
400 42
500 58 500 48 70 0
600 70 600 44 83 0
700 80 700 42 90 0
800 89 800 39 84 0
900 95 900 36 68 4
1000 100 1000 35 55 20
266
4.19 Pollution of water: eutrophication

Objectives
photosynthesising aquatic plants. Simpler forms
■ To recall why water is important to living organisms
of life, such as algae and bacteria, are controlled
■ To understand that water supplies oxygen to living
because the low concentration of nutrients such
organisms
as nitrate is a limiting factor for their growth. If
■ To know how excess nutrients in water lead to depletion
more nutrients are made available, from fertiliser
of oxygen levels
runoff or from sewage, then:
■ To recall other aspects of water pollution
■ Algae and other surface plants grow very
rapidly, and block out light to plants rooted on
The causes of oxygen depletion the bottom of the river or pond.
All living organisms depend on a supply of water, ■ The rooted plants die, and their bodies provide
as we saw on page 236. Many organisms actually even more nutrients.
live in water. Most of these aquatic organisms ■ The population of bacteria increases rapidly. As
respire aerobically and so require oxygen from they multiply, the bacteria consume oxygen for
their environment. Any change that alters the aerobic respiration. There is now a biological
amount of oxygen in the water can seriously affect oxygen demand (or BOD) in the water because
the suitability of the water as a habitat. The two of oxygen consumed by these microbes.
pollutants that most often reduce oxygen in ■ Other living creatures cannot obtain enough
water are: oxygen. They must leave the area, if they can,
■ Fertilisers – nitrates and phosphates are or they will die. Their bodies provide even
added to soil by farmers (see page 258). Some more food for bacteria, and the situation
of the fertiliser is washed from the soil by becomes even worse. This is an example of
rain into the nearest pond, lake or river. This positive feedback – the change from ideal
process is called leaching. conditions causes an even greater change from
■ Sewage – this contains an excellent source of ideal conditions.
organic food for bacteria, and also contains
The lower diagram overleaf shows what happens
phosphates from detergents (see page 74).
if a pond or river receives too many nutrients. The
How fertilisers and sewage affect the process is called eutrophication. The pond or
oxygen concentration river soon becomes depleted of living organisms.
Water that contains few nutrients is rich in Only a few animals, such as Tubifex (sewage
oxygen and supports a wide variety of living worms), can respire at the very low oxygen
organisms. The oxygen enters the water concentrations that are available. The solution to
from the atmosphere by diffusion and from this problem is straightforward – do not allow
excess nutrients into the water.
Sea water can also be polluted!

Marine environments are affected by human activities:
■ spillage of oil which can seriously reduce oxygen levels on the
seabed as well as reducing waterproofing properties of seabirds’
feathers
■ radioactive compounds from cooling of nuclear power stations
■ temperature changes caused by global warming.
267
4.19 Pollution of water: eutrophication
A well-balanced natural pond or river
Populations of algae and bacteria are

limited by low levels of nutrients.
Invertebrates and fish can

Light penetrates to
obtain enough oxygen
rooted plants which
for aerobic respiration.
photosynthesise,
producing oxygen.
A nutrient-enriched pond or river
Leaching of inorganic
Input of raw sewage Soluble nitrate fertilisers from farmland
and phosphate
Algae and green protoctists

use nutrients to multiply
rapidly – algal bloom.
Die Reduction of light for

bottom-growing plants
Aerobic organisms Positive feedback Large quantities of
(fish and invertebrates) organic material Die
die from lack of oxygen.
Aerobic decomposers
(mainly bacteria)
multiply and
consume oxygen.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is the mass

of oxygen consumed by microorganisms in a sample of water.
Many garden ponds become eutrophic because of It is determined by measuring oxygen concentration with an
leaves falling into them in autumn. To improve oxygen electrode before and after a period of microbial
conditions for fish, ponds should be sited well away respiration. It shows the oxygen that is not available to
from overhanging trees. more advanced organisms.
Causes of eutrophication Effects Solutions
Unnaturally high levels of nutrients: Depleted oxygen levels in water Treat sewage before it enters rivers (see page 276).
from leaching of fertilisers cause death of fish and most Prevent farmyard drainage entering rivers and ponds.
from input of raw sewage invertebrates. High nitrate levels Control use of fertilisers:
from liquid manure (slurry) can be dangerous to human – apply only when crops are growing
washed out of farmyards. babies. – never apply to bare fields
– do not apply when rain is forecast
– do not dispose of waste fertiliser into rivers and ponds.
Bubble a stream of air through badly polluted ponds.
268
4.20 Humans may have a positive effect on

the environment: conservation of species
Objectives
■ Pest control – the term pest includes any
■ To understand that humans may have a
species that causes inconvenience to humans.
beneficial effect on the environment
Many species have been hunted ruthlessly,
■ To realise that conservation often involves compromise
such as red deer (which damage trees), and
■ To understand a conservation strategy
also predators such as cheetahs, and scavengers
■ To know some examples of successful conservation
such as vultures.
■ Commercial exploitation – species of value to
Humans do not always damage the environment – humans have been exploited, such as the tiger
growing numbers of conservationists try to which has been hunted and trapped for fur and
balance the human demands on the environment medicinal compounds.
with the need to maintain wildlife habitat. They ■ Loss of habitat – more land is being used for
will try to assess the likely effects of any human agriculture, including previously unusable land
activity by producing an Environmental Impact that has been drained. This removes habitats
Statement. for many species, such as wading birds and
amphibians.
Forest management
Humans have been responsible for deforestation Conservationists work to slow down or stop the
of much of the Earth’s surface. Humans have decline in biodiversity (the number of different
also set up schemes for the large-scale planting species), and also to raise public awareness of the
of trees – in areas that have been cleared need to maintain species and their habitats. The
(reforestation) or in a new site (afforestation). number of different species in a community of
There are a number of reasons for planting trees: living organisms can be described by a formula
■ as a cash crop, providing timber for building called the Species Diversity Index.
(coniferous plantations in the UK) or for fuel
(quick-growing eucalyptus trees are widely
Conservation strategies
Conservation involves management of an area,
planted in central Africa)
and may include a number of strategies:
■ to reverse soil erosion, particularly valuable in
■ Preservation – keeping some part of the
areas that have become deserts
environment unchanged. This might be
■ to provide valuable wildlife habitats – for
possible in Antarctica, but is less significant in
example, Scots pine plantations are important
a densely populated area like Britain than …
habitats for red squirrels
■ Reclamation – the restoration of damaged
■ as recreational areas, providing leisure activities
habitats such as replacing hedgerows or
such as camping and mountain-biking.
recovering former industrial sites, and …
A well-managed forest can combine all of these ■ Creation – producing new habitats, for example
functions. Forestry managers around the world by digging a garden pond, or planting a forest.
apply biological knowledge to the management
A conservation plan involves several stages:
of forests, as illustrated in the programme for
■ sampling to assess the number of organisms
conservation of red squirrels outlined opposite.
■ devising a management plan – for example,
Endangered species trying to increase a species’ population based
Competition between humans and other living on knowledge of its breeding requirements
organisms means that many species have ■ carrying out the plan
disappeared or declined in number. The reasons ■ re-sampling to assess the number of the
for this are not always understood, but the ‘conserved’ species once more, and find out
following may be to blame: whether the conservation plan has worked. 269
The red squirrel in the UK Conservation plans to support red squirrel

The red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) used to be numbers are shown in the diagram below.
widespread in Britain, but in most areas it has now Introducing a species from another country often
been replaced by the larger grey squirrel (Sciurus causes problems for native wildlife.
carolinensis) which was introduced into Britain
from North America. There are a number of
possible reasons for the decline of the red squirrel:
Q
■ Competition with the grey squirrel – the red
1 Briefly describe why red squirrels are endangered in
squirrel feeds mainly on seeds from pine cones.
Britain. Outline a conservation strategy which might
The grey squirrel eats a wider range of foods.
help to guarantee their survival.
■ Disease – the grey squirrel may carry a virus
2 What is meant by the term conservation? Why is
which harms red squirrels. conservation necessary?
■ Habitat loss – many recent forest plantings 3 It is sometimes stated that ‘Conservation is a
have been composed of trees all of the same compromise’. Explain whether you think that this
age, and have often been of sitka spruce, which statement is a valid one. Use examples to illustrate
produces small seeds and sheds them early in your answer.
the year, leaving little food for red squirrels in
the winter.
Tree species chosen to provide a food source Competitor grey squirrels can be poisoned using warfarin-baited food in a
that favours red squirrels, such as ‘grey-squirrel-selective’ hopper. This strategy is restricted by legislation, but many
broad-leaved species that produce small landowners favour it because of damage to trees by grey squirrels.
seeds and are less attractive to the grey
squirrels. Species favoured by the grey Immunosterilisation – a vaccine could sterilise both male and female grey squirrels whilst
squirrels may be removed. Coniferous leaving red squirrels unaffected. This could reduce the grey squirrel population in a
species might include Norway spruce and humane way because it has little effect on the squirrels other than to make them sterile.
Scots pine, both of which shed their seeds
late and thus provide a year-round supply of Habitat management – red-squirrel
food for the red squirrels. reserves should be surrounded by at
least 3 km of conifer forest or open
land to act as a buffer against the
entry of grey squirrels.
Supplementary feeding using
hoppers that only allow access
to red squirrels. These are Seed-producing areas
placed in clusters of two or
three about 20–30 m apart,
and filled with a mixture of
yellow maize, wheat, peanuts
and sunflower seeds. They
must be inspected and filled
frequently.
Tree
corridor
Clump of nesting trees

Reintroduction of red
squirrels – survival and 30% 30%
behaviour of the 40% of trees 16–30 0–15
introduced red squirrels > 30 years old years old years old
must be carefully
monitored by radio Clear felled area
tracking and field
observation. Forest management to provide both
food and shelter. When clear felling,
some single seed-producing trees
should be left, and some small groups
as nesting sites. Seed-producing areas
should be connected by corridors of
trees to prevent isolation and allow
movement between one area and the
next.
p Conservation plans to support red squirrel populations involve habitat management for food provision
270
Flagship species Some successes for captive breeding

Large, attractive and ‘cuddly’ species attract in zoos
funding from agencies and donations from the
Père David’s First made known to Western science in the 19th
public. These flagship species are often mammals –
deer century, the only surviving herd was in a preserve
pandas and dolphins for example – but the funds (Elaphurus belonging to the Chinese emperor. After the
they raise help other animals and plants which davidianus) remaining population in China was lost the
share their habitats, but which may be less remaining deer in Europe were transported to
England: the current population stems from this
attractive to humans. herd. Two herds of Père David’s deer were
reintroduced to China in the late 1980s. In spite of
the small population size, the animals do not
appear to suffer genetic problems.
Przewalski’s The wild population in Mongolia died out in the
horse 1960s; a program of exchange between captive
(Equus populations in zoos throughout the world was
przewalskii) started to reduce inbreeding. In 1992, sixteen
horses were released into the wild in Mongolia,
followed by additional animals later on. These
reintroduced horses successfully reproduced, and
the status of the animal was changed from
’extinct in the wild’ to ’endangered’ in 2005.
In October 2007 scientists at the Smithsonian
Institution’s National Zoo realised that a Przewalsk’s
horse was one of the most genetically valuable
Przewalski horses in the breeding programme and
successfully reversed a vasectomy on it.
Arabian oryx Eliminated in the wild by hunting: restocked in
(Oryx leucoryx) Oman and Jordan from populations in London,
Phoenix and San Diego zoos.
Mauritius Severe decline in the 1950s and 1960s due to
kestrel indiscriminate DDT use and invasive species like
p Giant Pandas are one of the most (Falco cats, mongooses and crab-eating macaques which
recognisable of animals. Even though they punctatus) killed the kestrels and their eggs. Breeding
are solitary and rather bad-tempered, programme began at Durrell Wildlife Preservation
people like them – this means that they Trust - now up to 800 individuals in the wild.
attract income from nature lovers. Golden Lion Population decline due to deforestation in western
Tamarin coastal forests of Brazil. In the 1970s the Brazilian
(Leontopithecus government provided zoos with Golden Lion
rosalia) Tamarins which were successfully bred and
Captive breeding and the role of zoos disseminated to zoos around the world (especially
Many animal species are threatened by habitat Jersey Zoo and the Smithsonian Zoo in Washington,
degradation, fragmentation and destruction. US). Over the next 10 years the government
succeeded in establishing forest reserves in Brazil
IUCN estimate that only 3% of the planet is that allowed reintroduction of the Tamarins. This
designated as a protected reserve and that, on captive breeding programme effectively bought the
average, one mammal, bird or reptile species has time needed for the original habitat to be
conserved. There are now an estimated 1000 wild
been lost each year for the last hundred years.
Tamarins and 600 in captivity.
Certain groups of species are particularly at risk –
Lowland Gorilla Critically endangered by war and by bushmeat
those with a restricted distribution, those of high (Gorilla gorilla trade: breeding at Port Lympne Zoo in Kent has
economic value, those at the top of food chains gorilla) released animals into special reserves in the
and those in climax habitats. Gabon and the Congo. First ‘wild’ births to these
reintroduced animals in 2008.
Zoos are areas of confinement keeping samples of
species alive under varying degrees of captivity.
The role of zoos in captive breeding is becoming
more and more important.
271
4.21 Managing fish stocks: science and the

fishing industry
fish to work out how long they take to reach
Objectives
breeding age. what their maximum size will be
■ To understand the value of fish as a food source and which diseases they might be susceptible
■ To know how fishing methods increase yield to. This allows scientists to advise on net mesh
■ To understand how overfishing has reduced fish stocks sizes which should be used to catch adult fish,
■ To appreciate that the management of fish stocks and to suggest fishing methods which will limit
depends on scientific research the catch of ‘trash’ fish (fish which are not used
for human food). Fishing methods and mesh
sizes used in herring fishing are shown below.
Fish as a source of food
Fish has been a valuable food source for humans
Seine (‘purse-seine’) netting – the net is towed to the school
for thousands of years. Fish is an excellent source of herring by two boats. The fish are surrounded by the net and
of protein and, depending on species, of oils. the bottom of the ‘purse’ is sealed by pulling on the rope. The
net is slowly tightened so that the fish are concentrated in a
Scientists are becoming more aware of the value small volume of water - the immature fish have time to escape.
of fish oils in preventing some of the ‘diseases of The captured fish are lifted from the water using hand nets -
affluence’, such as coronary heart disease (see this limits the damage to the fish and so reduces wastage.
page 92). It is very important that humans include

certain oily compounds (especially unsaturated
fatty acids) in their diet, and these oily compounds
are extremely abundant in some fish species.
float line
Science and fishing

Scientists make many contributions to our
understanding of the value of fishing. These include
■ Indentification of valuable species: the ‘oily’

fish are typically those which swim actively
near the surface of the sea (pelagic species).
These species have a high lipid content in their purse line
bodies because they need to use these stores Mesh – square mesh does not close up to trap small fish
of energy in their lengthy periods of rapid whereas older diamond mesh did.
swimming. Of these species, the herring has 120 mm mesh size catches mature herring but allows small cod
been a particularly significant source of food and haddock to escape.
to those nations bordering the North Atlantic p Mesh and methods used in herring fishing.
Ocean.
■ Study of fish populations: scientists are able ■ Understanding of fish migratory patterns:
to show how the population of any species ecologists have been able to ‘tag’ fish and
changes over the course of time (see page 240). release them. These fish are sometimes
They are able to predict how many fish can be recaptured at a later date, and the ecologists
removed from a population without reducing are able to work out the patterns of migration
the overall numbers, and they can estimate of the fish. They can then advise the fishing
how long a population will take to recover fleet about where and when they are likely to
from overfishing. obtain the best catches of mature fish.
■ Knowledge of the growth pattern of individual
fish: it is possible to study small groups of
272
Overfishing and the herring population ■ Protection of fisheries: the EU set a limit of
Herring fishing become extremely efficient in the 320 km around their waters in an attempt to
mid- to late-1960s. As a result the North Atlantic control fishing by non-EU countries. These
herring population fell dramatically, as shown in limits have been very difficult to enforce,
the graph below. and have often led to confrontation between
fisherman and governments from different
2.0
countries.
■ Reduction of fishing fleets: Governments are
encouraged to provide subsidies to fishermen
1.5 whose livelihood has been threatened (or
(millions of tonnes)
Herring stock
even destroyed) by the measures listed above.

The British Government has been reluctant
1.0
to support these schemes, and many fishing
communities have been devastated by the strict
0.5 control of herring fishing.
As with many situations, there are no clear-cut
answers. Fishermen understand that herring
stocks must be allowed to recover but are
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
naturally anxious about making a living. The
Year
scientists can only advise, the governments must
p Herring population changes in the North Atlantic
act on this advice!
Reasons for this population crash included:
■ Shoal location becomes more efficient as radar Q
systems become freely available. 1 The table shows the chemical composition of some
■ Larger and safer boats meant that fisheries common fish species.
extended as boats could remain further from Species Protein / % Lipid / %
port even in bad weather.
Cod 17 0.7
■ Fishing was often ‘mixed’ i.e. fishing for one
Herring 17 19
species would often catch other species of
Mackerel 18 11
similar size. These other species might not
Salmon 22 9
be at the same growth stage, and so their
population could not be maintained. a Plot this information in the form of a bar chart.
The situation become so severe that herring b Which compound will make up the bulk of the
fishing is now very tightly controlled by the rest of the fish?
European Union. Some of the measures designed c Why are oily fish beneficial to health?
d Fish are also rich in minerals such as iron. How
to limit overfishing are listed below.
does this help in a healthy diet?
■ Control of mesh: both the size and the shape
2 a Studies of individual fish species such as herring
of the mesh are designed to allow immature
indicate the age and size at which they reach
fish to escape.
maturity. Why is it better to catch herring after
■ Setting of quotas: the EU set up a Common they reach maturity rather than before?
Fisheries Policy in 1983 in an attempt to limit b What is the advantage in fish conservation of
the size of catches. Unfortunately scientists using purse-seine netting?
now believe that initial quotas were too high, c Describe how ecologists can provide information
and even the reduced quotas now in force have that might lead to conservation of fish stocks.
not allowed herring populations to recover. d Suggest three ways in which the British
The fishermen were tempted to catch more Government can help stocks of herring in the
than their quota but to throw back the smaller, North Atlantic to recover.
less marketable fish. Unfortunately these fish
were often damaged by capture and did not
survive to reproduce. 273
4.22 Conservation efforts worldwide

Although the demands on land – for agriculture,
mining and building – are increasing in almost CITES Convention for Trade in Endangered Species:
every country around the world, many scientists controls the transfer of wildlife and wildlife
are trying to maintain biodiversity by managing products between member countries.
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
the populations of endangered species. This
and Natural Resources.
management is always a compromise, since Red Data Book List of all those species at risk: includes categories
humans usually place their own requirements such as ‘vulnerable’, ‘at risk’, ‘endangered’ and
above those of wildlife. As a result the conservation ‘critically endangered’. Updated every three years.
managers must be prepared to plan to balance the WWF Worldwide Fund for Nature: organisation which
attracts public funding for conservation projects.
needs of local people with the scientists’ long-term
rare A species limited to a few areas but in no
plans to conserve individual species. immediate danger.
vulnerable A species which is likely to become endangered if
the causes of its decline continue.
endangered A species which is unlikely to survive if the causes
of its decline continue.
extinct A species for which there have been no confirmed
sightings for 50 years.
Some examples of species conservation are

outlined on the map on the opposite page. In
each case note that there is a reason why the
species is endangered. There is also a suggested
management plan to try to maintain a breeding
population of the species under threat. Also see
the importance of scientific research into the
p Egrets have suffered for many years biology of species, particularly into the breeding
as they were shot for their feathers. requirements of endangered species.
Conservation measures mean that the
Cattle Egret is beginning to breed
successfully, even in the UK.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT REQUIRES MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICTING DEMANDS
HUMANS and WILDLIFE
Reduce risk of extinction

Require sufficient land by over-hunting.
area to grow crops.
Maintain population size

high enough to maintain
Livestock must be genetic variation.
protected from
predators.
Protect suitable habitat,
which must provide food,
PLANNING AND COOPERATION AT DIFFERENT LEVELS shelter and breeding sites.
local: farmers, for example
national: government regulations
international: conservation bodies
such as WWF
274
Poison dart frogs in Central America Tiger in Sumatra, Siberia and India Snow leopard in Pakistan and Nepal
a Loss of habitat, due to deforestation a Hunting for fur, bones, teeth and blood which a Hunting for fur, bones, teeth and
and drainage of wetlands. are used in Chinese traditional medicines. blood which are used in some
b A series of viral and fungal diseases. b Competition for land with villagers, who cannot traditional medicines.
afford to lose livestock to predation by the tigers. b Conflict with villagers, who cannot
Setting up protected areas, with
In some areas, tigers can pose a direct threat to afford to lose livestock to predation
buffer zones to prevent the spread
humans as they are such powerful predators. by the leopards.
of contagious diseases. Education
programmes which emphasise that Setting up protected areas such as fenced Snow leopard populations are carefully
amphibians are often a good sanctuaries, conservation areas and intensive monitored by cameras being set on
indicator of the ‘health’ of our protection zones, especially in National Parks. established trails. Some animal
planet. Research into disease, and Trade in tiger products is banned by CITES. movements can also be tracked using
into the breeding success of these Tiger populations in the wild have fallen so radio collars. Government bodies
animals. dramatically that captive breeding (see page 273) provide financial compensation to
is now responsible for keeping up numbers of villagers, and set up education
most subspecies. programmes which show local people
the possible benefits of eco-tourism.
165 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 11
Arctic Ocean SVALBARD

