Ehvacdcete

UNIT 1
EHV AC Transmission
Day & Date: Tuesday, 18th August 2021

Venue: MS Team.
Time: 11:21 AM - 12:05 PM.
1
Introduction
❖ Generation and Consumption of electrical energy is continuously increasing
with tremendous rate.
❖ For economical transfer of power there must be increase in Transmission
Voltages.
❖ Voltage levels can be divided as follows;
✓ Less than 300 KV: High Voltage.
✓ 300 – 765 KV: E.H.V.
✓ Above 765 KV: Ultra High Voltage.
2
Power Sector in India
As on 13-08-2021
Total Installed Capacity (As on 31.07.2021) Source : Central Electricity Authority
(CEA)
Sector MW % of Total
Central Sector 97,637 25.2%

State Sector 1,03,876 26.8%
Private Sector 1,85,376 47.7%
Total 3,86,888
3
Power Sector in India
Fuel MW % of Total
Total Thermal 2,34,858 60.9%
Coal 2,02,805 52.6%
Lignite 6,620 1.7%
Gas 24,924 6.5%
Diesel 510 0.1%
Hydro (Renewable) 46,367 12.1%
Nuclear 6,780 1.8%
RES* (MNRE) 98,883 25.2%
Total 3,86,888 4
Transmission Voltages
Nominal
System
132 220 275 345 400 500 765 1200
Voltage
(kV)
Maximum
Operating
145 245 300 362 420 525 800 --
Voltage
(kV)
5
Transmission Voltages
Sr. Nominal System Voltage Maximum Minimum
No. (kV rms) (kV rms) (kV rms)
1. 765 800 728
2. 400 420 380
3. 220 245 198
4. 132 145 122
5. 110 121 99
6. 66 72 60
7. 33 36 30
6
Indian Transmission Voltages
❖In coming September, India’s power sector will witness a new era in the
transmission segment.
❖Power Grid Corp will launch a 1,200-Kv ultra-high voltage (UHV) test station
along with experimental lines in Bina, Madhya Pradesh.
❖The investment cost for the project is estimated at Rs 800 crore.
❖The company is also setting up a 1,200-Kv transmission line for commercial
purpose, which will be constructed between Wardha and Aurangabad in
Maharashtra.
❖Till now, the power is transmitted on 765Kv /800Kv lines.
❖The existing 400Kv line can transfer about 600 Mw power, 800Kv line can do
between 1,200 Mw and 2,400 Mw and 1,200-Kv transfer 6,000-8,000 Mw.
7
Need for EHV Transmission
1. For Reducing Investment Cost/kW:
❖ Transmission losses can be reduced by increasing voltage levels.

❖ If voltage levels are not increased, then the Investment cost per kW
will be more.
❖ This increase in investment cost will not be feasible.
❖ To reduce Investment cost per kW the size of generating units (i.e.
Voltage Production Capacity) is increased.
8
2. Pithead Steam Plants and Remote Hydro Plants:
❖ Power plants are situated near to the Load centers.
❖ Coal and Hydro Reservoirs are very far apart which results in increase in
transportation charges.
❖ Bottle-necks in transportation will reduce supply of coal to steam plants
which results in fall of generation.
❖ To avoid this situation, Super Thermal Power Plants are constructed near
Coal fields.
❖ These type of power plants are termed as Pithead Steam Plants.
9
3. Right-of-way problem:
❖ With increase in the transmission voltages the
Number of Circuits and land requirement for the
transmission line goes on reducing.
❖ 600 MW over a reserve of 250 kms requires 60 m
right of way.
❖ 40m right-of-way at 400 kV level (single line circuit)
❖ 60m right-of-way at 220 kV level (double line circuit)
10
4. Line Costs:
❖ Use of EHV transmission reduces the Line installation Cost/MW/Km.
❖ Transmission losses and hence cost of losses decreases
5. Loading Limits:
❖ Use of EHV transmission increases the load taking capacity i.e. Loading
Limit and hence helps to avoid new installations.
❖ Load carrying capability of lines is different at different voltage levels and
depends on Surge Impedance Loading (SIL).
❖ Series compensation may be used to increase the line loading.
❖ As line load increases a stage comes when it becomes necessary to adopt a
higher voltage.
11
Surge Impedance Loading Limit:
❖ Power that a line carries when each phase is having the load equal to the
Surge Impedance (Zc) of the line.
❖ SIL = 3V2/Zc
❖ Zc = √(L/C)
L: Series inductance per unit length.
C: Shunt capacitance per unit length.
V: Line to neutral voltage. 12

Surge Impedance Loading Limit:
❖ Series compensation may be used to increase the line loading.
❖ As line load increases a stage comes when it becomes necessary to adopt a
higher voltage.
❖ At the SIL the reactive power consumed by the line inductances (  L I 2 ) is
approximately equal to the reactive power generated by the line capacitance
i.e. ( C V ).
2
13
Surge Impedance (Zc):
❖ The Surge Impedance (Zc) of a line is related with the Number of
Conductors used in the line i.e. Conductor Configuration.