Arctic Ocean
(NORWAY)
FRANZ JOSEFF
LAND
G r e e n l a n d
DENMARK
75
R U S S I A
ICELAND SWEDEN
FINLAND
NORWAY
EST.
C A N A D A UNITED-
LAT.
KINGDOM DENMARK LITH.
IRELAND NETHER- BELARUS

LANDS POLAND
GERMANY
BEl.
LUX. CZ. REP. UKRAINE
SLOV. KAZAKHSTAN
AUS. HUNG. MOLDOVA
FRANCE. SWITZ.
SLO. CRO.
ROMANIA MONGOLIA
45
ITALY BULGARIA UZ
GEORGIA BEK KYRGYZSTAN
ALB. IST
North North PORTUGAL
SPAIN ARMENIA
TU
RK AN NORTH
North
U N I T E D S T A T E S GREECE TURKEY MEN
ISTA TAJIKISTAN KOREA
Pacific Atlantic N SOUTH JAPAN Pacific
Ocean Ocean TUNISIA
MALTA
CYPRUS
LEB.
SYRIA
AFGHANISTAN CHINA KOREA
Ocean
MOROCCO ISRAEL IRAQ IRAN
JORDAN
30 KUWAIT
TAIWAN
PAKISTAN NEPA BHUTAN
ALGERIA L
LIBYA BAHRAIN
THE WESTERN EGYPT QATAR
BAHAMAS SAHARA SAUDI UNITED ARAB BANGLADESH
M
EMIRATES
INDIA
EX
CUBA ARABIA BURMA

IC
O
AN
HAITI DOMINICAN
OM
MAURITANIA LAOS NORTHERN
BELIZE REPUBLIC CAPE VERDE MARIANA
JAMAIQUE NIGER
MALI THAILAND ISLANDS
15 GUATEMALA HONDURAS SENEGAL CHAD ERITREA
YEM
EN
(U.S.)
VIETNAM
EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA THE GAMBIA BURKINA SUDAN CAMBODIA GUAM
GUINEA-BISSAU FASO DJIBOUTI
PHILIPPINES (U.S.)
GRENADA AND GUINEA BENIN
COSTA RICA PANAMA TRINIDAD NIGERIA
TOGO
FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA

GHANA
SIERRA LEONE COTE ETHIOPIA

VENEZUELA D’ IVORY CENTRAL MARSHALL
GUYANA LIBERIA AFRICAN REPUBLIC PALAU ISLANDS
French Guiana SRI LANKA BRUNEI
IA
CAMEROON MALDIVES
COLOMBIA SURINAM MALAYSIA
AL
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
M
UGANDA
KENYA
SO
REP. OF
0
LIN
SAO TOME & P. RWANDA

ECUADOR GABON THE CONGO NAURU
KIRIBATI
E IS
KIRIBATI DEMOCRATIC
LAND
REPUBLIC OF BURUNDI
B R A Z I L I N D O N E S I A PAPUA SOLOMON
S
CONGO TANZANIA NEW GUINEA ISLANDS

SEYCHELLES
PERU TUVALU
COMOROS
South Pacific ANGOLA MALAWI
–15 ZAMBIA
Ocean BOLIVIA E
VANUATU FIJI
R
South QU
GASCA
FRENCH POLYNESIA ZIMBABWE MAURITIUS TONGA

MBI
FRANCH
Atlantic NAMIBIA
MOZA
MADA
PARAGUAY BOTSWANA
Indian
Ocean
Ocean AUSTRALIA
SWAZILAND
–30 SOUTH
AFRICA LESOTHO
URUGUAY
ARGENTINA
CHILE
NEW
ZEALAND
–45
Sun Sun Sun Sun

1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 24:00 00:00 1:00
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 11
Macaws in Brazil Cheetahs in Namibia Elephants in Botswana Rhinoceros in Africa

a The destruction of the rainforest and a Loss of habitat causes a Poaching of adults for a Loss of habitat as
other Macaw habitats by the logging/ competition with local ivory: apart from death agricultural development
timber industries. Without proper people, who believe that of individuals this upsets increases.
nesting sites, these parrots cannot breed. cheetahs kill domestic family relationships so b Hunting for horn, which
b The capture of Macaws for the pet trade. livestock. that younger elephants is mistakenly believed to
As the birds become rarer, their value b Hunting for fur. do not learn survival have medicinal properties.
becomes ever higher. This can be an c The cheetahs’ own skills and whole
Setting up protected areas
enormous income to local people. breeding habits, and populations are put at
such as fenced sanctuaries
low genetic variability. risk.
Protection of habitat is vital to and intensive protection
b Animals may be shot if
conservation of populations in the wild: Trusts have been set up zones especially in
they trample crops or
the birds can only breed in mature trees to look after and National Parks. Surplus
damage fences in villages.
and require large areas for foraging for rehabilitate cheetahs animals have been
food. Several key areas in Brazil and in trapped on farmland. Game wardens can be translocated to set up
Costa Rica have been set aside as CITES has banned trade paid for by the tourist new populations within
suitable habitats. in fur of spotted cats. industry. Some people and outside the species'
The trade in Macaws has been banned Breeding studies have argue that controlled former range. Controlled
by CITES, and only licensed owners can learned more about the ‘trophy’ hunting can sport hunting of surplus
keep these birds. Captive breeding has unusual breeding provide funds to warden males, for example,
been necessary to try to rebuild some requirements of cheetah the populations more attracts investment in
populations (ten years ago there was (several males must effectively. Trade in ivory rhino conservation. Trade
believed to be only one Spix’s Macaw left ‘court’ a female for her can be banned by CITES, in rhino products is
in the wild). to become receptive) so or very closely controlled banned by CITES.
captive breeding has by government
become more reliable. organisations.
p Worldwide conservation programmes
275
4.23 Conservation of resources: recycling

water by the treatment of sewage
Objectives
■ The sewage can overflow, especially during
■ To recall that pathogens cause disease only when they
rainy periods. This allows faeces, perhaps
gain access to body tissues
contaminated with human pathogens, to reach
■ To recognise that food and water are possible means of
water supplies and agricultural land. The sewage
entry to body tissues
(and pathogens) can be washed down through
■ To understand the processes involved in the provision of
a safe water supply the soil and contaminate nearby water supplies.
Where a good water supply is available, a flush
WC is connected to the water carriage system and
Limiting the spread of diseases a flow of water carries the waste away.
Pathogenic microbes can only cause disease if they
are able to enter the body and invade the tissues.
The body has defences against disease, but there
are a number of weaknesses (see page 96). For
Water trap (stops
example, food and water may contain pathogenic smell from sewer
microbes. Salmonella and Escherichia coli (E. coli), entering house)
flush pipe
which cause food poisoning, enter the body in this
way, and so do Cholera vibrio and Amoeba which Unpleasant smells
are waterborne organisms causing cholera and
pipe to sewer
dysentery, respectively. We try to protect ourselves
from these diseases by making sure our drinking
p Diagram of a lavatory pan or water closet (W.C.).
water, milk and foods are pathogen-free. Water is flushed around the rim, down the sides, and
through the U-bend. Water retained in the U-bend seals off
Safe water: sanitation and water
smells from the sewer.
treatment
Living organisms need water for a number of The waste is then treated at a sewage treatment
reasons (see page 236). Water can be lost very plant so that the valuable water can be recycled.
rapidly from the human body and we need access The page opposite shows one type of sewage
to a supply of drinking water. Water supplies are treatment plant called the activated sludge system.
kept potable (pathogen-free and drinkable) by
The treatment of the sewage has two functions:
both sanitation and by sewage treatment.
■ to destroy or eliminate potential pathogens –
Sanitation is the removal of faeces from waste
either by the high temperature in the anaerobic
water so that any pathogens they contain cannot
digestion tank, or by chlorination of the water
infect drinking water.
before it is discharged
Pit latrine ■ to remove organic compounds (mainly in
In camps and in isolated houses sewage can be faeces and urine). These might otherwise
disposed of in a hole. The hole is dug deep enough contribute to the biological oxygen demand
to accept a large quantity of sewage (ideally (BOD – see page 267) of the water into which
several metres deep), and then filled in with soil the treated sewage is discharged. Organic
to keep away flies and rats. This type of disposal compounds are digested by fungi and bacteria.
system – called a ‘long drop’ or pit latrine - is In the activated sludge chamber, powerful jets of
cheap to produce and does not depend on running air keep the sludge aerated so that the processes of
water, but has several disadvantages: decomposition and nitrification (see page 234) can
■ The smell can be extremely unpleasant, be completed in 8–12 hours. This means that large
276 especially in tropical areas. quantities of sewage can be processed very quickly.
Sewage treatment provides clean water by a combination of physical and biological methods
First settlement tank allows

suspended solids to precipitate as
Sewage input Screening uses a coarse metal
crude sewage sludge (the process is Aerobic digestion
contains water, faeces, grid to remove floating debris
sometimes speeded up by the addition uses bacteria and fungi
urine, detergents, grit such as sticks, paper, nappies
of FeCl3) so that suspended solids and to convert organic
and sundry household and rags – these might
dissolved solutes can be treated compounds to simple,
items, and potential otherwise block pumps and
separately. inorganic forms.
pathogens! pipes.
Effluent
Sedimentation allows grit

to settle – this would
otherwise damage the
pumps that move the
sewage through the plant. Activated sludge
Air jets
Sludge
Second settlement tank
allows any remaining
suspended solids to precipitate
– the remaining effluent now
has a much lower BOD and a
minimal pathogen count so
that it can be discharged into
natural waterways.
Digested sludge may be:
dried and sold as fertiliser
To river, sea
used to promote
or reservoir
decomposition of waste
in landfill sites
dumped at sea
incinerated.
Anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge involves several stages: Methane produced during Key
1 A wide range of microbes hydrolyse: anaerobic digestion is burned to:
fats fatty acids power pumps and other Physical methods
proteins amino acids machinery in the plant
carbohydrates sugars raise the temperature in the Biological methods
2 … and then produce methane. anaerobic digester to 55 °C –
If these processes are not carefully regulated (they are, for example, this kills pathogens and speeds
sensitive to pH changes) they become inefficient and very smelly! up the digestion process.
277
4.24 Saving fossil fuels: fuel from

fermentation
Objectives
Solid fuel using natural woodland causes environmental
■ To recall that microbes carry out fermentation reactions problems but there are alternatives.
■ To appreciate that fermentation products may be used
as fuel rather than as food
Natural woodland – live cutting:
■ To list examples of fuels generated by microbial see deforestation (page 260).
fermentation reactions
Fermentations make products which can be

used as fuel. Biomass fuels use raw materials
produced by photosynthesis. These materials are
from plants and can therefore be regenerated. Fallen, dead wood: lesser
Biomass fuels include: environmental problem, but still
loss of habitat and nutrients.
■ solid fuels – wood, charcoal and vegetable
waste
■ liquid fuels – alcohol and vegetable oil Cut wood: may have to be carried
long distances. Heavy because of
■ gaseous fuel – biogas (a methane/carbon
water content – much time/energy
dioxide mixture). spent in wood-gathering.
The production of these biomass fuels is described

in the following diagrams: this can help to reduce
our use of fossil fuels, which are non-renewable. Heating wood without air present produces almost pure
carbon, called charcoal.
This fuel:
Q burns slowly, releasing much heat
causes very little pollution.
1 What is a biomass fuel? What advantages might the
use of biomass fuels offer? Producing charcoal
2 What are the environmental benefits of quick- Turf covering wood to
Wood slowly burning keep out air
growing species of tree?
3 Look at the diagram opposite.
a Suggest three products which could be sold, apart
from the alcohol produced.
b Both amylase and cellulase are involved in the
preparation of the glucose feedstock for a
gasohol generator. Suggest the exact function of
these enzymes.
c How has genetic engineering helped the gasohol
Quick-growing tree species may provide renewable fuel
industry? e.g. eucalyptus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo …
d A typical American car travels 10 000 miles a year
at 15 m.p.g. This consumes the alcohol generated
by the fermentation of 5000 kg of grain. A human
on a subsistence diet consumes about 200 kg of Erect, regular growth habit means
easy cutting and storing.
grain per year. Comment on these figures.
Rapid growth – 8 m in 3 years.
4 Give two benefits that biogas generators offer to High resin/oil content means it is clean-
rural communities in poor countries. burning, giving out much heat.
5 Why are biogas generators built underground?
6 Why would it be inefficient to add disinfected … and sweet chestnut from coppices in Kent may fuel local
power stations.
household waste to the biogas generator?
278
Liquid fuel - ethanol Fermentation and distillation stages

The raw material is called feedstock are energy demanding*
USA uses Corn Brazil uses Sugar cane Bubble CO2 to encourage
anaerobic conditions
Soak (then use Wash and
the liquid as crush Sugar
cattle feed)
Seed Cane pulp Other
Grind – separates Enzymes Separation – waste is nutrients
germ, producing amylases and bagasse. This is burned, DISTILLATION
corn oil cellulases giving energy for distillation*
Starch Syrup
Alcohol
Purification – impure solution
Enzymatic hydrolysis Dried yeast
sucrose solution (15–20%)
uses amylase vitamins Pure
(molasses) cattle feed
‘Marmite®’ ethanol
fermentation
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
(glucose) (alcohol)
Fermentation agent Fuel value of gasohol Environmental impact

the yeast Saccharomyces. start engine on high alcohol fuels do not require
Useful mutants/engineered strains can: petrol/alcohol mixture ‘anti-knock’ additives
cope with high temperatures generated during fermentation once warm, engine runs alcohol fuels produce fewer
survive at higher alcohol concentrations (up to 15%, compared well on alcohol alone. emissions such as CO, SO2 and NO
with 8 –9% for ‘normal’ strains) process does not increase CO2 in
respire anaerobically even when O2 is present. atmosphere (photosynthesis of
feedstock removes the CO2 which
is generated by combustion)
Gas supply
Benefits of biogas to home What are ideal conditions?
Cheap – using surplus materials Temperature of 20–30 °C:
Disposes of human waste fermentation rate doubles per 10 °C rise
Reduces landfill problems Anaerobic conditions:
Reduces use of other sources oxygen is toxic to methanogenic bacteria
of power Underground position low O22 /stable temperature
Discharged slurry
Inlet Strengthening Outlet
used as manure
Ground level
Concrete
inlet pipe
Input contains large 3m
molecules from plant
and animal waste. Plaster
Fermentation by microbes Soil

protein
2.70 m
amino acids ammonium
fats salts methanogenic methane
fatty acids bacteria + Biogas
and glycerol anaerobic carbon dioxide
bacteria
carbohydrates glucose ethanoic acid
carbon dioxide
if oxygen +
present water
279
4.25 Recycling: management of solid waste

Objectives Plastic bottles can be molten and reused in
clothing, for example!
■ To recall that humans produce many waste materials
Non-biodegradable plastics cannot be broken
■ To understand that human wastes may become food for
disease vectors down by natural biological processes. They may
■ To appreciate that there are different ways of disposal accumulate and are a danger to fish, birds and
of human refuse mammals. If they can be collected they may be
■ To understand the benefits of recycling recycled.
Recycling can make scarce resources last for
longer, and can reduce the energy requirements of
Human refuse contains such items as metals,
industry. It takes only 5% of the energy to make
plastic bags, glass, remains of food and ash. This
an aluminium can from recycled aluminium than
refuse must not be allowed to accumulate because:
from aluminium ore. People and companies will
■ It is inconvenient, and gets in the way of only recycle, however, if:
people, their vehicles and their animals.
■ their products are cheaper than if they don’t
■ It is unpleasant to look at.
use recycling
■ It could act as breeding ground for organisms
■ governments give subsidies for manufacturing
which transmit disease.
products from recycled materials.
To prevent refuse (rubbish) from building up it
can be delivered to refuse tips, landfill sites or
Recycling of paper
Paper is one of the easiest materials to recycle.
incinerators. The refuse disposal sites are normally
It is collected from our kerbside or recycling
sited away from residential areas, and surrounded
banks by local authorities and waste management
by fences to stop rubbish blowing away and prevent
companies.
children from playing in them. Two alternative
ways of disposing of the refuse – incineration and After the paper is collected there are several steps
landfill – are described on page 100. Each of these in the recycling process.
methods has the advantage that it can provide ■ First it is sorted, graded and delivered to a
energy, and so reduce our use of fossil fuels. paper mill. As it is sorted, contaminants such
as plastic, metal, and other rubbish that may
Recycling
have been collected with the paper are removed.
Recycling involves reusing waste products or
■ Once at the paper mill it is added to water and
materials which would otherwise be thrown away.
then turned into pulp.
This includes reusing items in their original form
■ The paper is then screened, cleaned and
and sending materials away to special centres
de-inked through a number of processes until
where they can be melted down or pulped to act
it is suitable for papermaking. Cleaning and
as raw materials in industry.
de-inking may use hazardous chemicals:
Items that can be reused include: hydrogen peroxide is often used to help bleach
■ glass milk or soft drink bottles the paper when dark inks are present. Once the
■ plastic shopping bags pulp has been rinsed, it is spread onto large
■ paper that has only been written on one side flat racks, and rollers press the water out of the
■ clothes pulp. As it dries, new paper forms.
■ It is then ready to be made into new paper
. . . . and materials that can be pulped or melted
products such as newsprint, cardboard,
down include:
packaging, tissue and office items.
■ glass bottles
■ aluminium cans It can take just seven days for a newspaper to go
■ plastic bottles through the recycling process and be transformed
■ paper into recycled newsprint which is used to make the
280 ■ scrap metal. majority of national daily newspapers.
Questions on human impacts

on ecosystems
1 The graph below shows changes in the d It is important that the wild dog species is
population of bacteria that take place in a river conserved.
when untreated sewage is added to it. i Explain the meaning of the term
conservation.
ii Outline the measures that could be taken to
conserve a mammal, such as the wild dog.
population e When wild dogs die, nitrogen compounds
of bacteria in their bodies may become available for
(abitrary units)
plants. Outline the processes that occur
to make these nitrogen compounds in the
bodies of dead animals available for plants
distance downstream to absorb.
(abitrary units)
raw sewage Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
discharged Paper 3 Variant 1 Q2 May 2008
into river
3 The freshwater mussel, Margaritifera margaritifera,
a Describe the changes in the population of is a mollusc which lives in rivers and streams.
bacteria that take place in this river. When the mussel reproduces, gametes are
b Suggest an explanation for these changes in released into the water and fertilisation takes
the population of bacteria. place. The embryos, in the form of larvae,
Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 attach themselves to the gills of fish and develop
Paper 2 Q8 May 2008 there for a few months. The larvae then release
2 The wild dog is one of the smaller African themselves and grow in sand in the river, feeding
carnivorous mammals. It has disappeared from by filtering food from the water. The number of
25 of the 39 countries where it used to live. mussels is falling due to human predation and the
Wild dogs hunt in packs, feeding on antelopes, species is threatened with extinction.
which are grass-eating mammals. a The mussel belongs to the group known as
A conservation programme has been started the molluscs. State two features you would
to increase the wild dog population in South expect the mussel to have.
Africa. Farmers are worried about numbers b Explain how the species name of the
getting out of control because wild dogs breed freshwater mussel can be distinguished from
at a very fast rate. However, conservationists its genus.
are not concerned because the lion is a natural c State the type of reproduction shown by the
predator of the dogs. mussel. Explain your answer.
a Wild dogs are carnivorous mammals. d i Fish gills have the same function as
i Define the term carnivore. lungs. Suggest one advantage to a mussel
ii State one external feature which larva of attaching itself to fish gills.
distinguishes mammals from other ii The mussel develops on the fish gills.
vertebrates. Define the term development.
b i Suggest two reasons why numbers of e The mussel is threatened with extinction.
African wild dogs are decreasing. Name another organism which is also
ii Suggest what could happen to the species threatened with extinction and outline how
if numbers continue to decrease. it could be conserved.
c Using the information in the passage above, Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610
construct a food chain for a wild dog, Paper 3 Variant 1 Q1 November 2008
including its predator. Label each organism

with its trophic level.
281
4 The bar graph below shows crop productivity Explain why it is more efficient for humans
for a range of plants but it is incomplete. to eat maize rather than meat from cows
a Complete the bar graph using the data that have been fed on maize.
below it. f i Complete the equation for
photosynthesis.
9.0
light energy
Key 6CO2 1 6H2O C6H12O6 1
world average highest yield ii Describe how leaves are adapted to trap
8.0
light.
iii With reference to water potential, explain
7.0
how water is absorbed by roots.
productivity per day of growing season / g per m2
iv Explain how photosynthesising cells

6.0 obtain carbon dioxide.
Paper 3 Variant 1 Q2 November 2008
5.0
5 The figure below shows population pyramids for
a developing country and a developed country.
4.0
developing country developed countr
males females males fem

3.0
2.0
65 65
1.0 45 45
age age
0
wheat oats maize rice sugar 15 15
beet
type of crop
0 0
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4
crop productivity per day of growing percentage of total population percentage of total pop
season / g per m2
world average highest

developing yield
country developed country
potatoes 2.6 males 5.6females males females
b State which crop has

i the highest average productivity,
65 65
ii the greatest difference between the
average yield and the highest yield.
45 45
c Outline how modern technology could be
age age
used to increase the productivity of a crop
from the average yield to a high yield.
d When the yield is15measured, dry mass is 15
always used rather0

than fresh mass. 0
Suggest why dry mass is a6 more
10 8 4 2 reliable
0 2 4 6 8 10 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
measurement than fresh mass. of total population
percentage percentage of total population
e Maize is often used to feed cows, which are
grown to provide meat for humans.
282
a Describe how the percentage of people in pyramids are similar for people who live
the population varies with age in more than 65 years.
i a developing country d With reference to X and Y chromosomes,
ii a developed country. explain the expected ratio of males to
b These countries have a similar population females at birth.
size. Compare the two pyramids. State one e This graph shows survival curves for
difference between the populations developing and developed countries, based
i at under 15 on samples of 10 000 people. The graph
ii over 65. can be used to estimate the average life
c The pyramids can also be used to compare expectancy, defined as the age at which 50%
proportions of males and females in a of people in the sample are still alive.
population. State one way in which these
6 This figure shows the causes of severe food

shortages in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.
1980s 1990s 2000s
14% 20%
27%
natural
disasters
73%
86% 80%
2%
11%
27%
result of
human
action 73%
98% 89%
Key sudden onset slow onset

economic factors war and conflict
a i State two types of natural disaster that The quality and quantity of food available
occur suddenly and may lead to severe worldwide has been improved by artificial
food shortages. selection (selective breeding) and genetic
ii State one type of natural disaster that engineering.
may take several years to develop. c Use a named example to outline how
b Explain how the increase in the human artificial selection is used to improve the
population may contribute to severe food quantity or quality of food.
shortages. d Define the term genetic engineering.
283
PRACTICAL BIOLOGY
5.1 Practical assessment

The basis of scientific subjects is experimental: Candidates may be required to do the following:
hypotheses are tested to establish theories and ■ r
ecord readings from apparatus
observations and measurements made to provide ■ d escribe, explain or comment on experimental
the factual background to science. Examiners arrangements and techniques
believe that it is important that an assessment of a ■ c omplete tables of data
student’s knowledge and understanding of biology ■ d raw conclusions from observations and/or
should contain a practical component. from information given
Schools’ circumstances (e.g. the availability ■ i nterpret and evaluate observations and
of resources) differ greatly, so two alternative experimental data
ways of examining the relevant assessment are ■ p lot graphs and/or interpret graphical
provided by University of Cambridge International information
Examinations (CIE). The two alternatives are: ■ i dentify sources of error and suggest possible
■ P
aper 5 – practical test improvements in procedures
■ P
aper 6 – alternative to practical (written ■ p
lan an investigation, including suggesting
paper). suitable techniques and apparatus.
The following points should be noted for both types
Paper 6: Alternative to practical
of practical assessment:
This paper is designed to test candidates’
■ t he same proportion of marks is available – familiarity with laboratory practical procedures.
20% of the subject total
Questions may be set requiring the candidates to:
■ t he same practical skills are to be learned and
■ f ollow carefully a sequence of instructions
developed
■ u se familiar, and unfamiliar, techniques to
■ t he same benefits to theoretical understanding
record observations and make deductions
come from all practical work.
from them
Paper 5: Practical test ■ r ecall simple physiological experiments,
The CIE specification states: e.g. tests for food substances, the use of a
Exercises may be set requiring the candidates to: potometer and the use of hydrogencarbonate
indicator, litmus and Universal Indicator paper
■ f ollow carefully a sequence of instructions
■ r ecognise, observe and record familiar, and
■ u
se familiar, and unfamiliar, techniques to
unfamiliar, biological specimens
record observations and make deductions
■ m ake a clear line drawing from a photograph
from them
(or other visual representation) of a specimen,
■ p
erform simple physiological experiments,
indicate the magnification of the drawing and
e.g. tests for food substances and the use of
label, as required
hydrogencarbonate indicator, litmus and
■ p erform simple arithmetical calculations
Universal Indicator paper
■ r ecord readings from apparatus
■ u
se a scalpel or a razor blade, forceps, scissors
■ d escribe, explain or comment on experimental
and mounted needles skilfully
arrangements and techniques
■ u
se a hand lens of not less than 36
■ c omplete tables of data
magnification to recognise, observe and record
■ d raw conclusions from observations and/or
familiar, and unfamiliar, biological specimens
from information given
■ m
ake a clear line drawing of a specimen
■ i nterpret and evaluate observations and
provided, indicate the magnification of the
experimental data
drawing and label, as required
■ p lot graphs and/or interpret graphical
■ p
erform simple arithmetical calculations.
information
284
PRACTICAL BIOLOGY
■ i dentify sources of error and suggest possible that might appear in either the practical test
improvements in procedures or the alternative to practical. These are listed in
■ p
lan an investigation, including suggesting the table below, and should give you a great deal
suitable techniques and apparatus. of help in dealing with whichever of these papers
is used in your practical assessment.
Throughout this book there are a number of
examples of the type of experiment or exercise
List of practical exercises

Exercise Spread reference Comment
Measuring the size of objects 1.6
Enzyme experiments and the scientific method 2.6 Includes drawing tables and graphs
Testing for biochemicals/foods 2.4
Effectiveness of antibiotics 4.12
Measurement of energy content of food 2.15
Testing leaves for starch 2.7 Factors affecting photosynthesis
Measurement of the rate of photosynthesis 2.8 Includes analysis of experimental design
Photosynthesis and gas exchange 2.11 Use of hydrogencarbonate indicator
Plants and minerals 2.12
Tracing xylem 2.22 Use of eosin
Bubble potometer 2.23
Water loss from leaf surfaces 2.24 Use of cobalt chloride paper
Demonstration of respiration 2.36 Germination and respiration
The measurement of respiration 2.38 Respirometer / measurement of carbon dioxide

released
Investigation of tropisms 2.53 Phototropism and gravitropism
Structure of flowers 3.2
Experimental design: using models for 3.3

pollination
Conditions for germination 3.5 Gives references to enzymes, and the need
for energy
Sampling populations 4.3 Use of quadrats
285
PRACTICAL BIOLOGY
5.2 Laboratory equipment

You will find that the practical paper or the alternative Apparatus and materials
to practical will be much more straightforward if you Safety equipment appropriate to the work being
recognise certain standard pieces of equipment, and planned, but at least including eye protection
understand what they are used for. such as safety spectacles or goggles.
3D image Name and function Diagram

■ Watch glass: used for collection and
evaporating liquids with no heat, and for
immersing biological specimens in a liquid.
■ Filter funnel: used to separate solids from
liquids, using a filter paper.
■ Measuring cylinder: used for measuring the

volume of liquids.
■ Thermometer: used to measure temperature.
The other very important measuring device in the laboratory is a balance (weighing machine).
■ Spatula: used to for handling solid chemicals; for
example, when adding a solid to a liquid.
■ Pipette: used to measure and transfer small
volumes of liquids.
■ Stand, boss and clamp: used to support the

apparatus in place. This reduces the risk of
dangerous spills. This is not generally drawn. If the
clamp is merely to support a piece of appartus, it is
usually represented by two crosses as shown.
■ Bunsen burner: used to heat the contents of
other apparatus (e.g. a liquid in a test tube) or for
directly heating solids. HEAT
■ Tripod: used to support apparatus above a

Bunsen burner.
The Bunsen burner, tripod and gauze are the
most common way of heating materials in
school science laboratories.
■ Gauze: used to spread out the heat from a Bunsen
burner and to support the apparatus on a tripod.
■ Test tube and boiling tube: used for heating
solids and liquids. They are also used to hold
chemicals while other substances are added and
mixed. They need to be put safely in a test tube rack.
■ Evaporating dish: used to collect and
evaporate liquids with or without heating.
■ Beaker: used for mixing solutions and for

heating liquids.
286
PRACTICAL BIOLOGY
Chemical reagents
In accordance with the COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous
to Health) regulations operative in the UK, a hazard appraisal of
the list has been carried out. The following codes are used where
relevant.
C = corrosive substance
F = highly flammable substance
H = harmful or irritating substance
O = oxidizing substance
T = toxic substance
Table of hazard symbols

Symbol Description Examples Symbol Description Examples
Oxidising Bleach, sodium Harmful Dilute acids and
These substances provide chlorate, potassium These substances are similar alkalis
oxygen which allows other nitrate to toxic substances but less
materials to burn more dangerous.
fiercely.
Highly flammable Ethanol, petrol, Corrosive Concentrated acids
These substances easily acetone These substances attack and and akalis
catch fire. destroy living tissues,
including eyes and skin.
Toxic Mercury, copper Irritant Ammonia, dilute
These substances can cause sulfate These substances are not acids and alkalis
death. They may have their corrosive but can cause
effects when swallowed or reddening or blistering of
breathed in or absorbed the skin.
through the skin.
Reagent Use in biology Spread reference

hydrogencarbonate indicator (bicarbonate indicator) Detect changes in carbon dioxide concentration, for example 2.11, 2.38
in exhaled air following respiration
iodine in potassium iodide solution (iodine solution) Detection of starch 2.4, 2.7
Benedict’s solution (or an alternative such as Detection of a reducing sugar, such as glucose 2.4
Fehling’s)
Biuret reagent(s) (sodium or potassium hydroxide Detection of protein 2.4
solution and copper sulfate solution)
ethanol/methylated spirit For dissolving lipids in testing for the presence of lipids. Also 2.4
used to remove chlorophyll from leaves during starch testing.
cobalt chloride paper Detects changes in water content 2.24
pH indicator paper or Universal Indicator solution or pH Changes in pH during reactions such as digestion of fats to
probes fatty acids and glycerol
litmus paper Qualitative detection of pH
glucose Change in water potential of solutions
sodium chloride Change in water potential of solutions
aluminium foil or black paper Foil can be used a heat reflector: black paper as a light 2.12
absorber
a source of distilled or deionised water Change in water potential of solutions. Also used in making
up mineral nutrient solutions.
eosin/red ink To follow the pathway of water absorbed by plants 2.22
limewater A liquid absorbent for carbon dioxide, for example in 2.38
exhaled air
287
PRACTICAL BIOLOGY
methylene blue A stain for animal cells 1.6
potassium hydroxide Removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, for example 2.38, 2.7
during experiments on conditions for photosythesis
sodium hydrogencarbonate (sodium bicarbonate) Very mild alkali: use for adjusting pH of solutions for enzyme
activity
vaseline/petroleum jelly (or similar) Blocks pores such as stomata, and so prevents water loss 2.24
Measurement of variables
In many investigations, biologists need to measure variable
quantities such as volume, temperature, mass and time. It is very
important to be able to read scales accurately and to choose the
correct units for the quantities that have been measured. Some of
the common measuring equipment used in biology laboratories is
shown below.
Measuring temperature using a thermometer

Normal temperature are measured on
°C the Celsius scale sometimes called
Thermometer °C 100
the Centigrade scale. The unit for
60 90 temperature is the degree Celsius (°C).
80
50 The scale is worked out by

70
checking how long the liquid column is
60 firstly in melting ice and secondly in
40 boiling water.
50
40
30
30 Column of coloured liquid: this gets
longer as the liquid gets hotter, and
20
20 shorter as the liquid gets cooler.
10
Bulb: this contains a coloured liquid.
An electronic thermometer
and probe. Equipment like
this will be necessary if a
scientist needs to measure
temperature above 100 °C READ RESET
or below 0 °C.
Temperature probe
Measuring mass using an electronic pan balance

An empty The beaker containing
beaker liquid
Balance How heavy is the liquid?

(weighing machine)
102.4g 312.8g
288
PRACTICAL BIOLOGY
Measuring volume using a beaker or a measuring cylinder
BEAKER MEASURING When using a measuring cylinder, stand the Make sure that you read the
It is not accurate CYLINDER measuring cylinder on a level or bench, level carefully. You may notice
to use a beaker so that the liquid is level. that the surface of the fluid is
because the scale curved; this ia called the
is not fine enough. meniscus.
Get your eye level

ml ml
with the liquid level.
100 80 It may look as though
cm3
200 90 there is a thick ‘skin’
Liquid on the water. This is
150 80
level because you are
100 70
50 looking at the minute
60 amount of liquid that
70
50 has been drawn up
the glass.
40
Is it cm3 or ml? Some equipment
is scaled in cm3, and some is 30 The volume of liquid is
scaled in ml. It really doesn’t 20 represented by the bottom of
matter – 1 cm3 has exactly the 60 the meniscus.
10
same volume as 1 ml.
Interestingly, plastic beakers
and measuring cylinders
often do not give rise to a
meniscus!
Reading the measurement from a

measuring cylinder by getting your
eye level with the liquid level
This table gives a summary of the measuring equipment used in chemistry laboratories
Quantity Units Equipment

3
Volume (fluid) Cubic centimetres (cm ) Measuring cylinder or beaker
3
Litres (dm )
1 litre 5 1000 ml
Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C) Thermometer
Time Seconds (s) Stopclock (can be analogue
Minutes (min) or digital)
Mass Grams (g) Balance (usually top pan
Kilograms (kg) balances and electronic)
1 kg 5 1000 g
289
Answers
Answers to embedded questions

Unless otherwise indicated, the questions, example Q.4: frond has serrated edges specimen 2
answers, marks awarded and/or comments that Frond has wavy edges specimen 4
appear in this book were written by the author(s). There may be other acceptable answers
In examination, the way marks would be awarded offered.
to answers like these may be different. 1.3 1 They have roots, for absorption of water
1.1 1 About 2.2 billion years and minerals, and a vascular system to
2 Amino acids, fatty acids/lipids, sugars transport these materials around the
(nucleotides/nucleic acids) plant body.
3 REDGIRL, MRSGREN for example 2 Their gametes can be transferred without
4 To replace individuals that die/provide dependence on water.
more individuals to colonise new 1.4 1 They ingest ready-made organic
environments/to combine genetic molecules; a backbone; arthropods
material from different individuals 2 a They have segmented bodies/segments
(provide variation) carry jointed limbs/they have a hard
1.2 1 a Have well-developed carnassials exoskeleton/
(cutting) teeth b Two pairs of wings/three pairs of
b Weasel and mink (same genus) legs/three major body sections/
c The fox (the others are in the same metamorphosis in life cycle
family) insects (6, 3, 4, compound) spiders
d They ingest their organic molecules in (8, 2, none, simple)
ready-made form 3 Life cycle has four distinct stages: egg,
2 The wise man larva, pupa/chrysalis, adult. Adults
3 Viruses do not show any of the can larvae can lead different lives, on
characteristics of living organisms unless different food sources – reproductive
they are inside the cells of another structures can develop during stage
organism. as pupa.
4 a Specimen 1: has single bladders on Characteristics and classification p.14
its fronds; 1
Specimen 2: has serrated edges to
1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b 5a 5b name
its fronds;
Specimen 3: has paired bladders on A
its fronds; B ✓ ✓ ✓ Anopheles
Specimen 4: has a single large frond C ✓ ✓ Ornithodorus
with wavy edges; D ✓ ✓ ✓ Pulex
Specimen 5: has a visible root-like E ✓ ✓ Musca
structure at the base; F ✓ ✓ ✓ Periplaneta
b Q.1: has a root-like structure
specimen 5 2 a Elephas – genus; maximus – species;
No visible root-like structure b i jaguar/ leopard/lion/tiger OR
go to Q.2 Bobcat/European/Iberian Lynx
Q.2: has bladders(air sacs) on frond go ii Acinonyx
to Q.3 3 a made of many cells – animal –
No bladders (air sacs) on frond go vertebrate – skin covering – no scales
to Q.4 on skin – mammal
Q.3: single bladders specimen 1 c walk upright/communicate with
Paired bladders specimen 3 speech
290
Answers
Cells and organisation pp.20–21 8

1 Cell g – controls the entry and exit
Cell Tissue Organ membrane of materials
Phagocyte, Epidermis, Liver, heart, Cell wall c – contains cellulose and
sperm, xylem, blood, leaf, ileum, surrounds a plant cell
neurone ovary, brain, Chloroplasts a – structures which contain
stem chlorophyll
Chromosomes e – coloured threads found
2 Organelle – cell – tissue – organ – system –
inside the nucleus
organism
Cytoplasm d – jelly-like material which
3 Kilometre – metre – millimetre –
fills most of the cell
micrometre;
Mitochondria f – the site of aerobic
1000
5 20 respiration
50
Nucleus h – carries the genetic
4 a (100 2 {23 1 13 1 0.5 1 24 1 8 1 11 1
information and controls the
0.1}) 5 20.4
activities of the cell
b check that ‘other’ is included
vacuole b – cavity that is found only in
13
c 3 100 000 000 000 000 plant cells
100
5 13 000 000 000 000 9 Red blood cell – b; white blood cell – g;
5 cell lining bronchiole – f; motor nerve
structure Liver cell Palisade cell – e; palisade cell – i; root hair cell – a;
cell phloem sieve tube – d; sperm cell – c;
Cell surface membrane ✓ ✓ egg cell – h
Chloroplasts ✕ ✓ 10
Cytoplasm ✓ ✓ Stomach organ
Cellulose cell wall ✕ ✓ Mitochondrion organelle
Nucleus ✓ ✓ Cat organism
Starch granule ✕ ✓ Onion bulb organism
Glycogen granule ✓ ✕ Carrot plant organism
Large, permanent ✕ ✓ Chloroplast organelle
vacuole
Neurone cell
6 Choose examples from Q.5. A good Lung organ