1
ZC 
Number of conductors
❖ For a line in which No series compensation is used if the load is less than its
Surge Impedance loading, then only the phase angle across the line is less
than 30 degree and the transient stability limit of the line is maintained
otherwise increase in load will cause the shutdown of the whole power
system. 14
❖ For a line once installed Zc will always remain constant unless a Series
Compensation is used.
SIL  V 2
❖ If it is desired to increase the loadings on the line then it can only be possible
by adopting Higher Voltages i.e. EHV.
❖ The use of series compensation reduces the magnitude of Zc and hence
increases SIL.
❖ It is more economical as compared to using additional lines or going to next
higher voltage level.
15
❖ The maximum load in terms of surge impedance loading that can be carried
through an uncompensated line is represented below:
16
Current Carrying Capacity of Conductors
Current Carrying Capacity:
❖ The maximum amount of current that a conductor can carry in such a way
that it will not loose its tensile strength is termed as Current carrying
capacity of conductor.
❖ Beyond this limit if the rise in current will takes place then it will directly
increase the temperature of the conductor and the conductor will loose its
tensile strength.
Heat Balance Equation:
❖ Let us suppose that a conductor is carrying current and due to this its
temperature has reached to a steady value. Now at this stage the conductor
must follow this relationship:
[Internal heat developed by I2R losses ‘Wi’] + [External heat supplied by Solar
Irradiation ‘Ws’] = [Heat loss by Air Convection ‘Wc’] + [Heat lost by Radiation ‘Wr’]
17
❖ Wi = I2R heating in watts/m length of conductor.
❖ Ws = Solar irradiation in watts/m length of conductor.
❖ Wc = Convection Loss in watts/m length of conductor.
❖ Wr = Radiation loss watts/m length of conductor.
Wi + Ws = Wc + Wr (1)
❖ Each of these four terms depends upon several factors: temperature, conductor
dimensions, wind velocity, atmospheric pressure, current, resistance, conductor
surface condition, etc.
❖ To find a relation between the temperature rise and current. The maximum
allowable temperature of an Al conductor is 65°C at present, but many
countries in the world have already specified the limit as 75°C above which the
metal loses its tensile strength.
18
❖ Wi = I2R heating in watts/m length of conductor.
❖ Ws = Solar irradiation in watts/m length of conductor.
❖ Wc = Convection Loss in watts/m length of conductor.
❖ Wr = Radiation loss watts/m length of conductor.
Wi + Ws = Wc + Wr [HEAT BALANCE EQUATION] (1)
❖ Each of these four terms depends upon several factors: temperature, conductor
dimensions, wind velocity, atmospheric pressure, current, resistance, conductor
surface condition, etc.
❖ To find a relation between the temperature rise and current. The maximum
allowable temperature of an Al conductor is 65°C at present, but many
countries in the world have already specified the limit as 75°C above which the
metal loses its tensile strength.
19
I2R Heating (Wi)
Wi = I2 Rm (watts / meter) (2)
I = Stands for *Phase Current.
Rm = Resistance of conductor per meter length at the maximum
temperature.
1+  t
Rm =  R20
1 + 20  (3)
α = temp. resistance coefficient in ohm/°C
R20 = conductor resistance at 20°C.
20
Solar irradiation (Ws)
Ws = Sa . Is . Dm (watts / meter) (4)

Where,
Sa = Solar absorption coefficient = 1 for black body or well-weathered

conductor and 0.6 for new conductor
Dm = diameter of conductor in meter
Is = Solar irradiation intensity in watts/m2.
Rm = Resistance of conductor per meter length at the maximum
temperature.
21
Convection loss (Wc)
vm (Watts / m2) (5)
Wc = 5.73 P t
dm
where,
P = pressure of air in atmospheres,
vm = wind velocity in meters/sec.,
∆t = temperature rise in °C above ambient = t – ta.
Since 1-meter length of conductor has an area of π dm sq. m., the
convection loss will be
Wc =18   t P vm d m (watts/m)  t = t − ta ta = Amb. Temp.
22
Radiation loss (Wr)
This is given by Stefan-Boltzmann Law i.e.
−8
Wr = 5.702 10 e (T − Ta ) 4 4
Watts / m2 (7)
where,
e = Relative emissivity of conductor-surface = 1 for black body and 0.5
for oxidized Al or Cu,
T = Conductor temperature in °K = 273 + t
Ta = Ambient temperature in °K = 273 + ta.
Radiation loss per meter length of conductor (Multiply by  d m sq. m)
−8
Wr =17.9 10 e (T − Ta ) d m
4 4
Watts / m (8)
23
HEAT BALANCE EQUATION
−8
I Rm + Sa I s d m =18  t P vm d m + 17.9 10 e  d m (T − Ta )
2 4 4
Factors affecting Current Carrying Capacity:

❖ Temperature.
❖ Conductor Dimensions.
❖ Wind Velocity.
❖ Atmospheric Pressure.
❖ Current.
❖ Resistance.
❖ Conductor Surface etc.
24
Given:
2 – conductor bundle. By considering only one conductor:
d m = 0.0318 m  a = 2.7 10−8  − m at 200 C

I = 500 Amp  = 0.0045  / 0 C at 200 C
A = 515.7 mm 2 ta = 400 C
P=1 vm = 1 m / sec
e = 0.5 Ws = Neglected
25
Now to calculate the final temperature ‘t’ we have to make use of heat balance equation.
For that, let us calculate the different losses separately i.e.
(1) I 2 R Heating (Wi ) :

Wi = I Rm 2
1+  t
Rm =  R20
1 + 20  Where,
But here we have to calculate R20 = ? ns = Number of strands of aluminium.
 a  1.05 d s = Diameter of each strand (m).
R20 = /m  a = Specific Resistance of Al (ohm – meter)
( d s ns / 4)
2
at 200 C temperature.
26
The factor 1.05 accounts for the twist or lag due to which the strand length is increased by
−8
5 %. 2.7  10  1.05
R20 = −6
/m
515.7  10
−8
1 + 0.0045 t 2.7  10  1.05
Rm =  −6
/m
1 + 20  0.0045 515.7  10
Rm = 0.5  10−4 (1 + 0.0045 t )  / m
Wi = I 2 Rm = (500)2  0.5  10−4 (1 + 0.0045 t )
Wi = 12.5 (1 + 0.0045 t ) watts / m