answer will include both plant and Brain organ
animal examples/both structural and Heart and circulation system
biochemical examples. Xylem tissue
7 The lining of the lung tissue
Respiration The release of energy from
11 a – E; b – A; c – D; d – C; e – B
organic molecules
12 a Cells – tissues – phloem/xylem/blood –
Sensitivity The ability to detect changes
organ – systems – excretory system
in the environment
b Specialized – red blood cell – division
Growth A change in size
of labour – nervous – endocrine
Reproduction The generation of offspring c Palisade cell – chloroplasts – leaf –
Nutrition The supply of food epidermis - xylem
Excretion The removal of the waste 2.2 1 A structure which allows some molecules/
products of metabolism particles to cross but prevents others from
development A change in shape or form crossing. For example, the membrane
291
Answers
lining the ileum allows glucose and amino v the chip would slowly become firm
acids to cross but prevents starch and large and able to support the 10g weight.
proteins from crossing. This is because water can enter
2 A ‘slope’ between a high and a low the chip by osmosis (down a water
concentration of a dissolved substance potential gradient) so that the cells
3 Movement of gases (e.g. oxygen and become turgid. The turgid cells can
carbon dioxide), food substances (e.g. now support the chip.
glucose), wastes (e.g. urea), hormones 2 a the graph should have concentration
(e.g. insulin) of sugar solution on the x axis and
4 Large surface area/thin membranes percentage change in length on the
(short pathway for diffusion)/ability to set y axis. Check accuracy of points, and
up and maintain diffusion gradients note where line crosses x axis.
5 cytoplasm; partially-permeable b 0.24 mol per dm3. At this concentration
membrane; swell; lower; cell wall; there is no net osmosis so the
glucose/amino acids; diffusion; percentage change in length is zero.
concentration gradient; active transport; c because by using percentage change
energy; against; carbon dioxide; diffusion; any differences in initial length can
photosynthesis be ignored.
6 2.3 1 Carbohydrates (source of energy)/lipids
DIFFUSION ACTIVE (energy store)/proteins (enzymes)/nucleic
TRANSPORT acids(genetic information)
2 Soluble molecules can be transported
Is energy(ATP) no yes
used in the blood and across membranes/
insoluble molecules cannot be
Direction of With/down a Can be
transported like this, and are excellent
movement concentration against a
gradient concentration storage molecules.
gradient 3 Nucleic acids control the functions of
cells as they carry the coded genetic
Are carrier No Yes
molecules information. Proteins regulate the
involved activities of cells e.g. in the role as
enzymes. Carbohydrates are the
Example Oxygen Uptake of
movement mineral ions most commonly used source of
from blood to by root hair energy, and keeping cells alive
air sacs cells requires energy.
Phagocytosis 2.4 1 a Fat is solid at room temperature/oil
would be used is liquid at room temperature
to take up/ b In the proportion of these elements –
move large carbohydrates have a higher
particles across proportion of oxygen
a membrane Show backbone of glycerol with three
c fatty acids. Many different fats since
there are many different fatty acids.
diffusion and osmosis p.27 2 a A: washings from a laundry (contain
1 i turgid means ‘fully inflated by water’ starch); B: milk (contains lactose and
ii turgid plant cells push against nearby protein),C: sweetened tea (gives positive
cells and together they support the test for sucrose); D: crushed potato
plant (contains starch and small quantities of
iii beaker A protein); E: urine from diabetic person
iv the chip in beaker B (high concentration of glucose)
292
Answers
3 1: test that the reagents are working 3 a i check labels on axes(pH on x axis)/
properly by trying the test on a linear axes/accuracy of plot/title
‘known’ substance. 2: to show that ii rate of reaction falls as enzyme
reagents are not contaminated, carry is denatured (loss of shape of
out the test on water – should have a active site) so fewer collisions
negative result between enzymes and substrate
2.5 1 proteins; reactions/processes; catalysts; molecules
specific; denatured b i different temperatures/inaccuracies
2 Draw diagram in reverse(i.e. one in timing
molecule on active site becoming two ii reliable – repeat experiment and
products): any digestive enzyme would be take means
a suitable example valid - fix temperature
2.6 1 b 0.25/0.50/2.0/0.5/0.25/0.08 4 a check accuracy of plotting and
c Temperature on x axis, rate on y axis, drawing. Pie chart is the most
maximum rate at 35 °C visually informative – it is easier to
Up to 35 °C rate increases as molecules see the proportions of the different
gain more kinetic energy and so collide elements.
more often and with greater energy, b i water; ii protein; iii Water; iv Fats;
but above this temperature the enzyme v vitamins; vi Bones and teeth
molecules begin to denature. Active 5 a i is certainly correct, ii and iii are likely
site no longer ‘recognises’ substrate to be correct
molecules and so rate decreases. 35 °C b D is a control, to show that starch
is the optimum temperature for this does not hydrolyse without the
enzyme. enzyme/saliva being present
c have a second control at 30 °C;
Enzymes and biological molecules p.36–37
run a tube with boiled cooled saliva
1 a an enzyme is a biological catalyst –
at 30 °C;
it can affect a biological reaction
d accept maltose or glucose (reducing
without being affected itself.
sugar). Benedict’s test is suitable –
b check labels on axes/linear axes/
boiling with an equal volume of
accuracy of plot/title
Benedict’s Reagent. Change from pale
c stomach (pH 2)
blue to orange-red is a positive test for
d rate would be zero/very low since
reducing sugar.
boiling has denatured the enzyme
2.7 1 Ethanol dissolves the chlorophyll and
2 a excretion
removes it from the leaf
b i pH
2 a Light is necessary for photosynthesis
ii Enzyme concentration, substrate
b Carbon dioxide is needed for
concentration, temperature
photosynthesis
10
c 5 0.57 c Demonstrates that starch is only
17.4
produced if chlorophyll is present
d check labels on axes (pH on x axis)/
Carbon dioxide, light and chlorophyll
linear axes/accuracy of plot/title
3 a Keep plant in dark for 48h – it will be
e i there is an increase in rate (from
‘destarched’, and can be tested for the
0.50 to 1.00) between pH 4 and
presence of starch
pH 6, then a decrease to 0.57 from
Could replace black paper with
pH 6 to pH 8
transparent paper
ii rate of reaction falls as enzyme is
4 Could heat leaf to denature enzymes –
denatured (loss of shape of active
leaf would then not be able to produce
site) so fewer collisions between
starch by photosynthesis
enzymes and substrate molecules
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Answers
2.8 1 They are the same size/have the same 2 The point at which photosynthesis and
volume respiration are balanced e.g. the amount
2 a Show curve reaching a plateau at of oxygen being used in respiration is
around 7 arbitrary units of light exactly the same as the amount of oxygen
intensity (remember to label the axes) being produced by photosynthesis.
b 3.5 arbitrary units This is important since it shows when
c Up to about 7 units – no benefit to the plant is beginning to produce more
grower in exceeding this carbohydrate than it is using up i.e. is
d Wavelength of light. Use coloured beginning to make food for the crop.
filters. 3 Yes it is true, but it’s not the whole story.
e Carbon dioxide concentration/ Plants can use the carbohydrate made
temperature/pH/type of leaf during photosynthesis to produce all
f To improve validity of data organic molecules (such as aminao acids
g To give results as volume produced per and lipids).
g of plant tissue i.e. eliminate another 4 The plant might take up CO2 to produce
potential variable glucose. It would use some of this
h Input 5 temperature, outcome 5 glucose for respiration, which would
volume of oxygen produced per mean some CO2 would be released to the
minute/fixed 5 Carbon dioxide atmosphere. This same CO2 could then be
concentration/light intensity/ taken up again as the plant continues to
wavelength//pH/type of leaf photosynthesise.
3 a That ‘radioactive’ CO2 is treated in the
Photosynthesis and plant nutrition pp.50–51
same way as ‘normal’ CO2 by the plant
1 a i that most of the water loss is from
b Otherwise, results obtained in this
the lower surface
experiment could not be applied to
ii upper surface – waxy cuticle and
other plants under ‘normal’ conditions
absence of stomata limits water
Respiration
loss; lower surface – no waxy
b
cuticle and presence of stomata
2.10 1 Light intensity/temperature/carbon
allows water loss to occur more
dioxide concentration
readily
2 Can produce acid rain, which is
b leaf might be damp/paper might be
damaging to the mesophyll in leaves.
damp
However, higher temperatures and CO2
c use more leaves/repeat experiment/
concentration can increase the rate of
place paper on different parts of the
photosynthesis
leaf – in each case take mean results
3 Magnesium; this ion is a part of the
d use a control piece of cobalt chloride
chlorophyll molecule
paper, not attached to the leaf surface,
4 The factor furthest from its optimum i.e.
and note time taken to turn pink
which is actually reducing the rate to the
2 a osmosis – support – solvent/transport
greatest extent.
medium – photosynthesis
a Light intensity
b roots – root hairs – surface area – ions/
b Temperature
minerals – magnesium – nitrate –
Carbon dioxide concentration
active transport
c
c xylem – phloem – vascular
2.11 1 Hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate)
3 a i carbon dioxide and water
indicator: change from red to purple.
ii Oxygen
Purple colour indicates that solution
b i iodine solution
is less acidic – this is the situation that
ii A – straw-brown, B – straw-brown,
would apply as CO2 is removed for
C – blue black, D – straw-brown
photosynthesis
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Answers
iii B – no chlorophyll present so no and water. In heterotrophic nutrition,

photosynthesis possible as light the organism obtains the organic
energy cannot be absorbed; D – molecules ready-made, as food.
although chlorophyll is present the 3 A balanced diet contains all of the
black cover prevents light reaching nutrients required for life in the correct
the leaf so that no photosynthesis proportions
can take place 4 Carbohydrates and fats
4 a i 5 Enzymes (e.g. amylase), hormones (e.g.
Tube Colour of Colour of indicator insulin), structures (e.g. keratin) and
indicator at start after 6 hours transporters (e.g. haemoglobin)
A Pinky red yellow 2.14 1 a 8400 kJ
B Pinky red yellow
b 1000 (10 3 100)
c 18900 – 10500 5 8400 kJ ( 5 80%)
C Pinky red yellow
d i food 1 as it has the highest energy
D Pinky red Purple
content per serving
ii tube A 18900
1 respiration occurs; ii 5 4.97 ‘servings’ i.e. 497 g
3800
2 carbon dioxide produced / added 756
to water; 1 (p.57)
3 becomes acidic / more acidic / pH a A
falls; b D
tube D c C
4 photosynthesis occurs; d D
5 carbon dioxide removed from water; A
6 becomes alkaline / less acidic / pH 2 a Colostrum has more protein (400%),
rises; less fat (63%), less sugar (44%)
b tube E b 1 litre contains 10 3 100 cm3, so
1 colour stays pinky red / does not contains 20g of protein
change; Any citrus fruit e.g. orange
2 respiration and photosynthesis 2.15 1
balance out;
56 20 1120 2489
3 carbon dioxide amount in water / pH
52 20 1040 2000
does not change;
54 20 1080 2298
OR
Extra column 10,454
1 colour goes purple;
8,400
2 photosynthesis more than respiration;
9,652
3 carbon dioxide amount in water
drops / pH rises; c 9502 kJ per g. This is more valid since
OR it reduces the effect of any single result.
1 colour goes yellow; d show some means of reducing heat
2 respiration more than photosynthesis; losses to the air, and ensuring that
3 carbon dioxide amount in water more of heat released by burning
rises / pH falls; raises the temperature of the water.
2.13 1 Source of energy/raw materials for Perhaps burn in oxygen so that peanut
growth and repair/vitamins and minerals burns completely.
to enable other food substances to be e students repeated experiment using
used efficiently the same set of apparatus e.g. same
2 c Autotrophic nutrition involves volume of water/same thermometer.
building organic molecules from Students converted result to ‘per g’
simpler inorganic materials e.g. to take account of different-sized
making starch from carbon dioxide peanuts.
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Answers
Students could have taken readings over 4 Bile (see Q.2); hydrochloric acid in
a period of time and plotted gradient of stomach – optimum pH for protease.
results to more accurately reflect heat 2.20 1 There are two inputs – hepatic artery
transfer from burning peanut. (oxygenated) and hepatic portal vein
2.18 1 It grows, and it certainly is sensitive! (digested foods) and one output -hepatic
The tooth also requires nourishment. vein( assimilated foods to cells via vena
2 e Sailors had a very limited diet. It was cava)
hard to preserve fruit and vegetables, 2 b Glycogen and iron are stored. Amino
so the sailors rarely had any foods that acids are converted to proteins, and
contained vitamin C. Without vitamin excess amino acids are converted
C the sailors could not make the tough to urea
fibres that hold their teeth into their 3 Large surface area/lined by thin
sockets – so their teeth fell out! This is a membrane/good blood supply(capillaries)
symptom of scurvy, and was prevented to keep up concentration gradients by
by eating limes or other citrus fruits. removing absorbed nutrients
3 a Caries begins when bacteria are able 4 c Goblet cells manufacture and secrete
to penetrate the enamel, and infect the mucus, to protect the lining of the gut
dentine of the tooth. from digestive juices. Also found in
e By avoiding sweet foods (provide the lining of the breathing passages,
nutrients for bacteria, which convert especially the trachea and bronchi.
them to acid) and acidic fizzy drinks. 5 b Excess water would be lost in the
Limit caries by regular brushing of faeces – diarrhoea.
teeth to remove food and bacteria, or
Animal nutrition and health pp.72–73
by adding fluoride to drinking water
1 5090 – 6 – May 2009 – Q.1
(strengthens enamel)
a i detect starch with iodine solution,
c
which gives a blue-black coloration;
2.19 1 a B
ii The product is a reducing sugar –
b i Temperature
detect reducing sugar by boiling
ii Beef placed in water
with Benedict’s Solution, which
iii To make sure that the beef was
gives an orange-red coloration
sterile – there were no microbes to
b i Check for accuracy of plot/’dip’
break down the beef
corresponding to maximum rate of
beef in stomach would have been at
reaction at pH 4/axes labelled with
the right pH, the optimum temperature
correct units/key to distinguish
and so digestion would have been more
between plots;
complete.
ii Optimum pH at 4.0/presence of salt
2 a bile
increases rate of reaction over the
emulsifies fats – increases their
whole of the pH range.
surface area so that the enzyme lipase
c Results will be more reliable if the
can hydrolyse the fats to fatty acids
experiments are repeated, and means
and glycerol more efficiently
are taken of collected results. Results
3 Mouth: amylase begins to hydrolyse
will be valid if only one variable
starch to maltose
is changed in any experiment i.e.
Stomach: amylase activity stops. Protease
maintain temperature/concentration
begins to hydrolyse proteins to peptides
of enzyme/concentration of substrate.
under acidic conditions
2 own
Duodenum/ileum: amylase hydrolyses
a Hannah – she has only four fillings but
more starch to maltose, and maltase
Caitlin has eight
hydrolyses maltose to glucose; proteases
b There may be genetic variation
complete hydrolysis of peptides to
between them/Caitlin may have eaten
amino acids
296
Answers
more sweet, sticky foods, or drunk Snickers 2016

more fizzy, acidic soft drinks Treets 2476
c This removes gender and age from the
Twix 2016
list of input variables
d The cheek teeth crush food and so the b bar chart – bars should not be
sticky food spends longer there, and touching
can fit into crevices between the teeth c i Minstrels
e They may not have had so many ii Treets
cavities, and there would have been d 1179
fewer teeth in the milk dentition e 196.5 minutes; used to maintain
3 061-2-May 2008 – Q.3 temperature/keep nervous system
pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0 working/digest food for example
Time 20 15 8 4 1.25 1.25 3 8
f 39 minutes
taken g more – he could use some stored
Reaction 0.05 0.07 0.13 0.25 0.8 0.8 0.33 0.13
energy e.g. glycogen from the liver
rate 2.21 1 Low water potential – the dissolved
particles tend to ‘hang on’ to the water
b check axes (pH on x axis)/axes linear/ molecules, so the water doesn’t have
labels on axes to include units/ much potential to leave.
accuracy of plot 2 Osmosis is the movement of water across
c 7.0 – 7.5 a partially permeable membrane down a
d mouth/ileum – presence of sodium water potential gradient
bicarbonate 3 As cytoplasm swells it presses against the
e iodine test for starch/Benedicts test for cellulose cell wall. The cell wall stretches
reducing sugar slightly, but pushes against nearby cells
f temperature/concentration of enzyme/ and so helps to keep the plant body
concentration of starch solution supported (the cells are turgid)
4 0610-2-May 2008- Q.3 4 a uptake involves enzymes or carriers –
a the higher temperature gives the
Food Enzyme End products moving molecules more kinetic energy
starch amylase Simple sugars b energy (from respiration)is needed for
Protein protease Amino acids this uptake
Fat lipase Fatty acids and
c this is an example of active transport
glycerol the sugars were used up in respiration to
provide the energy needed for the active
b excess glucose is stored as insoluble transport
glycogen; excess amino acids are 2.22 1 Phloem and xylem. Cambium is the
deaminated to urea and carbon dividing tissue.
dioxide 2 A part of the plant at which a substance
5 own is absorbed or manufactured. Leaves are
Many possible answers. Results appear sources of glucose, and roots are sources
invalid since no controls in evidence. of water and mineral ions
Suitable controls (use other animals/ 3 Sometimes, e.g. towards autumn, the sugar
more subjects). is being stored – may be moving down to
6 Own roots – or at other times, e.g the spring,
Bounty 818 it may be move up towards the growing
Maltesers 2016 points or flowers
Mars 1816 4 To supply energy from respiration –
growing points require energy for cell
Milky way 1960
division, roots require energy for active
Minstrels 1775
uptake of ions
297
Answers
5 The coloured dye could be placed in a vase/ for uptake/loss of oxygen)and presence of
pot and, if it moves up the xylem, it could haemoglobin (for binding to oxygen)
change the colour of the flower petals. White blood cells : function in defence
2.24 1 (p.80) against disease – adapted by having
d 2.4; 4.3; 35.9; 39.0 irregularly-shaped nucleus (helps cells
2 Lower surface is where the most stomata to squeeze through capillary walls) and
are located – water is lost as water vapour cytoplasm which contains digestive
through these stomata, so leaf loses mass enzymes (to break down microbes that
3 So that they were not genetically have been engulfed)
different, with special adaptations to 4 a Jill: many red blood cells as an
water conservation adaptation to the low oxygen
4 Experiment to be repeated and mean concentrations at high altitude
values taken. Same amount of Vaseline b Jill: she has a low concentration of the
used each time. Leaves of same size/ white blood cells needed for defence
surface area used against disease
1 (p.81) c Jackie: low number of platelets, the
a transverse section is cut ACROSS fragments of cells needed for efficient
the leaf blood clotting
b i Photosynthesis d Jackie: low number of red blood cells –
ii Carbon dioxide iron is needed for the production of
iii Diffusion – the movement of haemoglobin in red blood cells
molecules down a concentration This eliminates any differences in blood
gradient cell count due to gender or age – these
c hairs prevent movement of water factors have become fixed variables
vapour/stomata are in pits to trap 5 cells; tissues; epidermis; organ; specialised;
water vapour/thick waxy cuticle red blood cell; division of labour
prevents water loss from outer surface 2.26 1 Arteries have elastic walls with layers
d for photosynthesis/support by turgidity/ of muscles (to cope with pulsing blood
transport of ions up the xylem pressures, and to continue to push blood
sand dunes do not have very much water towards the tissues): veins have thinner
so it would be hard for the plant to walls (no pulse pressures to deal with)
replace any water losses and valves (to prevent backflow of blood)
2 transpiration stream; carbon dioxide; 2 It passes through twice. Renal vein – vena
stomata; water vapour; thicker waxy cava – right atrium – right ventricle –
cuticle/leaf rolling/hairs on leaf surface pulmonary artery – (lungs) – pulmonary
2.25 1 Because their surface area to volume vein – left atrium – left ventricle – aorta –
ratio is too small for the uptake of gases/ renal artery
loss of wastes. As the organisms get 2.27 1 a A: blood, B: tissue fluid,C: lymph
larger they must develop a transport b Oxygen/glucose/amino acids. Carbon
system to move substances to and from dioxide/urea
the surfaces used for exchange, such as c Returns along lymph vessel and
the lungs and kidneys. rejoins blood at thoracic duct close to
2 a red blood cells and plasma right atrium (where blood pressure is
b glucose/heat with Benedict’s Reagent/ very low)
positive result would be an orange-red c If water potential of blood is high e.g.
precipitate if concentration of proteins or glucose
white blood cells in blood plasma is very low. Tissues
3 Red blood cells : function is transport of would swell. It can be prevented by
oxygen – adapted by absence of nucleus making sure that the diet provides
(so very flexible and with large surface area sufficient protein.
298
Answers
2.28 1 a Left atrium e Vena cava (from iliac vein)

b Blood is forced past the semi0lunar f Hepatic portal vein
valves and out into the arteries g Pulmonary artery
e Atrium only has to push blood down to 3 a it falls (from about 17 kPa to about
ventricles (not very far) but ventricles 2 kPa)
must push blood out to the tissues b blood must be forced along the
2 a By the closing of the valves during the arteries to the respiring tissues
cardiac cycle c valves
Each beat includes ‘lup-dup’, so there is d they are surrounded by sphincters
one ‘lup’ per cycle. Each cycle takes 60 (rings of muscle) which can constrict
72 or relax to regulate blood flow to
seconds i.e. there would be 0.8 seconds different tissues
between successive ‘lup’ sounds. e one cell thick, so short diffusion
2.29 1 a Coronary arteries distance/have pores which allow rapid
Difficult to move blood past blockage – cells transfer of solutes to tissues
beyond the blockage could be deprived of 4 a hepatic portal vein – hepatic vein –
oxygen/glucose, and so could die vena cava – right atrium – right
2 a 23 and 46 years of age ventricle – pulmonary artery –
b Blood cholesterol is higher in men, pulmonary vein – left atrium – left
and death rate increases as blood ventricle – aorta – muscle in leg
cholesterol level increases b pulmonary vein – left atrium – left
c Less than 4 arbitrary units ventricle – aorta – brain - vena cava –
d There are other factors, as the risk right atrium – right ventricle –
never falls to zero pulmonary artery
Male smoker, who eats a lot of fatty foods 5
and takes little exercise
rate 55 70 80 90 120 140 150 170
Circulation pp.94–95 Output 0.07 0.068 0.064 0.068 0.05 0.042 0.038 0.027
1 a glucose – from gut to muscle/liver; per beat
amino acids – from gut to muscle/
b accurate plot as directed
liver; urea – from liver to kidney;
c i rising to peak then falling,
oxygen – from lungs to tissues; carbon
ii Output per beat falls as rate
dioxide – from respiring tissues to lungs
increases
b 8000 per mm3 – may rise during
d i there is no benefit in terms of total
infection
cardiac output,
5 000 000
c 5 625:1 ii Output per beat may be higher
8000
d vehicle exhaust /burning domestic (heart muscle is more elastic in
fuel/cigarette smoke trained athletes)
e falls, as carbon monoxide binds to red e it is less likely that heart muscle will
blood cells so these are not available become fatigued/low rate means that
for oxygen transport there is further to go before the peak
f 120 days –replacement time for red rate is reached
blood cells f to supply more oxygen to be transported
g worn out red blood cells are removed, by the blood to the respiring tissues
and the iron in their haemoglobin is 6 a i 5
stored in the liver i fewer than 2
2 a Aorta b this has eliminated two other
b Pulmonary vein variables (gender and smoking0 which
c Pulmonary artery might influence the likelihood of
d Hepatic vein developing CHD
299
Answers
7 a first set of data as line graph, second 2.33 needed