27
Convection loss (Wc)
vm
Wc = 5.73 P t watts / m 2
dm
Wc =18   t P vm d m watts / m  t = t − ta
Wc =18(t − ta ) 1  1  0.0318 watts / m
Wc = 3.21(t − 40) watts / m
28
Radiation loss (Wr)
−8
Wr =17.9 10 e (T − Ta ) d m
4 4
watts / m
 273 + t 4  273 + 40  4 
Wr =17.9  0.5   −    0.0318 watts / m
 100   100  
 273 + t 4 
Wr = 0.2846   − 95.95 watts / m
 100  
29
 273 + t 4 
12.5 (1 + 0.0045 t ) = 3.21(t − 40) + 0.2846   − 95.95
 100  
(273 + t ) 4 = (591.02 − 11.07 t ) 108
By solving above equation we can obtain the final temperature of conductor but to simplify that
we have to use Trial & Error Method
Put , t = 41
9721171216  13715000000
Put , t = 45
1.022606338  1010  92.87  108
30
Put , t = 44
1.009803912  1010  103.94  108 So, by observing the above steps it is
clear that:
Put , t = 43.5
t ≈ 44 0C
1.003447967  10  109.475  10
10 8
Put , t = 44.2 Wi = 14.97 Watts/m.

Wc = 12.84 Watts/m.
1.012354726  1010  101.726  108
Wr = 1.4316 Watts/m.
Put , t = 43.8
1.007257922  1010 = 106.15  108
31
Q.2. In the previous example, calculate the final temperature (or temperature rise) if the
solar irradiation adds (a) 10 Watts/m and (b) 1160 W/m2 giving a contribution of 37
Watts/m to the conductor?
Ans. From the previous example by considering heat balance equation

Wi = 12.5 (1 + 0.0045 t ) watts / m Wc = 3.21(t − 40) watts / m
 273 + t 4 
Wr = 0.2846   − 95.95 watts / m
 100  
(a) By taking Ws = 10 Watts/m, the equation will become:
Wi + Ws = Wc + Wr
32
 273 + t 4 
12.5 (1 + 0.0045 t ) + 10 = 3.21(t − 40) + 0.2846   − 95.95
 100  
( 273 + t ) = (626.16 − 11.078 t )  10

4 8
Applying Trial and Error Method:
(a) By putting t = 43: 99.71 x 108 = 149.806 x 108

(b) By putting t = 44: 100.9 x 108 = 138.728 x 108
(c) By putting t = 45: 102.26 x 108 = 127.65 x 108
(d) By putting t = 47.05: 104.923 x 108 = 104.38 x 108

33
(b) By taking Ws = 37 Watts/m
( 273 + t ) = (721.036 − 11.08 t )  10

4 8
Applying Trial and Error Method:
(a) By putting t = 40: 95.97 x 108 = 277.836 x 108

(b) By putting t = 45: 102.26 x 108 = 222.43 x 108
(c) By putting t = 50: 108.84 x 108 = 167.036 x 108
(d) By putting t = 54.65: 115.249 x 108 = 115.514 x 108
34
Problems of EHV AC Transmission System
1. Corona and Radio Interference (RI):
❖ Corona discharge is an electric discharge brought on by ionization
of air surrounding a conductor. Electric field intensity reaches
greater than 30 kV/cm.
❖ The discharge will occur when the strength (potential gradient) of
the electric field is high enough to form a conductive region, but not
enough to cause electrical breakdown or arcing to nearby objects.
❖ Problem: Power loss, audible noise, electromagnetic interference,
purple glow, Ozone production, insulation damage.
❖ Corona is not only responsible for the power loss in the
transmission lines but is also a source of interference with Radio
and Television. 35
1. Corona and Radio Interference (RI):
❖ Problems of Corona can be reduced by:
(a) Increasing the spacing between Conductors:
➢ Increases cost of the Line Supports.
➢ Causes more loss in comparison with loss due to Corona.
(b) Increasing Diameter of the Conductors:

➢ Can be possible by using Hollow Conductors or ACSR Conductors.
➢ Factors of Large Wind and Greater Snow Loadings will create severe
problems. 36
2. Line Supports:
❖ To minimize the problems of Corona we will have to make use of
Bundled Conductors.
❖ EHV lines have large mechanical loading on towers due to bundled
conductors, large air and ground clearance, considerable dynamic
forces due to broken conductors etc.
❖ Cost of fabricated steel towers varies from 35-55% of the total cost
of the line for voltages up to 345 kV.
❖ This will affect overall economy seriously. 37
2. Line Supports:
❖ To make overall transmission line wind resistant we will have to
increase amount of metal in the towers that will directly increase
cost.
❖ Recent design for line supports include the following concepts:
➢ Composite design using standard structured steel for lightly
loaded parts and high tensile steel for heavily loaded parts.
➢ Guyed aluminum towers (instead of steel).
➢ H frame structure supported by steel guy cables.
➢ Suspension tower employing reinforced concrete tubes.
➢ Standard wood pole structure with V center string etc. 38
2. Line Supports:
❖ Solution of the problem arises due to increase in cost can be slightly
compensated through streamlining for the design of the structural
elements as well as the conductors.
39
3. Erection Difficulties:
➢ Extremely high standard of workmanship.
➢ Transportation
➢ Evolve special erection and conductor handling techniques.
4. Insulation Requirements:
➢ The use of EHV transmission can only be possible if the proper
insulation of the whole system is present.
➢ Effective insulation is required for the voltage surges that can be
produced due to
❑ Internal causes i.e. switching operations.
❑ External causes i.e atmospheric disturbances ex: Lightning. 40
➢ Magnitude of likely voltage surge determine the required line
insulation level.
➢ Major cost is required to fulfill insulation requirements:
▪ In case of lightning grounding and rapid auto-reclosing of circuit
breakers is used for protection.
▪ Requires proper coordination of impedances of the ground wire,
line insulation and the tower footings.
➢ Practically lightning i.e. external causes are not serious source
for the production of overvoltage's.
41
➢ External causes i.e. switching surges which takes place due to
restriking of arc in circuit breakers which are serious source of
over-voltages.
➢ 2 – 3 times of over voltages arises which will require effective
insulation and will hence increase overall cost.
5. Power Station and Sub-station Equipment:
➢ Design and manufacture of the power stations and sub-station
equipment's undergo revolutionary changes.
➢ Capacity range of generators and transformers will be increased
or decreased depending upon load requirements.
➢ Oil less or VCB’s are used which are more efficient, light in
weight and having high speed operation. 42
6. Increase in Fault Currents:
➢ Magnitude of fault current will be increased in drastic manner.
➢ Hence costly CBs are required. This will increase overall cost.
7. High electrostatic field:
➢ Harmful for human, animals and plants.
8. Series capacitors required:
➢ Series capacitors are powerful tool for improving in
transmission capacity.
➢ Results in High Current Density and increase in Short circuit
current which will increase cost of sub-station equipment's. 43
9. Shunt reactor compensation is required
➢ To compensate high charging current.
➢ To prevent occurrence of overvoltage's at the time of drop in load.
➢ To improve load transmission capacity.
➢ Avoid self excitation of generators which is serious problem.
➢ This will increase overall cost.
10. High Surface Voltage Gradient:
➢ Use of EHV transmission increases surface voltage gradient
which can arise serious problems.
44
11. Insulation Coordination
➢ The coordination of the insulation levels of the various equipments
that are present in the Power System with that of the insulation
levels of the Protective devices that are used for the protection of
those equipment's is called as Insulation Coordination.
➢ Different equipment's such as Transformers, Circuit Breakers etc.
are having different voltage withstand values.
➢ There must be proper insulation coordination between these
equipment’s and the protecting devices.
45
11. Insulation Coordination
➢ Withstand voltage capacity of any equipment must be greater than
the protecting devices.
➢ But in general to judge the magnitude of overvoltage's is impossible
as it is a random phenomenon, and it is uneconomical to design a
plant with high degree of safety.
46
Choice of Most Economic Voltage
❖ Before choosing the most economical voltage (V) and conductor
area (A) we must have to study various technical and economical
factors.
❖ This depends completely upon desired Active power flow (P) during
peak load conditions.
❖ The capital cost of line depends on the line to line voltage and
conductor cross section area.
❖ In addition a part of the cost is of fixed type.
❖ This is desired to consider all measures properly before coming
towards final conclusion. 47
1. Annual Fixed Cost (Cf):
❖ The annual fixed cost per Km per Year of a transmission line
depends upon the Capital cost (CC).
❖ The capital cost of line generally depends upon the line to line
voltage and the conductor crossection area (A).
❖ A part of the total capital cost (CC) is generally fixed and does not
depends upon both voltage and crossection area ‘A’:
❖ Capital Cost (CC) = a + bV + c A Rs / Km

48
❖ a : Fixed Cost independent on ‘V’ and ‘A’.
❖ b : Coefficient determining the influence of voltage (V) on the
capital cost.
❖ c : Coefficient determining the influence of conductor crossection
area (A).
❖ So, now the Annual Fixed Cost in Rs/Km/Year is given as:
C f =  (CC ) =   a + bV + c A Rs / Km / Year
Where,
 → Coefficient determining the various factors i.e. interest rate,
depreciation, maintenance etc.
49
Cost due to energy Losses (CL):
❖ For obtaining the cost due to energy losses we will have to consider
the active power flow (P).
❖ Let us suppose that the line current at the peak load is ‘I’ then the
active power flow is given as:
P= 3 VL I L cos 
cos  → Power factor at peak load. The power loss in the line when
it is delivering peak load is known as Peak Power Loss (p) and is given
as:
2 
p = 3 I R = 3I
2
Per unit length (l = 1) A 50

❖ So, by putting ‘I’ from eq’s above:
 
2
P
p=3I R=3
2
3 V 2 cos 2   A 

   P 2
 1 
p=   2   cos 2  
 A  V  
→ Resistivity of the material.
Now, the cost due to losses is given as:
Energy C os t = K ( Peak Loss ) + F ( Energy Loss )
Energy C os t = D p 51
D = Load Distribution Factor.
So, finally the cost due to energy losses will be:
Energy C os t = K ( p ) + F ( D p )
CL = p  K + F D 
    P2 
CL =  2
  V 2 A   K + F D 
 cos   
 P2    
CL =   2   =   K + F D
 cos  
2
V A  52
Total Cost (Ct):
Now in this step, the total annual cost per unit length and per unit
power transfer is obtained and will be given as:
 C f + CL 
Ct =   Rs / Km / Year / unit power
 P 
 P
Ct =  a + b V + c A + 2
Rs / Km / Year / Unit Power
P AV
Ct = f  A, V 
53
Total Cost (Ct):
Hence the Total Incremental Annual Cost (dCt) will be given as:
 f   f 
d Ct =    d A +    d V 
 A  V 
So, the overall cost will be minimum only when ‘dCt’ will become Zero
and this is possible only when both df/dA and df/dV becomes zero.
Hence, when df/dA = 0, then:
  f   C   P 
  A  =  P  −  A2 V 2  = 0
     
54
Total Cost (Ct):
 C   P 
 P  =  A2 V 2 
 
0.5
   P
 A =  A0  =   V 
 C 
When, df/dV = 0, then:
 f  b   2  P 
=  − 3 
=0
 V  P   AV 
55
Total Cost (Ct):
 f  b   2  P 
=  − 3 
=0
 V  P   AV 
1/ 3
 2 P  2
V  = V0  =  
 A  b 
By putting the value of A = A0 from above we get:
 C
0.5 0.25
2
V  = V0  =    P
0.5
b    
56
Total Cost (Ct):
By putting the value of A = A0 from above we get:
0.5
   P
 A =  A0  =  
 C 
1/ 3
 2 P 2