set as bar chart (check on bar chart 1 Improve personal hygiene (less chance of
that bars are not touching) athlete’s foot);
b i higher than normal blood Consume a balanced diet (less chance of
cholesterol a deficiency disease such as rickets;
ii 9.9 times more likely (3.2 3 3.1) Not smoking (reduce risk of lung cancer/
8 a low exercise/smoking CHD);
b high fat/cholesterol/salt 2 Provision of safe drinking water, removal
c being male! of refuse and provision of medical care
2.30 1 They may be harmful by causing disease for the unwell.
(i.e. as pathogens), by spoiling food, 3 Viral (AIDS); bacterial (gonorrhoea)
by damaging property (fungi destroy 4 AIDS i.e HIV infection – individual can
wooden houses) moderate sexual behaviour, community
They may be helpful by carrying out can provide appropriate medication,
important processes such as fermentation scientists can work to develop new
(brewing and baking), by decomposition mediciens.
of animal and plant remains (carbon 2.34 1 The skin is a barrier: it has waxy,
and nitrogen cycles) and by acting as bacteriocidal (‘bacteria-killing’)secretions
recipients in genetic engineering. to help prevent water-borne pathogens
2 Degenerative diseases e.g. hardening of from crossing into the blood. Pathogens
the arteries; could feed on the body fluids and other
Deficiency diseases e.g. rickets tissues, multiplying and causing disease
Inherited e.g. sickle cell anaemia by destruction of cells or release of
3 In infected water (e.g. cholera); toxins.
By direct contact (contagious diseases) 2 a To prevent blood loss/entry of
e.g. athlete’s foot; pathogens
By animal vectors e.g. malaria; b If the clot is internal it might block
In droplets in the air e.g. influenza (virus); an important blood vessel and cut off
In contaminated food e.g. Salmonella oxygen and nutrient supply to tissues
food poisoning; and organs
Via body fluids e.g. AIDS; i It means that a small initial signal can
4 Signs are changes shown by the person quickly produce a very large response
who is ill – they can be observed by ii 10 000 000 000 i.e. 1010
a doctor e.g. raised temperature; 3 During phagocytosis, pathogens or
symptoms are experienced by the patient harmful particles are engulfed by white
e.g. ‘feeling ill’. blood cells (phagocytes) – the cells
Typical disease symptoms are caused form a vacuole around the pathogens
by multiplication of a pathogen or (a diagram would help your description!).
production of toxins, and the body’s Phagocytes are very flexible, and contain
attempts to eliminate the pathogen. digestive enzymes to break down the
5 Britain has a well-developed vaccination engulfed pathogens. Pathogens can
programme to minimise the effects of escape phagocytes by ‘hiding’ inside body
measles, and good care facilities for cells, or staying in areas where there are
anyone who does contract the disease. no phagocytes (such as in the gut).
Less economically developed countries 2.35 1 By recognising molecules on the surface
often do not have these advantages. of the pathogen – these molecules are not
6 Changes in sexual behaviour have found on the cells of the ‘host’
increased the likelihood of contracting 2 Lymphocyte has a spherical nucleus,
a sexually transmitted infection e.g. but phagocyte has an irregularly-shaped
syphilis. nucleus.
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Answers
3 Pathogen is recognised, and infected 6 Organisms in C have released CO2. This is

animal makes B-lymphocytes to produce an acid gas, and so the indicator changes
antibodies which help to destroy the colour.
pathogen. Some B-lymphocytes which 7 f No organisms in C – this would
can make these specific antibodies are demonstrate that the indicator doesn’t
kept in the plasma – they are ‘memory change colour due to some unknown
cells’ – so they are always ready if factor
another attack by the same pathogen 8 Walls of flask may become ‘misty’:
takes place. organisms release water from respiration
2.37 1 B 2.39 1 Thin, large surface area, close to good
2 c Change of energy from one form blood supply, moist, well-ventilated
to another. The conversion of light 2 c Along breathing passages (mouth/
energy from the sun into chemical trachea/bronchus/bronchiole) into air
energy in foods is the key step in sac. Cross membrane of air sac into
photosynthesis at the start of food capillary and into red blood cell. From
chains. All is eventually released red blood cell across wall of capillary
as heat. and then across cell membrane of e.g.
3 a Time on x axis, lactic acid liver cell
concentration on y axis: peak at 3 Oxygen can be carried in greater
25 minutes quantities because haemoglobin is
b 18 arbitrary units concentrated in the red blood cells. Red
c 15 minutes blood cells : function is transport of
d It is still being made in the muscles oxygen – adapted by absence of nucleus
and then ‘washed’ into the blood (so very flexible and with large surface
e Muscles area for uptake/loss of oxygen) and
55 minutes (back to 18 arbitrary units) presence of haemoglobin (for binding
2.38 1 a So that they could calculate a mean to oxygen)
value 4 Respiration is the release of energy from
Seeds: 0.40 mm per s; maggots: 0.52 food molecules. Gas exchange is the
mm per s. Maggots are more active transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide
than seeds, so require some energy for into and out of organisms to allow
movement. respiration to go on.
2 As a control: to show that no ‘unknown’
Gas exchange pp.118–119
factor was responsible for the movement
1 a graph plotted appropriately – time on
of the coloured liquid
x axis
3 a Temperature on x axis, oxygen
b Alan – he can get by with fewer
consumption on y axis: peak at 35 °C.
breaths during periods of exercise
This corresponds to the optimum
c 8:1 (4:0.5)
temperature of the enzymes involved
d 30 breaths per minute (each one takes
in respiration
2 seconds)
b Temperature is the independent/
e Increases both rate and depth of
input variable, relative oxygen
breathing
consumption is dependent/outcome
f Heart rate would increase to a
variable
maximum as exercise levels increased
Mass of organism/surface area of filter
g More oxygen (and glucose) are
paper/type of coloured liquid
delivered to the respiring muscles
4 To remove carbon dioxide from the air
2 a The diaphragm
before it reaches the living organisms
b They will collapse/deflate
5 a That no carbon dioxide remains in
c Exhalation/expiration
the air
d No intercostal muscles shown
301
Answers
e 1 – rib; 2 – sternum; 3 – (external) more traffic so more traffic exhaust

intercostal muscle; 4 – backbone/ to provide carbon monoxide
vertebral column b i nicotine – addictive/increases heart
f Breathing in involves contraction rate; tar – increases risk of lung
of the intercostal muscles and the cancer
diaphragm, so is ‘active’; breathing ii fetus can be underweight as it is
out occurs when intercostals and deprived of oxygen. Baby may also
diaphragm relax, so is ‘passive’ be nicotine dependent at birth
3 a i marathon running uses all energy 2.40 1 As these muscles contract they increase
reserves (glucose, glycogen and the volume of the chest. Lungs follow this
fat) at about 4x the rate that change so air is drawn in.
walking does 2 Rate of breathing. Volume of air entering
ii blood glucose and muscle glycogen lungs at rest and during exercise. Volume
iii fat carbohydrate of air that can be drawn in in excess of
b i for muscle development and repair basic breathing. Maximum volume
ii to build up reserves of liver and of lungs.
muscle glycogen 3 Aerobic respiration removes oxygen from
c i C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 1 2ATP inhaled air, and adds carbon dioxide to
ii sprinter can use anaerobic exhaled air.
respiration since the production of 2.41 1 Particles trigger the action of phagocytes,
lactate (a muscle toxin) is of less and mucus-secreting cells so more
significance for a race which takes mucus is produced. Smoke dries out
only a short time the lining of the lungs. Chemicals in
iii liver glycogen is hydrolysed smoke may trigger extra cell division
to glucose (influenced by the and start growth of tumours in the lungs
hormones adrenaline and or airways.
glucagon), then is transported out 2 Physical; body cannot function without
of the liver into the blood. Blood the chemical. Psychological: user believes
glucose concentration remains that chemical reduces stress or increases
constant since extra glucose is pleasure. By offering nicotine patches
absorbed by the respiring muscles. (to overcome physical addiction) and
4 a any four from nutrition/reproduction/ counselling (to overcome psychological
excretion/growth/development/ addiction)
sensitivity/locomotion 3 Increased blood pressure/damage to
b respiration is the release of energy heart/bladder cancer
by the oxidation of foods, usually 4 Cilia are lost and so cannot remove
glucose; breathing is the process that bacteria trapped in mucus
removes carbon dioxide from the body 5 a 1000
and replaces it with oxygen. Breathing b 6 cm2
is a necessary process for aerobic c 6000 cm2
respiration to continue. d 600 cm2
5 a i smoking Emphysema sufferers have fewer alveoli,
ii smoking causes a further reduction so larger spaces/smaller surface areas for
of 3.4% - driving (and exposure gas exchange.
to traffic exhaust fumes) causes a 2.42 1 Epidemiology is the study of the
maximum reduction of 2.3% patterns of disease and the factors that
(5.712.3) affect them.
iii day time drivers 5 5 4.0%,
2 2 Working in a smoky or dusty
(4.411.0)
night time drivers 5 5 2.7%. environment. Working in an
2
Thus there is a greater reduction environment with airborne particles
(by 1.3%) for day time drivers – (e.g. in mining).
302
Answers
3 Approximately 24 times 3 Blood glucose level is detected by

4 People living close to power lines, and the pancreas, insulin is secreted if
people living a great distance from concentration is too high, liver is
power lines. stimulated to remove glucose and store it
All of the same age – suggest 30 years as glycogen, blood glucose level returns
of age. to optimum.
Same sex Temperature in cabin is measured by
Same occupation thermal sensors, information is sent to on-
Similar diet as far as this can be board computer, electrical message is sent
controlled. to cabin heaters, heaters are switched on
5 It would be unethical to deliberately or off to return temperature to optimum.
make an individual smoke in the
Excretion and homeostasis pp.133–135
expectation of causing lung cancer.
a This is a condition in which the body
2.43 1 Excretion: the removal of the
temperature falls significantly below
waste products of metabolism and
its normal level
substances in excess of requirements.
b Old people have less efficient
Osmoregulation: control of water balance
circulation, and also their temperature
in the body.
control systems work less well
2 Carbon dioxide: respiration in cells –
c Children have a high surface area to
exhaled from lungs
volume ratio, so they lose heat more
e Urea: deamination in liver cells –
quickly than they can produce it
removed by the kidneys
a any change in body temperature is
3 kidney; renal arteries; nephrons;
detected by a sensor, and then corrective
bowman’s; glucose; selective
actions (shivering/sweating; constriction
reabsorption; ureters; bladder; urethra
of skin blood vessels/dilation of skin
2.44 1 a To keep the cell cytoplasm hydrated
blood vessels) return the temperature to
b In food and drink
normal body temperature
In urine, sweat and on the exhaled breath
b shivering is rapid muscle contraction.
2 In negative feedback a change in a
This generates heat from respiration
factor causes a correction that cancels
(and some friction)
out this change
c liver is the main metabolic centre of
3 Transplant is more convenient for
the body, so generates a great deal of
patient, and action is more natural for
heat (especially from respiration)
the body. Kidney may not be available,
d in negative feedback a change from
and may be rejected by the immune
the optimum/norm causes actions
system.
which correct (cancel out) the
2.45 1 tissue; receptors; optimum; brain;
original change
sensory; negative feedback
a Show artery connected to aorta, vein
2
to vena cava and tube carrying urine
Organ Factor controlled
to the entry to the bladder
Liver Blood glucose concentration b Rejection occurs because the body
Lungs Concentrations of oxygen and detects that the organ does not belong
carbon dioxide to the recipient, and the immune
Kidney Urea concentration system produces more cells which
Skin Temperature attack the transplant
Intestines Availability of digested foods, such c The kidney tubule can select which
as glucose materials will be lost and which
ones will be returned from the urine
303
Answers
to the blood. The useful materials concentration falls as excess sodium

are returned to the blood by active is removed by filtration in the kidney
transport. capsules
a It passes by diffusion i.e. down a 2.47 1 Similarities: both involved in
concentration gradient into the coordination, both required for survival.
dialysis fluid (the dialysis fluid has a Differences: nervous system is much
very low urea concentration) quicker, relies on electrical (not chemical)
b i The transplanted kidney will carry messages. Nervous system is generally
out all of the functions of a normal quicker and more localised, which means
kidney, and will not run the risk the effects are useful for short-term
of infection that there is with an survival but not so useful for control of
external connection to a dialysis growth.
machine; 2 Long (messages carried over great
ii The kidney might be rejected. This distances), insulated (so no electrical
occurs because the body detects interference), Nodes of Ranvier (allow
that the organ does not belong rapid ‘jumping’ conduction), many
to the recipient, and the immune connections with other neurones or
system produces more cells which muscle cells.
attack the transplant 3 a Motor – information out of CNS,
a i time on x axis/check axes are sensory – information towards CNS
linear/check that y axis scale is Central – brain and spinal cord,
appropriate to the 3 plots/accuracy peripheral – nerves leading to and from
of plots the CNS
ii A cools more rapidly (to 45 °C) 4 a As a wave of electrical action
than B (to 60 °C); B more slowly potentials
than C, and C a little more quickly By neurotransmitter molecules which
(to 40 °C) than A can diffuse across the synapse
iii B is insulated with dry cotton wool, 2.48 1 a Stretch receptor (in patellar tendon of
so loses heat slowly. A is ‘naked’ the knee). As it stretches it produces
and C has a damp covering so some an electrical potential
heat is used to evaporate water b The sensory neurone
from this covering c E (muscle which straightens the knee)
b flasks had same surface area/ d Total distance covered – there and
contained same volume of water/ back – is about 60 cm. 100 m 5
had water at the same temperature 10 000 cm, so this distance would
at the beginning of the experiment/ 60
be covered in s or 6 ms
environmental temperature was the 10 000
(milliseconds)
same in each case
Impulse is slowed as it crosses the
ii accuracy could be improved by
synapses
taking readings more frequently;
2.49 1 a 310 ms. The mean is valuable since it
reliability could be improved by
reduces the effect of any one result,
repeating the experiment a number
which might not be a typical result.
of times and taking mean values for
b 110–150: 6 students; 160–200: 8
the readings.
students; 210–250: 10 students; 260–
a X – vena cava; Y – ureter; Z – urethra
300: 4 students; 310–350: 2 students
b oxygen concentration falls because
(did you remember to include
the kidney uses oxygen to release
student 1?).
energy by aerobic respiration; urea
c i Shortest reaction time is 120 ms,
concentration falls as urea is filtered
so motorcycle would travel
into the urine at the Bowman’s
approximately 2 m
Capsules in the kidney; sodium
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Answers
ii Longest reaction time is 330 ms, e Use model lenses, or lenses removed
so motorcycle would travel from animals slaughtered for food.
approximately 5 m Amount of smoke reaching lens is the
In a conditioned reflex a second reflex independent variable, the measured
replaces the natural one – here the ‘bang’ hardness of the lens is the dependent
has replaced the need for the subject to variable. A suitable control would
observe a light. be a lens not subjected to cigarette
smoke (to show that it doesn’t harden
Receptors and sensors pp.146–147
without the smoke).
1 A transducer changes one form of
6 a i D;
energy (the stimulus) into another form
ii having an opposing action to
of energy (usually an action potential).
(e.g. contracts when the antagonist
a Taste buds convert chemical messages
relaxes)
into action potentials
b automatic/rapid/not at conscious
b Rod cells convert light energy into
level/positive survival value; ii. across
action potentials
the spinal cord at a level lower than
2 cornea lens retina
the chest
iris(diaphragm) pupil rods
c i adrenaline;
black and white cones
ii increased rate of heartbeat/dilation
colour high retina inverted
of pupils/release of glucose into
smaller optic integration
blood/increased breathing rate/
3 a Ciliary muscles/suspensory ligaments
redistribution of blood to respiring
b Independent is distance from eye,
muscles/skin turns pale
dependent is thickness of lens
7 a 1 receptor / sensory;
c Amount of light in room (could affect
2 stimuli;
pupil size which might have an effect
3 tongue;
on lens shape)/size and colour of pencil
4 nose;
(must make sure that the distance is
b i suspensory ligaments;
the only independent variable
ii becomes flatter / thinner / less
d Repeat the measurements at each of
curved / convex / rounded;
the distances, and take a mean of the
c i 5;
measurements
ii 2;
4 a A – retina; B – pupil; C – tear duct; D –
iii 4;
choroid; E – conjunctiva; F – sclera
b i The retina will not be damaged/ Hormones p.151
bleached by the high light intensity; 1 adrenaline – glycogen – glucose – oxygen –
ii Light – retina – brain – iris muscle deeper – faster – gut – muscles – pales –
c i 20 minutes; dilate – stands up – fight - flight
ii The ‘two step’ shape of the curve 2 Male secretes more testosterone at
suggests that more than one factor puberty. Testosterone leads to aggressive/
is involved territorial behaviour. As testosterone
5 a 55 years concentration in blood rises, it inhibits
b Will be less able to accommodate production of further testosterone. As a
to objects from different distances, result, testosterone concentration slowly
so some images on retina will be falls (as it is removed from the blood)
blurred and so the male does not become too
c Once over 60, there is little change aggressive.
in the ability to alter the shape of 2.52 1 a Stimulant : nicotine (which raises
the lens blood pressure); depressant: alcohol
d Cornea – accommodation will not be (increases reaction times – time to
so efficient process information); narcotic: heroin
305
Answers
(mimics natural painkillers so gives e i Suicide/blood infections/

feeling of euphoria) malnutrition
b Physical; body cannot function ii Methadone gives the sense of
without the chemical. Psychological: euphoria without the physical
user believes that chemical reduces dependence. Vitamin supplements
stress or increases pleasure. counteract some of the dangers of
c Tolerance : ability of body to function malnutrition.
normally even at higher levels of drug. 2.53 1 tip; auxin; swell; water; auxin; swell;
Means that even higher levels will be phototropism; photosynthesis
needed to have an effect on the user. 2 d roots; copies/clones; fruiting; pests/
b Input 5 caffeine intake in coffee weeds; light; water; mineral nutrients;
(e.g. number of cups drunk) Outcome: selective; seedless; fertilisation
ability to perform a task involving 3.2 1 f – 5; (b) – 6; (c) – 7; (d) – 1; (e) – 9; (f) –
co-ordination and concentration e.g. 4; (g) – 8; (h) – 2; (i) – 3; (j) – 10
recognising different coloured shapes 2 b germinates; flower; reproduction;
quickly. Fixed: age/gender/body mass pollination; fertilisation; fruit; seed;
of subjects. Concentration of caffeine dispersal
in coffee. Time period for drinking 3.4 1 Pollination is the transfer of gametes
coffee. (sex cells) from the anther to the stigma;
2 a Time on x axis, BAL on y axis. Note fertilisation is the fusion of these
peak at one hour. gametes in the ovary.
b i 95 mg alcohol per 100 cm3 of blood 2 a Label sepals and petals (anther and
ii From about 0.6 to 2.9 hours i.e. filament wither away)
2.3 hours The ovary
iii Reaction times would be increased 3 A seed is the part of a fruit that can
e.g. for braking, judgement of develop, after germination, into a
distance would be affected young plant
c skin would appear red 4 a Tomato – fruit; cucumber – fruit;
d carbon dioxide on the breath, water Brussels sprout – neither fruit nor
in the urine (and probably as sweat). seed; baked bean – seed; runner bean –
Long term use causes cirrhosis fruit; celery – neither seed nor fruit;
(hardening of/ loss of function of pea – seed; grape - fruit
liver cells) 5 a Cover buds with muslin bags so that
e weak bones and teeth, and a tendency insects cannot reach flowers. Once
to scurvy (bleeding of gums/loss of flowers are formed, transfer pollen to
teeth/poor healing of cuts) stigma of half of the available flowers
f shaking of the hands, as muscles and do not transfer pollen to the other
contract uncontrollably. Alcohol half (if plants are hermaphrodite,
would stop this, as it is an inhibitor of cut off anthers to prevent self-
nervous stimulation of the muscles. pollination). Re-cover flowers with
3 a i The likelihood of addiction muslin bags. Record which plants
ii Increase 5 (49.6 – 4.2) 5 45.4. produce fruits.
Percentage increase b For self-pollination transfer pollen
45.4 to stigma of same flower, for cross-
5 3 100 5 10 800% increase
4.2 pollination transfer to stigma of
iii Increased seizures of cocaine/ different flower.
cannabis resin/LSD. Reduced Always make counts of fruits after the
seizures of heroin. Quantities of same period of time. Keep all plants
LSD are very much lower than of under same environmental conditions,
other drugs. particularly with respect to soil minerals.
306
Answers
3.5 1 water; micropyle; swell; testa/seed coat; ii stigma;