 A  b 
  0.1667 P1/ 3 (0.7937) b1/ 3 

 A = 
2/3
0.5 
  0.1667
C 
 
0.25
 A =  A0  = 0.707    Pb  C 
0.5 −0.75
  57
Total Cost (Ct):
So finally by substituting the values of A and ‘V’ we get:
 a J 
Ct = Ct ,min  =  + 
 P P 
J  =
0.25
2 2  b  C 
3 2
So from the above equations we get:

1. If we are having a known value of active power (P) and various other constants
then we can easily determine the most economical voltage and the cross-
sectional area of the conductor.
2. Both values i.e. conductor crossection area (A) and voltage (V) is directly
proportional to P (V & A)  P P  V & A  but Ct  58
Total Cost (Ct): (V & A)  P P  V & A  but Ct 
59
Ques.1 If the economic transmission voltage for transmission of 150 MW
of power be 220 kV. What would be the economic transmission voltage for
transmission of 500 MW power? Assume that economic cross-section of
conductor is used in both the transmission lines. Also suggest the suitable
standard transmission voltage in the latter case?
Sol. 1. From the above derivation we have:
V  P
Where, V: Most economic voltage.
P: Active power at peak load.
So, by using the above equation we can have:
60
V1 P1
=
V2 P2
Let, V1 = 220 kV, V2 = ?, P1 = 150 MW P2 = 500 MW
220 150
=
V2 500
220
V2 = V2 = 401.67 kV
0.5477
Most Economic Transmission voltage = 401.67 kV
Suitable standard Transmission voltage = 400 kV.

61
Standard Transmission Voltages
❖ As we all know that the generation and transmission of electrical energy
is increasing at a tremendous rate throughout the world.
❖ To fulfill the growth of loads in various zones, it becomes necessary
that there must be interconnections between these locations or zones.
❖ Only then it will be possible to use the generation capacities at the
required places.
❖ On the other hand the reliability of the energy supplied to the
consumers is also important.
❖ The transmission n/w must be designed in such a manner that the
overall transmission is economical.
62
❖ So as the need of the power that is required to be supplied, is increasing
continuously day by day so this has led to a continuous increase in the
transmission voltages also.
❖ The proper sharing of the various countries and that too various zones is
only possible when all the countries adopts a particular standard for
transmission voltages.
❖ The following are the voltage levels that are adopted in India as per IS-
2026:
63
Nominal System Voltage Maximum Operating
(kV) Voltage (kV)
132 145
220 245
275 300
345 362
400 420
500 525
750 765
1000 1050
1150 1200 64
❖ The voltages 1000 kV and 1150 kV are not ben accepted as the standard
transmission voltages, but they are used in some places in the world.
❖ The transmission voltage must not be exceeded above the maximum
operating voltage limit otherwise the insulation levels of all the
equipment will be crossed and the system will be damaged.
❖ So this is the primary responsibility of the concerned design engineer.
❖ The voltage is generally maintained at a particular specific value and if
the rise in the voltage is observed then inductive compensation is used
and if drop in the voltage is observed then capacitive compensation is
used. 65
Thanks
66
UNIT 2
Bundled Conductors
Day & Date: Monday, 14th September 2020

Venue: MS Team.
Time: 11:00 AM - 11:45 AM.
1
Properties of Bundled Conductors
❖ Load demand is continuously increasing with tremendous rate.
❖ To transmit the large blocks of power over long distances

efficiently we must have to increase line voltages.
❖At voltages above 300 kV, if transmission line is having one
conductor per phase then the chances of occurrence of Corona
becomes more.
❖If production of corona takes place, then it results in the heavy
power loss and the interference with the communication circuits. 2
❖ To avoid such kind of problems we must have to make use of
multiple conductors per phases.

❖Due to this the magnitude of voltage gradient developed between
the phases is decreased and the problems of corona discharge is
effectively reduced.
❖These type of arrangements are known as Bundled conductors.
❖ Bundled conductors are exclusively used in the case of EHV
transmission lines. 3
❖ Generally, in each phase all the sub-conductors of a particular
bundle are uniformly distributed on a circle of Radius ‘R’.

❖ Examples of the conductor configurations which are used for each
phase of AC lines or each phase of the DC line are:
4
❖ Where,
r : Radius of the Single Conductor.
d: Diameter of the single conductor.
R: Bundle Radius.
B: Bundle Spacing.
5
❖ Bundle Spacing (B): The spacing between two adjacent sub-
conductors is called as BUNDLE SPACING and is denoted by ‘B’.
B = 2 R (For 2 – Conductors)
❖ Till now a maximum of ‘18’ sub-conductors have been tried on
experimental lines but practically, for commercial lines the largest
number is ‘8’ and the voltage is 1150 – 1200 kV line.
❖ Advantages of using Bundle Conductors:
❑ To reduce Corona Losses.