oxygen; respiration; embryo; radicle; iii ovule;
positive geotropism; anchorage; plumule; b (seed from) ovule;
true; photosynthesis (fruit from) ovary;
2 Demonstrate that temperature and c (wind can) carry pollen / assists in
changes in pH have an effect on the rate pollination;
of germination (wind can) disperse seeds / fruits;
(wind can) disperse scent (to attract
Plant reproduction pp.170–171
pollinators);
1 small dull dry light
5
stamens style
Tube Would seeds germinate?
2 a Anther – produces pollen grains; sepal –
protects the flower when in bud; style – A NO
allows the passage of the pollen tube to B YES
the ovary; stigma – the surface on which C NO
the pollen lands during pollination D YES
b wind pollinated is long (hangs outside
ii germination is controlled by
petals) and feathery – makes it more
enzymes; enzymes work more
likely to catch wind-blown pollen
efficiently at 30 °C – more collisions
c self pollination increases the chances
of substrate molecules with active
of pollination (and so of eventual
sites
seed formation) but reduces the
b i graph should have time on x axis
possibilities of genetic variation
dry mass on y axis/axes should be
3 a check for relative width/depth, labels
labelled, with units/ accuracy of
to include epidermis/seed/jelly-like
plotting
seed covering/flesh – ovary wall. Is
ii 18 days
scale included.
iii 30 days
b one is soft/moist/seeds enclosed in
iv stores of organic molecules
jelly/no pedicel
(especially carbohydrate and/or fat)
c make sample of material (crush in
are hydrolysed and used to supply
water in mortar and pestle). Add
energy and raw materials for early
Benedict’s Reagent to equal volume
stages of development.
of each sample (care – do not taste/
3.6 1 a allows joining of genetic material from
wear eye protection). Heat in boiling
two different parents
water bath for same time period
b the developmental stage which
(two minutes). Compare colour –
ensures that the individual has sex
deeper the brick red colour, the more
organs capable of producing gametes
concentrated the reducing sugar in the
this provides haploid cells ready for
sample.
fertilisation
4 a i 1 pollination is the transfer of
2 a from tubules in testis – along sperm
pollen to the stigma;
ducts – through prostate gland – along
2 fertilisation is the fusion / joining
urethra
of male and female / two gametes;
from ovary into oviduct
3 pollination needs a transfer
3 Usually, in the first third of the oviduct
agent, fertilisation does not / only
4 To replace individuals that have
pollination needs transfer agent;
died, and to make sure that there is
4 pollination occurs before
variation within a sexually-reproducing
fertilisation / fertilisation cannot
population
happen without pollination;
5 a R: oviduct/fallopian tube; S: vagina/
5 pollination is external (to the
birth canal;
plant) and fertilisation is internal;
307
Answers
b i line F should be pointing to first 3 Progesterone rises in concentration if

third of oviduct; fertilisation occurs – it then prevents
ii line I should be pointing to the wall ovulation by ‘switching’ off the release
of the uterus; of FSH, so no more follicles develop.
c i oestrogen is produced by the No follicles means no more ova, so no
ovary; chance of pregnancy.
ii development of breasts/mammary 4 a menstruation – repair – receptive –
glands; broadening of hips pre-menstrual
6 a A – urethra; B – testis/testicle; b 28 days
b X should be on top of testis; At about 14 days
c i only difference is that vas deferens/ 3.8 1 Conception – implantation of the ball
sperm duct has been cut of cells formed as the zygote divides;
ii sperm cannot reach the urethra so copulation – another name for sexual
cannot be released at ejaculation. intercourse, the hard penis is inserted
Thus there can be no fertilisation. into the vagina; fertilisation – the fusion
d seminal fluid is still released from of the male and female gametes
prostate gland, and ejaculated into the 2 IVF – how many fertilised eggs should
female. HIV may also be transmitted be implanted? Should a fertilised egg be
non-sexually in blood (and in saliva, implanted in the womb of a surrogate
although rarely). mother? Should an egg donor know who
7 a i ovulation is the sperm donor?
ii haploid means having only a single AID - Should a female know who is the
set of chromosomes in the nucleus sperm donor? Should any attempt be
b made to match the sperm donor to the
feature egg cells sperm cells female (e.g. for physical characteristics/
site of ovary testis
sporting abilities/intelligence)? When
production should a child born from AID be made
relative size large small
aware of his/her father?
3.9 1
numbers few many (millions)
produced (hundreds) Female sterilisation S
mobility not mobile mobile (swims) Vasectomy S
Diaphragm P
3.7 1 c Menstruation is the release of the
IUD P
broken down lining of the uterus.
Pill C
Ovulation is the release of an ovum
Spermicide C
from the ovary. There must be a
Female condom P
period of time after ovulation to
offer the possibility of fertilisation, Condom P
before menstruation can take 2 Condom or diaphragm – these are

place. Menstruation would include temporary methods of contraception
unfertilised ova. 3 Sterilisation is not reversible, and a
2 b FSH – stimulates development of the change of sexual partner might involve a
follicle in the ovary; LH – stimulates change in the desire for contraception
release of ovum at ovulation, and 4 c There is so much variation in
development of corpus luteum from Human physiology, such as body
remains of follicle; oestrogen – temperature changes, that it is
repairs the lining of the uterus; difficult to be sure when a woman
progesterone – keeps the lining of has actually ovulated.
the uterus ready for implantation if 3.10 1 The gestation period
fertilisation occurs 2 It takes 42 – 43 divisions
308
Answers
3 Specialisation of cells, which is part of should try to develop vaccines to prevent

development. Specialisation involves infection, should try to develop drugs to
a change in structure and function of manage the disease in people who have
cells, and development is a change in the become infected
function of an organ.
Human reproduction and growth pp.190–191
3.12 1 uterus; oxytocin; progesterone; cervix;
1 a time on x axis/ body temperature on
amniotic sac; vagina; oxygen; umbilical;
y axis/menstruation and ovulation
placenta; afterbirth
indicated
2 Oxytocin- stimulates contractions of
b i 36.1 – 36.8;
uterus; progesterone – concentration
ii This is to make sure that there are
falls as labour begins; oestrogen –
no unexpected independent (input)
concentration rises as birth approaches
variables
(makes uterus more sensitive to
c i Menstruation – fall in temperature,
oxytocin). Oxytocin also stimulates
ovulation – increase in temperature;
lactation, and oestrogen is responsible
ii This can indicate the time when
for the development of the breasts.
conception is most likely (a few
Human Growth Hormone is one of the
days around ovulation) – this
controls for growth, especially controlling
time should be avoided for
production of protein in muscles.
contraception, or represents
3 a True
the best time for intercourse to
b False
increase the chance of conception
c True
d the pill/diaphragm both are more
d False
reliable as there is much variation
e True
in temperature changes during the
True
menstrual cycle
3.13 1 Avoid unprotected sex (for AIDS,
2 a penis becomes erect as spaces fill
gonorrhoea and syphilis), avoid sharing
with blood/erect penis enters vagina/
syringes (AIDS), know sexual history
friction between penis and vagina
of partner (for AIDS, gonorrhoea and
stimulates penis/sperm in seminal
syphilis)
fluid is ejaculated
2 Should offer testing for STDs, and be
b i barrier method
aware of treatment available for each
ii condom collects seminal fluid/
type of STD. Should try to trace source
sperm so no sperm are ejaculated
of any outbreak, and work out special
into vagina, so no fertilisation can
programmes for those particularly at risk
take place
(such as drug users).
c i seminal fluid, like other body
3 AIDS (viral), gonorrhoea or syphilis
fluids, may contain HIV. Without
(bacterial)
a condom the HIV can be
4 AIDS
transmitted from male to female.
Individuals: should know history of
Infected female may transmit HIV
sexual partners, avoid unprotected sex
to male who isn’t wearing condom,
Communities: Should offer testing
so infection can be spread.
for AIDS, and be aware of treatment
ii via an infected blood transfusion/
available for AIDS and any associated
via sharing a needle for drug use
problems. Should try to trace source
with an infected person
of any outbreak, and work out special
iii helper cells in the immune system
programmes for those particularly at risk
are infected/inactivated by HIV, so
(such as drug users).
the production of white blood cells
Scientists: should devise education
becomes uncoordinated
programmes to try to limit infection,
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Answers
d i pain or burning when passing b chromosomes can be observed when

urine/creamy discharge from penis cells divide. This is because the
or vagina/inflammation of the testes chromosomes shorten and condense
ii as i. (they can take up stains when they do)
iii course of antibiotics as part of cell division.
3 a it is not losing heat to the 3.16 1 Nucleotides
environment/it has a high rate of 2 Adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
respiration, which generates heat 3 Adenine – thymine and guanine –
b i Fat is an excellent insulator against cytosine. Base pairing explains how DNA
heat loss; can be replicated (copied) accurately.
ii This prevents blood reaching the 4 Replication is the copying of DNA i.e. it is
surface of the skin, where heat can DNA to DNA.
be lost to the surroundings 5 Haemoglobin – ability to transport
c change in temperature is detected by oxygen in red blood;
sensor – thermostat controls action of Amylase – ability to digest starch in cells
heater - more/less heat is released to of salivary glands;
return temperature to normal; Keratin – structural strength in hair
ii Prevents heat loss to the and nails;
environment/prevents baby drying Antibodies – immune response in
out/allows nurse/mother to view lymphocytes;
the newborn baby 6 Mitosis (or meiosis)
d i carbohydrate – supplies energy/ 7 a X is thymine, Y is cytosine;
protein – supplies raw materials for b replication
growth; c the sequence in the DNA determines
ii Antibodies – baby may have less the amino acid sequence (and
immunity to childhood diseases therefore the structure and function)
4 a i maternal – V; fetus – Y in proteins.
ii T is the umbilical cord. It shrivels 3.17 1 a They are physically damaged as they
and the remains fall off after birth. are forced along blood vessels, and
iii fetus receives oxygen, soluble foods they have no nucleus to control repair
and antibodies, fetus excretes processes
carbon dioxide and urea b The liver
b oestrogen – maintains female c Iron (actually FeII), and it is part of
secondary sexual characteristics, haemoglobin
including development of mammary i 5 3 1 000 000 3 5 000 000 5
glands/at birth makes uterus more 25 000 000 000 000 i.e. 25 million
sensitive to oxytocin (which leads million
to contraction of uterine muscle); ii About 0.21 million million are
progesterone – maintains the lining replaced every day, so about
of the uterus and the blood supply 2.41 thousand million every second
to the developing fetus/level falls in 3.18 1 Homologous pair : chromosomes with
preparation for birth. the same genes in the same positions –
3.14 1 Inherited – eye colour; acquired – one of the pair comes from the father and
body mass; one from the mother. Heterozygous :
2 Many possible examples a nucleus (or organism) carrying both
3 a a chromosome is a thread-like alternative alleles of a gene e.g. Bb.
structure, carrying genetic information Homozygous : a nucleus (or organism)
in the form of genes. Chromosomes carrying only one of the alternative alleles
are found in the nucleus, and only the of a gene, although it does have two
nucleus of the sperm is passed on at copies of that allele e.g. bb or BB.
fertilisation.
310
Answers
2 A gene is a section of DNA that controls the b 1

production of a particular protein, and an 2
allele is an alternative form of a gene c 1 : i.e. 1 (female) 3 1 (blood group A)
4 2 2
3 A dominant allele is expressed (i.e. is ‘in codominance
control’) in a heterozygous individual. 3.21 1 Parents XX (male) 3 XY (female)
In abbreviated form, the dominant allele Gametes X or X X or Y
is usually shown with a capital letter e.g.
Offspring genotypes XX XX XY XY
B is the dominant allele in the pair Bb
3.19 1 Brown eyed parents are both Bb Offspring phenotypes male male
(Brown – B – is dominant to blue – b); female female
gametes from each parent are B or b; at 2 The mutant allele for colour blindness
fertilisation one possible combination in is carried on the X chromosome. The
the zygote is bb, a blue-eyed child. male has only one X chromosome, so
2 Because the gametes are not produced whichever allele he has will be expressed
in exactly equal numbers, and (shown).
fertilisation is random (i.e. it is not A colour blind female must be homozygous
certain that every possible combination for the colour blind allele i.e. XcXc.
will be produced in the expected 3 a the mother is a carrier because she
numbers). The larger the size of the ‘carries’ the allele for haemophilia but,
population studied, the closer actual since this is recessive, she does not
results approach the expectation. show the condition in her phenotype.
3 d This cross enables an experimenter (2)
b she has a 50% 1 probability of having
(e.g. an animal breeder) to find
out whether an individual showing
(2)
a son, and a 50% 1 probability that
the son will be haemophiliac.
the dominant characteristic is
homozygous or heterozygous. Inheritance pp.208–209
Homozygous individuals might be 1 a i recessive
more valuable, as they will be pure ii parents 6 3 7 can be heterozygous
breeding for that characteristic. and still have an affected
3.20 1 a a heterozygote, who has the recessive homozygous child
allele but does not show the recessive b 1
4
characteristic because the dominant
i 25%. Show results of cross between
allele is also present
two heterozygotes.
show parents as Cc, for example. There is
2 Gene Meiosis Diploid
a 1 probability that one of their children Recessive Heterozygous
4
will have cystic fibrosis. 3 a haemoglobin cannot form
2 a she was Hh – she showed the condition, probably within red blood cells, and
but must have had the h allele as she cells become sickle shaped under
had children who were hh (unaffected) slightly acidic conditions. Sickle
b B was hh, C was Hh. Show gametes cells are less efficient at oxygen
and possible zygotes. transport.
c 1 - remember that each ‘event’ b i P INIS 3 INIS
2
(i.e. each child) is unaffected by the gametes IN IS IN IS
genotype of its siblings
F1 ININ INIS INIS ISIS
Because affected individuals might die
Probability that child will be
before they reproduce, so ‘losing’ the
heterozygous is 1 or 50%
dominant allele from the population 2
3 a Show parents’ genotype, possible c this advantage is noted in areas where
gametes, possible combinations the malarial parasite is common.
in zygotes People who are heterozygous only
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Answers
have mild anaemia, and are protected 3 a category on x axis, number on y axis
from malaria since the malarial b continuous – there are many categories
parasite cannot multiply in sickle- c gender/ability to roll tongue
shaped red blood cells. 3.23 1 A gene mutation is an alteration in the
4 A Dominant Allele Heterozygous DNA on a single chromosome
Genotype a the cystic fibrosis allele
b i white the sickle cell anaemia allele in regions
ii P Rr 3 Rr where malaria is common
2 A cancer-causing factor. Some forms of
gametes R r R r
radiation(u-v) can cause skin cancer,
F1 RR Rr Rr rr i.e 1 are white
4 chemicals in tobacco smoke can cause
iii two possibilities lung cancer
3 Crossing-over during meiosis produces
1 P Rr 3 rr
new combinations of alleles in gametes,
gametes R r r r independent assortment produces new
combinations of chromosomes in gametes,
F1 Rr Rr rr rr i.e. 1 red: 1 white
and fertilisation has random combinations
OR of gametes from mother and father
2 P RR 3 rr 3.24 1 Adaptation is a change in structure,
gametes R R r r biochemistry or behaviour which
makes an organism more suited to its
F1 Rr Rr Rr Rr i.e. all red environment
5 a i TT must be 105; 2 b Many possible examples – be careful
iiAlleles of a gene; that you explain how the adaptation
iii
To simulate the random nature of gives the organism an advantage in its
allele transfer environment
b i Red is dominant, Cross W: c
ii Flowers from cross V are 3.25 1 a 32
heterozygous i.e. Tt, so each b The banded snails are more obvious
could provide T or t at gamete against the plain background
formation c i Banded (the background is plain)
c i Tt 3 tt, gametes would be T or t and ii Unbanded (the background has
t or t, offspring would be Tt or tt; stripes/bands)
ii Cube 1 T T T t t t and cube 2 t t t t t t A: snails have many offspring, and there
6 a parental genotypes IAIO 3 IBIO would not be enough food for all of
gametes IA IO IB IO them to live as adults; B: the snails have
offspring genotype IOIO slightly-different appearances to one
b heterozygous genotype IBIO or IAIO another – some have banded shells and
some have plain shells; C: the pattern of
codominant alleles IB and IA
the banded shells can provide camouflage
phenotype blood group O (blood group in a grassy environment; D: the ones
A and blood group B in parents would be with plain shells are seen more easily by
acceptable answers) predators such as thrushes; E: the snails
3.22 1 discontinuous; continuous; genes; with banded shells survive longer, breed
environmental; genotype; phenotype; more often and so pass on their genes to
phenotype; genotype; environment the next generation
2 Blood group – b
a determined by genes alone; 3.26 1 a Cut off anthers from ‘receiving’ flower;
b all others are affected by environment, collect pollen from ‘donor’ flower on
such as nutrition paintbrush; transfer pollen to stigma
312
Answers
of ‘receiving’ flower. Cover pollinated concentration/humidity/availability

flowers to prevent pollination by of water
natural means. 3 One may be food for the other (most
Use vegetative propagation likely plant being food for animal); insect
may be responsible for pollination of
Variation pp.220–221
flower; animal may help to disperse
1 a take sample of DNA/compare/different
seeds/fruits of plant
patterns suggest different species
4 d Food, shelter and a suitable breeding
(interbreed and cannot produce fertile
site
offspring – not useful with large
5 • Flying insects are ‘cold-blooded’ and
mammals)
so cannot remain active at the low
b i discontinuous ii Equus grevyi
temperatures found in Britain during
c i phenotype ii change in the type
the winter
or amount of DNA
• During UK winters temperatures are
d i segmented limbs ii three body
higher in Africa, so there is more
parts/three pairs of legs
active insect life available as food for
e i they would appear horizontal so
the swallows
would reduce attacks by Tsetse flies
Hobbies depend on small birds (and large
ii individuals with more stripes
insects for food). Many populations of
survive better than those with
small birds migrate to Africa in the UK
fewer – interbreed - off spring have
winter as more food is available to them
even more stripes – even less likely
there. The hobbies follow their food.
to be attacked by Tsetse flies
6 b Ecology is the study of living
2 a in bones and teeth, where calcium is
organisms in relation to their
found in a mammal’s body
environment
b increase risk of mutation/may change
7 a i June
rate of cell division
ii April
3 a continuous
iii The trees have many leaves, and
b i check that bars do not touch/blood
these absorb the light before it can
group type on X axis
reach the ground layer
ii genes
i There is plenty of light for them
c i change in the type or amount of
to photosynthesise before the
DNA
trees have produced most of their
ii ionising radiation (examples?)/some
leaves ii. By June the trees are in
chemicals e.g tar in tobacco smoke
full leaf and so little light reaches
4 a i (1.2) 9; (1.3) 10
the bluebells. Bluebells cannot
ii check that bars do not touch/mass
photosynthesise without light, and
of berry on X axis
so leaves die back
b continuous – values are numerical/bar
4.2 1 Producer : can trap light energy and
chart could be redrawn as a smooth
produce organic compounds; consumer:
curve/classes are arbitrary (choice of
must obtain its organic food molecules
the person doing the measuring)
in a ready-made form, from another
4.1 1 Population: all of the members of one
living organism; decomposer: obtain
species in a particular area; community:
energy and raw materials from the wastes
all of the populations of living organisms
or remains of other living organisms.
in one area; ecosystem: all of the living
Consumers can be omitted : the cycling
organisms and the non-living factors
of raw materials can go on without
interacting together in one part of the
consumers but not without producers or
environment
decomposers.
2 Light intensity/temperature/oxygen
2 Whichever example you choose, make
concentration/carbon dioxide
sure that there is a producer at the base,
313
Answers
and that you show the direction of energy e diffusion

flow with arrows. there was no oxygen to complete
3 Energy is lost from each transfer between decomposition/it was too acid for
stages e.g. when a lion eats an antelope, decomposition to take place
much of the antelope’s energy content 4.6 1 a the stubble can be decomposed and
does not become part of the lion’s body release nitrates to the soil
(a great deal is lost as heat during the b drainage increases the air content
lion’s respiration). Because the energy of the soil, providing oxygen for
transfer is quite low – only about 5-10% - respiration by microbes. It also raises
there cannot be many links to the chain the temperature of the soil, helping
or the number of producers at the base the enzymes of decomposition
would be enormous. c peas and beans are legumes – they
1 (p.226) have a symbiotic relationship with
Producers Herbivores Carnivores Top bacteria that can ‘fix’ nitrogen from the
carnivores atmosphere into ammonium salts and
freshwater Algae Water fleas Guppy, Green nitrates, which are excellent fertilisers
bass heron d increases the concentration of nitrate,
Seashore Seaweed Limpet Crab Gull phosphate and potassium – all mineral
Coral reef Phytoplankton Zooplankton, Anemone, shark ions needed for plant growth
coral, parrotfish, the compost can be decomposed to
jellyfish sea turtle,
release nitrates and other minerals (and
butterfly
the decomposition also raises the soil
fish, crab,
octopus temperature and moisture content)
2 drainage increases the air content of the
2 • M any possibilities e.g. number of soil, providing oxygen for respiration by
parrotfish would increase, so coral microbes. It also raises the temperature
might be eaten, so less food for of the soil, helping the enzymes of
butterfly fish, so zooplankton would decomposition
increase. Main point to make is that 4.7 1 a herbivore dies – is decomposed –
food webs are very stable, and removal nitrate is released – absorbed by a
of any member makes them less plant – converted to protein by plant –
stable. eaten by herbivore – digested to amino
3 energy; producer; light; chemical; acids – assimilated into herbivore
herbivore; consumer; carnivore muscles as protein
4.4 1 bacteria; fungi; simple; amino acids; fats/ c decomposition releases nitrates/
lipids; enzymes; temperature; ph; sewage; ammonium salts for nitrogen cycle,
food/buildings and also releases carbon dioxide for
2 a they can use it as fertiliser for growing the carbon cycle
plants 2 energy; producer; light; chemical;
b to provide the moist conditions which herbivore; consumer; carnivore;
supply water for decomposition photosynthesis; respiration; decomposers
(hydrolyses in digestion) 3 a plants
to make sure that oxygen is available, b jackals and lions
since aerobic respiration by microbes c grass >sheep> jackal
requires oxygen d several jackals can bring down a large
4.5 1 a carbon dioxide sheep; several jackals can search for
b glucose/starch/cellulose food; female jackals can remain with
c respiration pups while males hunt
d photosynthesis e the jackals used other species as their
prey e.g. dik-diks
314
Answers
f jugular vein/trachea/spine phosphates available to the crop