❑ To minimize the Interference with the communication lines.
❑ To reduce the circuit Inductance.
❑ To increase the stability.
❑ To decrease the voltage drop.
❑ To increase the circuit capacity and boost up the operating voltage.
6
Advantages of Bundled Conductors
• EHV transmission lines are usually constructed with
bundled conductors. Bundling reduces the line
reactance, which improves the line performance and
increases the power capability of the line.
•Bundling also reduces the voltage

surface gradient, which in turn reduces
corona loss, radio interference and
surge impedance.
BUNDLE SPACING (B) & BUNDLE RADIUS (R)
❖ To obtain the geometrical properties of a Bundle having N- sub-conductors it is
generally assumed that all the sub-conductors are uniformly distributed on a
circle of Radius ‘R’.
❖ With the term Geometrical Properties we mean the Bundle Spacing (B) and
Bundle Radius (R).
❖ There are proposals to space these sub-conductors non-uniformly due to
following advantages i.e.:
❑ Due to this the Audible Noise generated by the bundle conductor is reduced.
❑ Due to this the flash-over voltage level of the long air-gap in between each
phase is increased.
❖ But for simplicity we assumed that the conductors are uniformly distributed
and the arrangement assumed is 8
❖ Bundle Spacing (B): The spacing

between the adjacent sub-conductors is
called as BUNDLE SPACING. It is
denoted by ‘B’.
❖ Bundle Radius (R): The radius of the

pitch circle on which the sub-
conductors are located is called as
BUNDLE RADIUS. It is denoted by
‘R’.
9
❖ The radius of each sub-conductor is ‘r’
with the diameter ‘d’. The angle
subtended by each adjacent sub-
conductors at the center is 2 / N radians.
❖ Now to obtain the relationship between
Bundle Spacing and Bundle Radius let us
consider the triangle ‘0 3 4’ i.e.
B/2
Sin ( / N ) =
R
B
B = 2 R Sin ( / N ) R=
2 Sin ( / N ) 10
B
B = 2 R Sin ( / N ) R=
2 Sin ( / N )
• For N = 2-18 the following table gives (R/B) and (B/R) values:
N 2 3 4 6 8 12 18
R/B 0.5 0.578 0.707 1 1.308 1.874 2.884
B/R 2 √3 √2 1 0.7654 0.5344 0.3472
11
GEOMETRIC MEAN RADIUS OF BUNDLE (req)
❖ To simplify the calculations that are performed for bundled conductors in spite of
considering each sub-conductor of a bundle individually, the bundle of N sub-
conductors are replaced by a single conductor having and equivalent radius and this
is termed as the Geometric Mean Radius or simply the Equivalent Radius (req).
❖ Definition: It is the Nth root of the sub-conductor radius ‘r’ and the distance of this
sub-conductor from all other (N-1) sub-conductors of the bundle.
❖DERIVATION: To derive the expression of the Geometric Mean Radius let us

consider the fig. drawn before showing N – Sub conductors that are uniformly
distributed and are placed on the circumference of the circle.
❖ According to the definition of GMR we have to consider the mutual distances
between the selected conductor and all other (N-1) remaining conductors. 12
❖ Mutual distance between sub-conductor 1 and 2:
B = 2 R Sin ( / N )
❖ Mutual distance between 1 and 3 can be calculated
as:
 2  x
Sin   =
N R
 2 
x = R Sin  
 2  N
Mutual Distance = 2 x = 2 R Sin  
N
❖Similarly, the other distances can be calculated and hence finally the product of
(N-1) mutual distances will be represented as: 13
      2    3    ( N − 1) 
 2 R Sin  N   .  2 R Sin  N   .  2 R Sin    .............  2 R Sin  
       N    N 
N −1        2     3    ( N − 1) 
= (2 R)  Sin  N   .  Sin  N   .  Sin    .............  Sin  
        N    N 
❖So finally by using the above equation and using the definition of the Geometric
Mean Radius we have:
1/ N
 N −1        2     3    ( N − 1)  
req =  r . (2 R)  Sin    .  Sin    .  Sin    .............  Sin   
   N    N    N    N  
❖Now to generalise the equation let us consider the following steps

14
❖For, N = 2 
1/ 2
     req =  2rR 
1/ 2
req =  r . (2 R)  Sin    
   2  
❖For, N = 3 
1/ 3
2     2   2 1/ 3
req = 3 r R 
req =  r . (2 R)  Sin   Sin   
  3  3  
❖For, N = 4  1/ 4
3     2   3   3 1/ 4
req =  4 r R 
req =  r . (2 R)  Sin   Sin   Sin   
  4  4   4  
❖So by generalising the above expressions we have:

N −1 1/ N
req =  N r R  15
1/ N
 rN
N −1 
req =  N r N R 
 r 
N −1 1/ N
 R 
req = r  N   
  r  
1/ N
  r 
1/ N
 RN

req =  N r   req = R  N   
  R    R 
16
NUMERICALS
Ques. The configurations of some EHV lines for 400 kV to 1200 kV are given.
Calculate req for each configuration:
(a) 400 kV: N = 2, d = 2r = 3.18 cm, B = 45 cm.

Ans.
N −1 1/ N
req =  N r R 
B 45
R= = R = 22.5 cm
2 Sin ( / N ) 2 Sin ( / 2)
1 1/ 2
req =  2 (1.59) (22.5) 
req = 8.4587 cm = 0.084587 m. 17

NUMERICALS
(b) 750 kV: N = 4, d = 3.46 cm, B = 45 cm.
Ans.
N −1 1/ N
req =  N r R 
r = 3.46 / 2 = 1.73 cm
B 45
R= = R = 31.8198 cm
2 Sin ( / N ) 2 Sin ( / 4)
3 1/ 4
req =  4 (1.73) (31.8198) 
req = 21.72949 cm = 0.2172949 m