g the collars would not be biodegradable plants. This is called ‘organic’ culture
i.e. they could not be decomposed by since no artificial inorganic fertilisers
bacteria or fungi. are used.
5 a i A – combustion B – respiration
Ecosystems, decay and cycles pp.238–239
C – photosynthesis D – nutrition/
1 a (from top of web)
feeding
hawk spider
ii bacteria/ fungi
small bird flies
b increased combustion of fossil
butterflies aphids mice
fuels increases carbon dioxide
b i food web
concentration/removal of forests takes
ii hawk spider
away the trees which might otherwise
c i pyramid shown with bean plant
reabsorb carbon dioxide
widest, then mice, then hawk
6 a i heat;
ii pyramid shown with single plant,
ii condensation / cooling of water
many aphids(so wide bar), then
vapour;
single/few birds
b i transpiration / evapo-transpiration;
2 a i many grass plants – fewer/single
ii 1 humidity;
buffalo – many ticks – fewer
2 temperature;
oxpecker birds
3 wind / air movement;
ii broad base of grass plants
4 light / sunlight;
(producer) – narrower bar for
c i 1 reduced transpiration (in forest
buffalo (herbivore/primary
area);
consumer)- even narrower for ticks
2 leading to less water vapour
(carnivore/secondary consumer) –
(moving inland) / less clouds form;
narrowest for oxpeckers (top
3 thus less / no rainfall / less humid
carnivore)
(inland);
b consumers obtain their nutrients in
ii 1 more surface runoff of rain water /
ready-made organic form, whereas
flooding;
producers manufacture their nutrients
2 increased surface wind speed;
from inorganic raw materials (most
3 can result in greater erosion of
often by photosynthesis)
soil / silting up of streams / rivers /
3 a Q is the absorption of nitrate, released
landslides;
by decomposers and nitrifying
4 desertification;
bacteria from animal and plant
5 destruction of habitats / disrupt
remains, R is the absorption of carbon
food chains;
dioxide to be used in the production of
6 possible extinction of animal /
sugars by photosynthesis
plant species;
b Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides –
7 more carbon dioxide / less oxygen
both may produce acid rain which can
in atmosphere;
lead to damage to leaf tissue/damage
4.8 1 e Environmental resistance is any
to calcium uptake by molluscs and
factor which limits the growth of a
crustaceans/leaching of minerals
population, the availability of food, for
from soil
example, or the presence of a predator
4 a pea plants are legumes, so can fix
2 Biotic 5 ‘living’: an example of a biotic
atmospheric nitrogen gas to nitrates
factor is the presence of a predator;
in their root nodules. These nitrates
abiotic 5 non-living: an example of an
are then available to the corn plants,
abiotic factor is temperature.
which grow better as nitrate is usually
3 To improve yield of crops (e.g. by supplying
a limiting factor for their growth.
fertiliser or removing weeds)or domestic
b manure can be decomposed by
animals (e.g by controlling disease).
bacteria, making nitrates and 315
Answers
4.12 1 a antiseptic is used to kill bacteria 4.14 1 New organisms can now fix nitrogen,
outside the body e.g. on kitchen and so (a) reduce the need for nitrate
surfaces, antibiotic is used to kill fertilisers and (b) allow new organism to
bacteria inside the body. manufacture more protein
b antibiotic is a drug used to treat 2 Cystic fibrosis: the gene for the ‘correct’
bacterial infection, antibody is protein can be carried in a virus into the
produced by body’s own cells lungs of a person with the ‘faulty’ gene.
(lymphocytes) to mark out The virus infects the lung lining cells and
invading cells. replaces the faulty gene with the correct
c resistance is a condition in which one. It is likely to be successful because
an organism becomes unaffected the virus can be engineered to carry only
by a drug or medicine, immunity is the correct gene, and none which might
the ability to produce antibodies to be harmful.
recognise (and destroy) pathogens. 4.16 1 This has been done to provide more land
2 It must be non-toxic, must not react with for agriculture, and to make mechanisation
the penicillin and must be dissolved by of agriculture more efficient.
stomach juices (probably acids). 2 Deforestation is the rapid destruction
of woodland (for human commercial
Bacteria p.251
benefit). It may reduce soil fertility,
1 C6H12O6 2C2H5OH 1 2CO2
cause flooding and landslides, affect the
2 Vitamin A (retinene) is needed to produce
water and carbon cycles, cause climatic
visual pigment, so aids sight generally
changes and increase the rate of species
and night vision particularly;
extinctions as habitats are lost.
Vitamin D and calcium are required for
4.18 1 a year on x axis, population on y axis
production of bones and teeth
b 1400 million
a to prevent fungal/bacterial decay of
c About 6500 million
bread so that it has a longer ‘shelf life
Agricultural, industrial and medical
b to make bread more attractive to
revolutions have combined to increase
consumers.
birth rate and reduce death rate
3 a i mycoprotein has less fat/more
1 (p.268)
roughage/more carbohydrate
a Algae > shrimps > fish > sea otter
ii Less fat (less risk of obesity/
The pesticides become more
cardiovascular disease), more
concentrated as they move up the food
roughage (less risk of constipation/
chain – for example, the otter eats
cancer of the colon), less
many fish, and so accumulates the
carbohydrate ( less risk of obesity/
pesticide from all of those fish bodies.
diabetes/tooth decay)
The pesticide might reach a lethal
b i 100 – (49.0 1 9.2 1 19.5 1 20.6)
concentration in the bodies of the otters
5 1.7g
2 a Distance downstream on x axis, other
ii iron/calcium/vitamin B
variables on y axis. Remember to use
c i glucose/amino acids;
a key to distinguish the plots from one
ii To act as a filter to remove solid
another.
material/fungal mycelium;
b The bacteria had entered in the sewage
iii Carbon dioxide
c The population falls as the water
d i 28 – 30 °C;
becomes cloudy with bacteria (no light
ii By-product of respiration;
for photosynthesis) then increases
iii So that enzymes are not denatured/
as population of bacteria becomes
are close to their optimum
dispersed and as more nitrates are
temperature;
made available by decomposition
iv The water jacket removes excess heat
of sewage
4.14 1 g 2 – 3 – (1) – 6 – 4 – 7 – 5
316
Answers
d The ‘rise’ in fish numbers is d reduce fishing with quotas/increase

misleading – the data is just showing mesh size in nets/offer advice to
that the fish are there (they have fisherman about alternative species
been there all the time, and haven’t to catch
appeared from ‘zero’ fish) 4.24 1 f A biomass fuel is one made from
e Describe fall and then increase, giving materials produced in photosynthesis
actual values e.g. fall from 95% to 2 They remove CO2 from the atmosphere,
30% between 0m and 100m from they may limit soil erosion, they may
sewage entry provide a habitat for some animal
Fall due to bacterial respiration, then species, they may reduce the use of other
rise as algae photosynthesise (releasing woods for fuel
oxygen) and oxygen dissolves in the water 3 a molasses can be added to cattle feed,
from the atmosphere dried yeast provides vitamins, and
4.20 1 Red squirrels are declining in number carbon dioxide can be used in fizzy
because of competition with grey drinks, waste sugar cane can be
squirrels, the fact that the red squirrels burned to fuel the distillation process
are susceptible to a viral disease, and b cellulose breaks down plant cell
the loss of suitable habitat. A suitable walls and so makes the cell contents
conservation strategy would make sure accessible. Amylase hydrolyses starch
sufficient habitat was protected, and kept to maltose/glucose, providing the
free of invasion by grey squirrels substrate for alcoholic fermentation
2 Management to help species survival. c genetic engineering has provided
Conservation is necessary because strains of yeast which can tolerate the
Humans are having an impact on other high temperatures and high alcohol
species populations, often by taking concentrations which occur during
habitat from these species. fermentation
3 Many suitable examples, but the This suggests that running one car is
main point is that there is limited taking the landspace which could support
space in the Earth’s habitats and 25 Humans on a subsistence diet. Is this
Humans require some of that space the best use of crop-growing land?
for themselves. The only way that 4 Provide cheap source of fuel, and allow
other species can survive is if Humans communities to get rid of much organic
manage the environment for them, waste
although this may benefit some species 5 The temperature is more stable there,
at the expense of others. they are easier to fill (gravity), and
4.21 1 a species on x axis and percentage on y explosions are less dangerous!
axis. Check key for protein and lipid. 6 The disinfectant would kill some of the
b water active microbes and so slow down the
c fish oils are important in the production of biogas.
development of nervous tissue, and
Human impact on ecosystems pp.281–283
contain fat-soluble vitamins such as
1 a increase in numbers from point of
vitamin D
entry of raw sewage – reaches peak,
d iron is part of haemoglobin in red
then declines further downstream
blood cells, essential for oxygen
until it reaches the original population
transport.
size
2 a they will have had time to breed to
b availability of nutrients supplied
replace stocks
in the raw sewage – initial increase
b immature fish can escape from the net
in population as more nutrients
c may tag and release fish, and check if
available, then decline as nutrient
they are recaptured
levels fall again and bacteria die
317
Answers
2 a i an organism which obtains its iii root hair cells have lower water
nutrients by eating other animals potential than the surrounding
ii the presence of fur or hair soil solution, so water enters by
b i fewer antelopes as land given over osmosis from the soil solution
to farming/hunting or trapping by iv by diffusion down a concentration
farmers gradient from the air, through the
ii number of antelopes could stomata into the air spaces, then
increase, and feed on crop plants into solution on water covering of
c grass – antelope – wild dog – lion palisade cells
d i the management of resources so 5 a i developing country – most people
that they are available for future in younger age groups, with
generations rapid fall of in numbers as ageing
ii count their numbers – introduce proceeds;
protection measures (less hunting ii developed country – fairly
and remove some lions)/increase constant population size up until
availability of food – count numbers age of 75 or thereabouts
to check success of scheme b i under 15 the developing country
e amino acids/proteins – ammonium has a much larger percentage of
compounds – nitrates (processes the population in this age group
carried out by decomposers and than the developed country
nitrifying bacteria) ii over 65 the developing country has
3 a shell enclosing body/combined a much smaller percentage of the
body-foot population in this age group than
b species has lower case letter, genus has the developed country
upper case(capital) letter c in each case the percentage of females
c sexual – gametes are released and is greater than the percentage of males
fertilisation occurs d male can produce equal numbers of X
d i availability of oxygen in flowing and Y carrying sperm, with an equal
water probability of fertilising an X-carrying
ii change in shape or form egg. Thus there should be 50% male
e many examples could be offered – (XY) and female (XX) babies.
check that conservation measures e i developing – about 53 years,
are appropriate to this species, and developed – about 75 years
realistic ii developed countries enjoy
4 a check accuracy better nutrition/better medical
b i sugar beet care (including immunisation
ii wheat programmes)
c additional fertiliser – remove 6 a i flooding/earthquakes/forest fires
hedges – use machinery – weedkillers – ii drought/salination of soil
pesticides b increase in population means more
d fresh mass includes water, and this people to feed and, perhaps, less land
quantity is very variable on which to grow food
e each step in a food chain involves a c e.g. wheat: identify plants with more/
loss of (approximately 90%) energy, larger seeds; self-pollinate these
so fewer steps means more available plants; collect seeds; grow plants; then
energy to human repeat process of selection/growth
f i 6O2 d the alteration of an organism’s
ii flat, thin and with palisade cells genotype/DNA for the benefit of
containing many chloroplasts humans.
318
Index
abiotic environment 222, 223, 240, 241 antiseptics 231, 249 blood 25, 82–3
absorption 62, 70, 84 anus 62, 63 bleeding and clot formation 102
accommodation 145 aorta 86, 87, 90, 124 blood diseases 85
Achilles tendon 117 aphids 76 blood loss 103blood pressure 61, 87
acid rain 263, 264 arachnids 11 blood vessels 86
acquired characteristics 192 arteries 82, 86, 87, 88, 92 capillaries 88–9
active transport 22, 26, 75, 106 arthritis 60 functions of the blood 84
adaptation 14, 117, 214 arthropods 11 gas exchange 112
addiction 120, 121, 152 artificial selection 218–19 placental exchange 183
adenine 194 aspirin 152, 153 supply to the heart 92
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 107 assessment 284 white blood cells and defence 102–3,
adrenal glands 149 alternative to practical test 284–5 104
adrenaline 145, 149, 150 practical exercises 285 body mass 60
aerobic respiration 107, 108, 109, 231 practical test 284 bolus 63, 64
Agent Orange 159 assimilation 62, 70–1 bone marrow 83
agriculture 242, 258–9 asthma 115 bowel cancer 61
crop rotation 257 atherosclerosis 60 Bowman’s capsule 125
deforestation 258–9 atmospheric conditions 79, 262, 263 bracts 165
hedge removal 256, 258 atrium (atria) 90, 91 brain 129, 136, 177
monocultures 256–7 autoimmune diseases 105 breathing 114–15
AID (artificial insemination by donor) automatic pilots 129 breathing difficulties 60
179 autonomic nervous system 140, 141 exercise 116
AIDS 85, 189 autotrophs 8, 17, 38, 52 factors affecting breathing rate 116
albinism 204 auxin 157, 158 brewing 250
alcohol 71, 84, 152, 153, 250 bronchial tree 112
effects throughout body 154 babies 53, 57, 68, 182–3 bronchioles 113
algae 8, 267, 268 antenatal care 184 bronchitis 121
alimentary canal 62 blue baby syndrome 57 bronchodilators 115
alleles 200, 201, 202, 204, 205 conception to birth 185 bronchus 113
allergies 105 feeding 186 bubble potometers 79
alveoli 113, 115 postnatal care 187
amino acids 23, 29, 53 twins 188 caffeine 152
DNA ‘code words’ for amino acids bacteria 6, 98, 72, 233, 235, 267, 268 calorimeters 58
196 bacterial population growth 245 cambium 198
amniocentesis 182, 184 bacterial structure 244 cancer 61, 121, 213, 265
amnion 182 enzymes in industry 246–7 cannabis 152
amniotic fluid 182 recombinant DNA technology 253, capillaries 82, 86, 87
amphetamines 152 254 blood and tissue exchange 88–9
amphibians 12 requirements 244 carbohydrates 28, 29, 52, 53, 66
amplification 103 baking 250 carbon cycle 47, 232–3
amylase 32, 33, 66, 68, 195, 231 balance 143 carbon compounds 232–3
anabolic reactions 32 barbiturates 152 nutrients 232
anaemia 85 Beaumont, William 69 carbon dioxide 23, 40, 43, 44, 46, 124,
anaerobic respiration 108, 109 BGH 253 232, 233
analgesics 152 bile 63, 68 gas exchange 112
angiograms 93 binary fission 244, 245 greenhouse gas 263
angioplasty 93 biochemistry 28 measuring carbon dioxide release
angiosperms 8–9 tests 30–1 111
animals 5, 10, 12, 25, 38 biodiversity 257, 269 carbon monoxide 121
breeding 218, 271 biogas 278, 279 cardiac myopathy 117
migration 222 biological oxygen demand (BOD) 267, carnivores 5, 224
specialised cells 18 268, 276 carpels 163, 167
tissues 19 biology 2–3 carrying capacity 240, 241, 242
annelids 10 bioreactors 246, 247, 253 catabolic reactions 32
antenatal care 184 biotic environment 222, 223, 240 catalase 32, 34
anthers 163, 165 biotic potential 241 catalysts 32
antibiotics 57, 152, 189, 248–9 birds 12, 13, 130, 215 cells 16–17, 26–8
resistance 248, 249 birth 185, 186 active transport 26
antibodies 103, 104, 182, 195 bladder 124, 174 blood cells 83, 84, 102–3, 113
antigens 102–3 blind spot 143 cell division 106, 192, 198–9
319
INDEX
cell surface membrane 16, 17, 22, 24 managing fish stocks 272–3 100–1
diffusion 22–3 red squirrel in the UK 270 food poisoning 99
enzymes and cells 32 worldwide efforts 274–5 immune response 98, 104–5
eye 143, 144 constipation 61 personal responsibility 100
homeostasis 128 consumers 224, 225 smoking 120–1, 122–3
nerve cells 137 contraception 177, 180–1 disinfectants 231, 249
osmosis 24–5 convection 130, 131 DNA 6, 17, 29, 192, 212
phagocytosis 22, 26 coordination 136 base pairing 195
specialised cells 18–19 copulation 178 discovery 195
stem cells 196 cornea 143 DNA ‘code words’ for amino acids
cellulose 8 coronary heart disease (CHD) 61, 92–3 196
cell walls 16, 17 corpus luteum 177 DNA fingerprinting 85
central nervous system (CNS) 136–7, cortex (kidneys) 124, 125 double helix 194
142 cortex (plants) 74, 77 plasmids 253, 254
disorders 154 cotyledons 167, 169 recombinant DNA technology 252–3
integration 140 crenation 25 replication 195, 196
involuntary actions 141 Crick, Francis 195 ribosomes 196, 197
nerve impulses 137 crustacea 11 structure 194
voluntary actions 141 cuticle (leaves) 42, 43, 79 templates 195
centromeres 193, 198 cystic fibrosis 192, 255 transcription and translation 196,
cervix 174 cytoplasm 16, 17 197
charcoal 278 cytosine 194 Doll, Sir Richard 122
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 263 drought 260
chlorophyl 8, 17, 38, 43, 44 Darwin, Charles 211, 214–15, 216 drugs 137, 155
chloroplasts 17, 38, 43 data 34, 35 abuse 152
chordates (Chordata) 5, 12 deamination 71 alcohol 71, 84, 152, 153, 154
choroid 143, 144 death 233, 235 effects 153
chromosomes 17, 193, 194, 198, 201 decay 230–1 types 152
mutations 212 decomposers 224, 225, 233, 235 duodenum 63, 67
X and Y chromosomes 206–7 decomposition 231 dwarfism 149
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease defaecation 62, 68
(COPD) 121 deforestation 258–9, 262 Earth 2, 214, 215, 236
chyme 63, 67, 68 dehydration 153 eating disorders 85, 117
cilia 113, 121, 178 denaturation 33 ECGs (electrocardiograms) 92
ciliary muscle 143, 145 denitrification 234, 235 ecological pyramids 228–9
circulatory system 86–7 dental caries 65 sampling data 229
heart 90–1 deoxyribonucleic acid see DNA ecology 222
human double circulation 86–7 depressants 152, 153 ecosystems 222–3
classes 5, 12 desertification 262 Ecstasy 153
classification 4–5, 20–1 detoxification 71 effectors 140
Clinistix 133 development 2, 3, 148, 182 egestion 62, 68
clones 160, 161 diabetes 60, 85, 105, 133 elephantiasis 89
cobalt chloride paper 80 dialysis 126, 127 embryos 166, 167
codominance 205 diaphragm 113, 114 humans 172, 178, 179, 185
colon 63, 70 dicotyledons 8, 9, 167 emphysema 103, 121
colostrum 186 diet 52, 92, 93 emulsification 68
colour blindness 206, 207 dietary fibre 52, 55, 61, 68 endocrine system 136, 148
combustion 232, 233 diffusion 22, 75, 82, 88 ductless glands 148
communities 223 life processes 22–3 hormones 148, 149, 150
compensation point 46 osmosis 24 organs and secretions 149
competitors 240 digestion 62, 84 endosperm 167
complex organisation 2 absorption 70 endotherms 130
concentration gradients 22, 26 assimilation 70–1 energy 2, 26, 28, 42, 52
conception 179 digestive enzymes 66, 68 energy balance 60
conclusions 34 digestive juices 69 energy conversions 106
condensation 28 digestive system 63, 87 energy transducers 38, 142
conduction 130 mouth 66 food 58–9, 60–1
cone cells 144 small intestine 68 food chains 224, 225
conservation 262 stomach 66–7 muscular contraction 108
captive breeding 271 water 68 units of energy 58
conservation strategies 269 diploid cells 160, 199, 201 environment 46–7, 222, 255
endangered species 269 disease 84, 85, 96–7, 240, 276 Environmental Impact Statements
flagship species 271 community responsibility 100 269
forest management 269 controlling spread of disease 98, environmental resistance 240, 241
320
INDEX
pollution 262–8 formation 163 greenhouse effect 44, 263

enzymes 17, 32, 231 fluoride 65 growth 2, 7, 106, 148, 149, 182
activators and inhibitors 33 food 52–5, 240, 243 guanine 194
enzymes and cells 32 additives 56, 57 gut 62, 66
enzymes in industry 246–7 balanced diet 52, 55
pH 33 dynamic action of food 59 Haber process 246
recombinant DNA technology 252, energy requirements 59 habitats 223, 258, 269, 270
253 energy values 58 haematologists 85
seed germination 168 food distribution 260, 261 haemoglobin 29, 113
temperature 33 fortifiers 56 haemolysis 25
epidemiology 122–3 processed foods 56 haemophilia 207, 253
epidermis 131 residues 57 haploid cells 160, 199, 201
leaves 42, 43, 77, 79 food chains 224, 225 hearing 143
epiglottis 63, 67 freshwater 226 heart 82, 87, 90–1, 128
equilibrium 22, 25, 26 seashore 226 coronary artery bypass operation 93
erythrocytes see red blood cells food poisoning 99 coronary heart disease (CHD) 61,
ethanol 279 food production 148, 150, 257 92–3
eutrophication 49, 267–8 food webs 224–5, 228 pacemakers 90, 91
evaluations 35 coral reef 227 heat 84, 107, 130–1, 231
evaporation 78–9, 80–1, 130, 131 food webs and humans 226 hepatic artery 87
evolution 214–15, 216 forest management 269 hepatic portal vein 70, 71, 87
excretion 2, 3, 62, 124–5, 128, 130, 233, fovea 143 hepatic vein 87
235 Franklin, Rosalind 195 herbicides 256
exercise 59, 60, 109 free radicals 103, 121 herbivores 224
breathing 116 fruits 14, 162, 166–7 hermaphrodites 162
human adaptation 117 hormone sprays 159 heroin 145, 152, 153
problems 117 fuels 260 heterotrophs 17, 52
experiments 34, 35 fossil fuels 232, 233 heterozygous cells 200, 201
eye 142 fuel from fermentation 278–9 homeostasis 84, 124, 128–9
eye colour 202–3 fungi 233, 235, 246 control of body temperature 130–1
eyestrain 145 antibiotics 248–9 feedback 129
how image is formed on retina 144 homologous pairs 198, 199, 200, 201
light intensity 145 Galapagos Islands 214 hormones 57, 84, 173
near and distant objects 145 Galen 139 anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) 125
rods and cones 144 gall bladder 63 birth 186
structure 143 Galton, Francis 211 endocrine system 148–9
gametes 160, 161, 172, 174, 178, 192, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
factor VIII 253 199, 200, 202, 213 177
faeces 62, 68, 130 gas exchange 3, 42, 46, 112, 115 food production 150
Fallopian tubes 172, 174 humans 112–13 human growth hormone 149, 253
family planning 180 genes 17, 193, 194, 200, 201, 207 luteinising hormone 177
famine 260–1 mutations 212 menstrual cycle 176–7
fat 60, 130, 173 genetic engineering 252–3 plant hormones 157, 159
fatty acids 29 gene therapy 255 use as drugs in sport 151
feedback 124, 129, 148 moral and environmental concerns humans 19
fermentation 250, 278–9 255 agriculture 242, 256–7, 258–9
fermenters 246, 247, 253 genetics 192, 202–3 conservation 262, 269–71
ferns 8 genetic information 193 pollution 262–8
fertilisation 160, 166, 199, 200, 201, heart disease 92, 93 population growth 242
202, 213 genotypes 211 shapes of populations 243
humans 178, 179, 192 genus 5 humidity 79
infertility treatment 179 germination 110, 168–9 hydrochloric acid 67
fertilisers 48, 57, 256, 260, 267 hypogeal germination 169 hydrogen 29
NKP fertiliser 48 gestation period 182 hydrogencarbonate indicator 46, 111
filaments 163, 165 glucagon 132 hydrolysis 28, 66, 231
first aid 103 glucose 23, 42, 43 hygiene 243
fish 12 control of blood glucose level 132–3 hypothalamus 130, 131
fish as source of food 272 testing for 31 hypothermia/hyperthermia 130
overfishing and the herring glycerol 29 hypotheses 34
population 273 glycogen 17, 60, 132
science and fishing 272 gonorrhea 189 ileum 63, 70
flaccidity 25, 75, 78 Graafian follicles 177 immune response 98, 104–5
flooding 260 graphs 35 implantation 179
flowers 14, 162, 166 gravitropism 156, 158 in vitro fertilisation (IVF) 179
321
INDEX
indicator solutions 111 lung cancer 121, 123 nervous system see autonomic nervous
industry 242 measuring efficiency 115 system; central nervous system (CNS)
infections 96, 97, 102 tidal volume 115, 116 neurones 136, 137, 138–9
ingestion 62, 64–5 Lyell, Charles 215 neurotransmitters 137, 153
inheritance 192, 200–1, 226–7 lymph 88, 89 nicotine 120, 121, 152, 153
codominance 205 lymphocytes 83, 84, 104 nitrogen 48, 49
medical conditions 204–5 lysine 53 nitrogen cycle 234–5
sex determination 206–7 nitrates 234, 235
studying patterns 202–3 magnesium 44, 49 nitrification 234, 235
test cross 203 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) nitrogen fixation 234, 235
insecticides 76, 256 malaria 205 nuclear power plants 265
insects 11, 164, 165 malnutrition 52, 60–1, 65, 260–1 nuclear weapons 265
insulin 132, 133 maltase 68 nucleic acids 28, 29
recombinant DNA technology 252–3 Malthus, Rev. Thomas 215 nucleotides 29
integration 140, 144 mammals 5, 12, 13, 130, 182 nucleotide bases 194
intercostal muscles 113, 114 mammary glands 186 nucleus (nuclei) 16, 17, 192, 244
intercourse 177, 178 marasmus 61 contents of the nucleus 193
intestines 63, 68, 128 mass flow systems 82 nutrient cycles 13, 230
invertebrates 10–11 mastication 63, 64 nutrition 2, 3, 52–3, 54–5, 56–7, 62–3
involuntary actions 140, 141 medicine 152, 242, 243 plant nutrition 38–9, 42–3, 44–5,
ions 22, 23, 26, 48, 74, 75 medulla (kidneys) 124 46–7
iris 143, 144, 145 meiosis 160, 199
irritability 2, 3, 156 melanin 204 obesity 60, 61
menstrual cycle 117, 176–7 observations 34
karyotypes 206, 212 meristem 76, 198 oesophagus 63, 66, 67
keratin 29, 195 mesophyll 42, 78 oestrogen 148, 149, 173, 176, 177, 186
kidneys 87, 124–5, 128 metabolism 17, 28, 32, 84, 130, 231 optic nerve 143
kidney failure 126 basal metabolic rate (BMR) 59 orders 5
kidney transplants 126, 127 metamorphosis 11 organ systems 19
kinetic energy 22 methane 263 organelles 17
kwashiorkor 61, 89 micropyles 163, 166, 167, 168 organic compounds 231, 233, 235
microscopes 16 organisms 2, 4–5
laboratory equipment 286 milk 186, 187 cells 16–17, 18–19
apparatus 286 minerals 52, 54 environment 222
chemical reagents 287–8 plants 48–9, 74–5 five kingdoms 4, 5
measurement of variables 288–9 mitochondria 17, 107 living together 222–3
labour 186 mitosis 160, 182, 198 seasons 222
lactation 186 models 165 organs 19
lactic acid 108, 109 molecules 22, 26, 52 osmoregulation 25, 124, 126, 128
lactose intolerance 246 carriers 26 osmosis 22, 24–5, 74, 75, 88, 89
Lamarck, Jean Baptiste 216 organic molecules 28 ova 172, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179
larynx 113 subunits 28 ovaries 148, 149, 172, 174, 176
leaching 267 molluscs 10 plants 14, 163, 166, 167
leaves 14 monocotyledons 8, 9, 167 overnutrition 60
evaporation 78–9, 80–1 monosaccharides 29 oviducts 172, 174, 178
features 42 mosses 8 ovulation 177, 178
investigation of water loss 80 mountaineers 87, 113 ovules 163, 166, 167
photosynthesis 43 mouth 62, 63, 66 oxygen 23, 38, 40, 43, 231, 240
legumes 234, 235 movement 2, 3, 106, 130 eutrophication 267–8
lens 143, 145 mucus 66, 67, 68, 113 gas exchange 112
leukaemia 85 muscles 90, 92 measuring oxygen consumption
ligase 253 muscular contraction 108 110–11
light 42, 43, 44, 224, 240 torn muscles 117 oxygen debt 108
light intensity 79, 145 mutagens 213 oxytocin 186
light reaction mutation 212
Linnaeus, Carolus 5, 6 beneficial mutations 212–13 pacemakers 90, 91
lipase 32, 68, 231, 246 radiation 213 palisade cells 16, 42, 43
lipids 28, 29, 52, 53, 246 myriapods 11 pancreas 63, 68, 132, 149
emulsion test 30 paper 280
liver 63, 70–1, 87, 128 narcotics 152 paracetamol 152
lock and key hypothesis 32 natural selection 214–15, 217 paraquat 44
loop of Henlé 125 new species 216–17 parasites 89, 96, 98, 240, 244
lungs 103, 87, 113, 128 nematodes 10 pathogens 84, 96, 98, 102
breathing 114–17 nephrons 124, 125 Pavlov, Ivan 141
322
INDEX
pectinase 246 pleural membranes 113, 114 inheritance 208–9

pedigrees 203 plumules 167, 169 nutrition and health 72–3
penicillin 248 political instability 243 photosynthesis and plant nutrition
penicillase 249 pollen 163, 165, 166 50–1
penis 172, 173, 174, 178 pollination 162, 163, 166 plant reproduction 170–1
erection 84 self-pollination and cross-pollination receptors and senses 146–7
pepsin 33, 67 164 variation 220–1
perennation wind and insects 164–5
peristalsis 66, 178 pollution 240, 258, 267–8, 262 radiation 130, 131, 213, 264–5
permeability 17, 22, 24 acid rain 263, 264 radicles 167, 169
pesticides 57, 256, 266 atmospheric pollution 263 receptor proteins 195
petals 163, 165, 166, 167 non-biodegradable plastics 265 rectum 63, 68
pH 33, 84 pesticides 266 recycling 280
phagocytes 83, 84, 103 radioactive pollution 264–5 red blood cells 83, 113
phagocytosis 22, 26 polysaccharides 29 reduction division 199
phenotypes 211 population 223, 260 reflexes 138–9
phloem 76, 77 environmental resistance 240, 241 conditioned reflexes 141
phosphorus 48 growth curves and carrying capacity cranial reflexes 140
phosphorylase 32 240–1 learned reflexes 140, 141
photoreceptors 144 population pyramids 243 pupil reflex 145
photosynthesis 23, 38–9, 42, 52, 76, 106, position, sense of 143 spinal reflexes 140
195 potassium 48 suckling reflex 186
carbon cycle 233 predators 240 swallowing reflex 67
gas exchange 46 predictions 34 refraction 145
leaves 42–3 pregnancy 177 refuse disposal 100–1
limiting factors 44, 45 antenatal care 184 renal artery 87, 124, 125
products 47 contraception 180–1 renal vein 87, 124, 125
rate of photosynthesis 40–1 development of the human fetus 185 reproduction 2, 3, 160–1, 200
requirements 44–5 postnatal care 187 asexual reproduction 160, 161, 201
respiration 46 role of the placenta 182–3 female reproductive system 172
phototropism 156–7 primordial soup 2 flowering plants 162–3, 164–5,
auxin 157 producers 224, 225 166–7, 168–9
phylum (phyla) 5, 8 products 32 humans 172–5, 176–7, 178–9, 182-3,
physical activity 117 progesterone 176, 177, 186 184–5, 186–8
pituitary gland 151, 148, 149, 173, 177 prostate gland 174 infertility treatment 179
placenta 178, 179, 182–3 protease 67, 68, 231, 246 male reproductive system 172
exchange of materials 183 proteins 28, 29, 52, 53, 246 sexual reproduction 160, 172, 192,
plants 8, 25 DNA 194 212, 213
adaptation to different environments protein deficiency 61 reptiles 12, 13
81 testing for 31 respiration 2, 3, 46, 84, 106–7, 130, 225,
adaptation to life on land 8 puberty 148, 173 233
angiosperms 8–9 pulmonary artery 87, 90, 113 gas exchange 112
artificial propagation pulmonary vein 87, 90, 113 measuring respiration 110–11
breeding 218, 219 pulse rate 92 muscles 108–9
cells 16–17 pupil 143, 144, 145 vacuum flask experiment 107
dispersal of seeds and fruits pyloric sphincter 67 what is respiration? 107
genetic modification 255 pyramids of biomass 228, 229 respiratory surface 112
minerals 48–9, 74–5 pyramids of energy 228–9 respiratory system 112–13
monocultures 256 pyramids of numbers 228 respirometers 110
nitrogen cycle 234–5 pyruvate 108 retina 143, 144–5
plant hormones 157, 159 rhythm method 177, 180
plant nutrition 38–9, 42–3, 44–5, 46–7 questions ribosomes 17, 196
reproduction 162–3, 164–5, 166–7, bacteria 251 ribs 113
168–9 cells 20–1 Ringer’s solution 2
specialised cells 18 circulation 94–5 RNA 6, 197
tissues 19 classification 20–1 messenger RNA (mRNA) 196
transport systems 76–7 diffusion and osmosis 27 rod cells 144
tropisms 156–7, 158 ecosystems, decay and cycles 238–9 roots 14, 74–5, 77
vascular bundles 76, 77 enzymes and molecules 36–7 root nodules 234, 235
water uptake 74–5, 78–9, 80–1 excretion and homeostasis 133–5
wilting 75, 78, 81, 95 gas exchange 118–19 safety equipment 286
plasma 25, 83, 84 hormones 151 saliva 66
plastics, non-biodegradable 265 human impact on ecosystems 281–3 salivary glands 63
platelets 83, 84, 102 human reproduction 190–1 salt 61, 124
323
INDEX
sanitation 276 stress fractures 117 leaves 42

saprotrophs 231, 244 styles 163, 166 vena cava 86, 87, 90, 124
scavengers 231 substrates 32, 44 ventilation 113, 114–17
scientific method 34–5 sulfur dioxide 44 ventricles 90, 91
sclera 143, 144 Sun 232, 236, 237 vertebrates 10, 12–13
scrotum 172, 173 suspensory ligament 143, 145 villi 70, 183
secretary vesicles 17 sustainable development 257, 274 viruses 6, 98
seeds 8, 162, 167 synapses 137, 153 vitamins 52, 54
dormancy 168, 169 vitamin C deficiency 64
germination 110, 168–9 taste 143 voluntary actions 140, 141
poisonous seeds 167 taxonomy 4–5
selection pressure 216 tear duct 144 Wallace, Alfred Russell 215
semen 178 teeth 64–5 waste management 280
sense organs 140 tooth decay 61, 65 water 42, 44–5, 42, 43, 52, 54–5, 231
eye 142–3 temperature 33, 44, 79, 106, 128, 231, digestion 68
sensitivity 2, 3, 142 240 fertilisers and sewage 267–8
plants 156, 158 control of body temperature 130–1 oxygen depletion 267
sensory receptors 129, 142, 143 temperature sensitivity 143 special properties 236
sepals 163, 166, 167 tendons 90, 117, 149 water and life 236
serotonin 53 termites 263 water cycle 236–7
sewage 267–8, 764–7 testa 168, 169 water potential 24, 74, 84
sex chromosomes 206–7 testes 148, 149, 172, 173, 174 water uptake in plants 74–5, 78–9,
sex organs 148, 149 testosterone 148, 149, 173, 174 80–1
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) thymine 194, 196 water treatment 276–7
189 tissues 19 pit latrines 276
shivering 131 capillaries 88–9 sewage disposal 276–7
sickle cell anaemia 85, 204–5, 212–13 tissue rejection 127 Watson, James 195
sight 143 touch 143 weaning 186
sinks 76, 77 toxins 240 weedkillers 159
skin 102, 128 trachea 67, 113 white blood cells 83, 84, 102–3, 104
control of body temperature 130–1 transamination 71 wind 79
structure 131 transpiration stream 74, 78–9 work 108
slash and burn 258 transplant rejection 105 working conditions 243
smell 143 transport systems 82–5 World Health Organisation (WHO) 100
smoking 92, 93, 103, 120–1 plants 76–7
research into lung disease 122–3 tropisms 156–7, 158 xylem 76, 77
soil 48 turgidity 17, 25, 42, 75
solutes 24, 84 twins 188 yeast 250
solutions 24 yellow spot 143
solvents 24 umbilical cord 182, 183
sources 76, 77 undernutrition 52, 61 zoos 271
species 5, 216–17 uracil (U) 196 zygotes 166, 172, 176, 178, 179, 192,
endangered species 269, 271, 274, urea 87, 124 198, 199
275 ureter 124, 174
extinctions 259 urethra 124, 174
Species Diversity Index 269 urine 124, 125, 130
sperm 172, 173, 174, 179, 192 urogenital system 172, 174
spinal cord 136, 139, 140 uterus 172, 174, 176, 186
spirograms 115
spirometers 115 vaccination 105
spores 245 vacuoles 16, 17
squirrel, red 270 vagina 173, 174, 178
St Martin, Alexis 69 valves 90, 91
stalks 163 variation 2, 4–5, 161, 192
stamens 163, 166 causes 212–13
starch 17 continuous variation 210
testing for 31, 39, 40 discontinuous and continuous
stems 77, 95 characteristics 210
steroids 150 discontinuous variation 210
stigmas 163, 165, 166 maintaining variation 218
stimulants 152, 153 natural selection 214–15
stimuli 142, 156 phenotype and genotypes 211
stomach 63, 66–7 vegetables 167, 217
stomata 14, 42, 43, 78, 79, 80, 81 veins 82, 86, 87, 88, 92
324

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1.1 Biology is the study of life and living

R espiration: the chemical reactions

Irritability (or sensitivity): the ability

Nutrition: the taking in of materials for

Growth and development: the

Excretion: removal from organisms

Reproduction: the processes that

1.2 The variety of life

This kind of key, with only two answers to

2 Is the organism made up of many different cells?

3 Is the organism a heterotroph?

p A key may be used to place an organism in one of the five kingdoms

Five Kingdoms notice that each classification group is given a

Kingdom (Animalia) All animals are ingestive

All lions belong to the same

p The hierarchical classification of the lion

new species today may be classified based Viruses

Organisms that are closely related have very similar DNA

Protein coat – protects the

Spikes – may contact and

p A typical virus has genetic material and a protein coat,

Most viruses cause disease – they may infect

Stem contains phloem

Simple, true roots Rhizome – underground

Angiosperm features adapt them for life on dry land

Stomata with guard cells regulate loss of water vapour and

Vascular system transports water, ions and organic solutes.

Extensive root systems anchor the shoot systems and

Monocotyledons and dicotyledons (eudicotyledons) – two groups of angiosperms (flowering plants)

Seed Seedling Mature leaf

Dicotyledon (eudicotyledon) Two Two seed Branched

1.4 Invertebrate animals

Vertebrates and invertebrates

are called vertebrates and those without a

Mouth with sucking mouthparts

Long, thin body so not washed Annelid, nematode or mollusc?*

interesting adaptation in their life cycle called Compound eyes:

1.5 Vertebrate animals: five classes

If asked to name an animal, most people would

speaking there are a few chordates that aren’t

Do they have smooth skin?

Fish, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals

Vertebrates can Fish, Reptiles Birds, Mammals

Reptiles Fish Birds Mammals

Mouth has teeth or

Mammals are endothermic vertebrates that have

Use the key to identify each of the arthropods.

Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610

FERNS SEED PLANTS

1.6 Organisms are made up of cells

Source of visible light

A typical animal cell is about one-fortieth of a

Secretory vesicles Cytoplasm of animal cells Vacuoles are small Glycogen is

The absence of the

The presence of the

1.7 The organisation of living organisms

Cell type Appearance Functions and adaptations

Specialised cells combine to form

Animal tissue Main functions Plant tissue Main functions

… tissues combine to form organs … Epithelial cells Smooth muscle cells

Epithelial cell of Epithelium lining

Questions on cells and organisation

iii Which beaker is likely to contain pure water?

4 a The bar chart opposite 70

iv Boiled saliva contains an enzyme which