18
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
Ques. Show that the Geometric Mean Radius of bundled conductor lines can be used
for calculation of line inductance in place of considering all the sub-conductors
individually?
Inductance of line: It is very clear that if the transmission line is not transposed then
the inductance of each conductor will be obtained by the summation of its own self
inductance and the mutual inductance produced due to nearby conductor.
So different types of conductor arrangements are having different expressions for the
inductance of the conductors. So here the different cases are considered which will
finally help to obtain the expression of inductance for the bundled conductors.
These cases are:
19
(a) SOLID ROUND CONDUCTOR: To obtain the expression for the inductance we
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
(a) SOLID ROUND CONDUCTOR: To obtain the expression for the inductance we
will have to first consider a general case in which a Solid round Conductor is
considered i.e.
❖ The above fig. shows a solid round
conductor having the external radius
‘r’ and carrying a current ‘I’.
❖ Let ‘x’ is the distance upto which the
flux linkage of this conductor exists
due to this current ‘I’.
❖ It is assumed that the current is
uniformly distributed throughout the
conductor and hence,
❖
I
Current Density = J =
 r2 20
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
Now, the net inductance of this solid conductor is basically having two components i.e.
(i) Inductance due to Internal Flux of the conductor i.e. up to ‘r’ [Li]:
❖ The procedure that is followed to
calculate the inductance due to internal
flux can be explained as:
❖ As we all know that according to the
Amperes Circuital Law:
 H . dl = Total Current Enclosed

❖ As the current density is assumed to be
having constant value so:
Iy I  y2 
= Iy = I  2 
y 2
 r2 r  21
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
By applying the Amperes Circuital Law for the radius ‘y’ we get
H y . dl = I y
 y2 
y
H y  dl = I  2 
0 r 
 y2  Hy =
I
( y)
H y ( 2 y ) = I  2 
r  2 r 2
Where, Hy = Magnetic Field Intensity
Now, as we are having the expression of magnetic field intensity upto radius ‘y’ so the
energy stored for this magnetic field intensity (Hy) upto radius ‘y’ per unit volume will
be given as: 22
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
0 r ( H y2 )
1
Wy = Joules / m3
2
So, by using the above equation, we can have:
 I 2 . 0 .  r  2
2
1  I. y 
Wy = 0  r  2 
Wy =  . y Joules / m3
2  2 .  . r   8 .  2
. r 4

Now, the above equation indicates the expression for the energy stored per unit volume
but our motive is to obtain the Total Energy Stored upto ‘r’.
For that we will first determine the energy stored for the annular volume of the
thickness ‘dy’ and then integrating this from ‘0’ to ‘r’ we can obtain the total energy
stored upto ‘r’ and this can be utilised to calculate the magnitude of inductance due to
internal flux. 23
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
So, by considering the annular volume at ‘y’, having thickness ‘dy’ and of one meter
length we have:
Annular Volume = ( 2  y ) . dy .1
(Circumference) (Thickness) (Length)
Now, the above equation indicates the energy stored upto radius ‘y’ per unit volume so
now the energy stored for this annular volume will be given as:
dW = ( 2  y ) . dy . Wy Joules
I 2 0  r 2
dW = ( 2  y ) . . y dy Joules
8 r 2 4
I 2 0  r 3
dW = . y dy Joules
4 r 4
24
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
So, the total energy stored can be obtained by integrating ‘dW’ from 0 to ‘r’:
r
Total Energy Stored =  dW
0
I 2 0  r 3
r
=  . y dy Joules
0
4 r 4
r
I 0  r
2
y 4
= . 
4  r4  4 0
I 2 0  r 1
W= Joules W= Li I 2
16  2
Li = Inductance due to Internal Flux, I = Current carried by the solid conductor 25
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
1 I 2
0  r
W= Li I =
2
2 16 
0  r
Li =
8
0 = 4   10−7 H / m, r = 1 ( for non − magnetic material )

So, as we know that the flux linkage will be given as:
 = L.I
0  r
i = .I
8 26
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
(ii) Inductance due to External Flux Linkage i.e. from ‘r’ to ‘x’ [Le]:
❖ Now here in this case by again applying
the Ampere Circuital Law around a
circle of radius ‘ye’ we have:
H e . dl = I
ye
H e  dl = I H e (2  ye ) = I
0
I
He =
(2  ye )
❖ Now as we know that:

B= H and  = 0 r 27
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
❖ So, by using the above expression we have:
I
B = 0  r
(2  ye )
❖ For a differential distance ‘dye’ the magnetic flux is given as:
d = Be . dye / meter length of the conductor
❖ So to find the total external flux linkage upto distance ‘x’ we have to integrates the
above equation from ‘r’ to ‘x’ i.e.
x
0  r
x
 e =  Be . dye e =  . I . dye
r r
(2  ye )
28
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
0  r 0  r   x  
e = . I  ln ( ye ) r e =
x
. I ln   
(2  ) (2  )   r 
0  r   x 
 e = Le . I Le = . ln   
(2  )   r 
❖ Now, Net Inductance of this solid conductor can be obtained by considering the total
flux linkage upto distance ‘x’ from the centre of the solid conductor i.e. Now we can
have:
Total Flux Linkage ( ) =  i +  e
0  r 0  r  x
Total Flux Linkage ( ) = I+ I ln  
8 2 r 29
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
0  r  1  x 
Total Flux Linkage ( ) = I  + ln   
2 4  r 
0  r   x 
Total Flux Linkage ( ) = I ln ( e ) + ln   
1/ 4
2   r 
0  r x
= I ln  '  where, r ' = r . e −1/ 4 = 0.7788 r
2 r 
0  r  x 
Net Inductance (L) = ln  '  H / m
2 r 
30
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
❖ This equation represents the Net Inductance but only for solid round conductor with
the uniform current density distribution. This expression is not applicable for
stranded conductors and the conductors carrying alternating currents.
❖ Here, in this case for a Solid Round Conductor:
req = r ' = r . e −1/ 4 = 0.7788 r

(b) FOR A SINGLE CONDUCTOR: Now, we will have to determine the NET
INDUCTANCE for a single conductor which is present above a ground plane. But for
that we must have to consider certain assumptions i.e.
Assumption: The net inductance of every single conductor carrying current ‘I’ and
present above the ground plane is assumed to be having the summation of the self
inductance due to current ‘I’ flowing in the actual conductor which is in air and the 31
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
Mutual inductance produced due to its image conductor below the ground level and
carrying the opposite current (− I). So it is very clear that even a single conductor
present above the ground plane will experience the mutual inductance due to its image
conductor.
So in order to obtain the expression of NET INDUCTANCE for a single conductor let
us consider a similar arrangement produced by using two conductors, each having the
radius ‘r’, separated by a centre to centre distance ‘D’ and carrying current ‘I’ and ‘-I’.
where,
D = 2H
and, H = Height above the ground plane.
The arrangement used can be shown as:

32
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
❖ Now let us consider a flux line e as drawn here.
Available external to both the conductors. So, the
net current inside this line is observed to be zero.
❖ This shows that the magnetic field strength is
also zero outside this flux line.
❖ This means that, all the flux must be present in
between the conductors from ‘r’ to (D – r)
❖ Now by applying the generalized equation we
have:
0  r D
= I ln  '  where, r ' = r . e −1/ 4 = 0.7788 r
2 r 
D = 2H ,  = L . I
33
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
0  r  2H 
L= ln  '  H / m
2  r 
❖ For the case of a Single Conductor the magnitude
of ‘r’ is generally provided and if it is asked to
neglect the internal flux linkage then take ‘r’
simple i.e. Radius of the conductor.
(c) FOR MULTICONDUCTOR LINES:
❖ Now, let us consider that more than 2-conductors i.e. several multiconductor are
present above a ground plane at different heights and each having its own current.
❖ They are also having their image conductors below the ground level carrying equal
currents in opposite direction. The arrangement can be shown as; 34
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
❖ If we will neglect the internal flux linkage in the expression of inductance for a
single conductor then,
0  r  2H   2H 
L= ln   H /m P = ln   = Maxwells Coefficient
2  r   r 
35
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
(a) Due to its own current: This can be obtained by using the generalized equation:
0  r  2 H1 
 11 = I1 ln  ' 
2  r 
(b) Due to conductor -2: For this case we have to neglect the presence of all the other
currents i.e. I1 and I3 and will have to consider only I2. Now, find the flux linkage
on conductor -1 due to this conductor 2 and its image conductor present below the
ground. The flux lines in this case are assumed to be CONCENTRIC about
conductor -2. So the total flux linkage in conductor -1 due to current in phase -2
will be:
0  r 
I12 
 12 = I 2 ln  
2  A12 
Where, I12 = Imaginary distance (Not current).
A12 = Aerial Distance.
36
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
Where,
 I12 
P12 = ln   = MAXWELLS COEFFICIENT
 A12 
(c) Due to conductor -3: In this case also, all other currents except ‘I3’ are neglected
and hence  I13   I13 
0  r
 13 = I 3 ln   and , P13 = ln  
2  A13   A13 
So, by considering the above equations we get the total flux linkage of conductor – 1
will be:  0  r   2 H1   I12   I13  
1 = ln  '  I1 + ln   I 2 + ln   I3 
2   r   A12   A13  
Similarly for conductor – 2 we have:
0  r   I 21   2H 2   I 23  
2 = ln   I1 + ln  '  I 2 + ln   I3 
2   A21   r   A23   37
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
And a similar expression can be obtained for conductor – 3 also. So for a multi-
conductor system as the total flux linkage of each conductor is different, so a general
matrix representation is obtained i.e.:
  2 H1   I12   I1n  
ln  '  ln   .......... ln  
  r   A12   A1n  
 1      I1 
 
  ln  I 21  ln  2 H 2  .......... ln  I 2 n    I 
 2   A21   r 
'
 2n 
A   2
.  0 r   . 
 =  .   
.  2   . 
.
.    . 
    I n1   In2   2H n   
 n  ln   ln   .......... ln  '    I n 
  An1   An 2   r 
  38
 
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
0  r
 n =  P nn  I n
2
 n =  L nn  I n
 L n =  n  I n
−1
H /m
Where, the elements of the maxwells coefficient matrix are

 2H 
Pii = ln  
 r
 eq 
 I ij 
Pij = ln   where, i  j
A 
 ij  39
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
The diagonal elements of the inductance matrix [L]nn represents the self-inductances
and the off-diagonal elements represents the mutual inductances.
For the case of multiple conductors for self inductance the magnitude of ‘r’ is generally
provided and for the mutual inductances.
req = A12 or A13 i.e. Aerial Distance
(d) For Bundled Conductor Lines: The expressions that are calculated for the multi-
conductor system will now be used for the bundled conductor lines. The denominator
of the Maxwells Coefficient in this case is equal to the Geometric Mean Radius (req).
Proof: The figure drawn below shows the bundle conductor having N – sub-conductors
and their respective images below the ground plane. We have to calculate the self
inductance of the entire bundle (L) but before doing this we must have to consider
certain assumptions: 40
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
Basic Assumptions:
(1) The bundle spacing (B) between the adjacent sub-
conductors and the bundle radius (R) is very small as
compared to the height (H) of the phase conductor above
ground level. So the distance between any sub conductor
of the bundle and the image of all the other (N – 1)
subconductor below the ground level is equal to ‘2H’ i.e.
as, B & R <<<<< H

I11 = I12 = I13 = …………….. = I1N = 2H
(2) The total current carried by the bundle is ‘I’ and so the
current carried by each sub-conductor is
 I 
i= 
N 41
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
Basic Assumptions:
(3) Neglect the internal flux linkages and include only when it
is asked.
So, by taking into consideration all the above assumptions and

using the total flux linkage equation for any one conductor
which was derived in the multiconductor system we can
express the total flux linkage of conductor – 1 as:
  2 H1   I   2H  I  
ln     + ln     + 
0  r   r   N   2 R Sin ( / N )   N  
1 =
2    2H  I  2H 

 I 
+ ..... + ln 
  2 R Sin ( 2 / N )   N     
ln
    2 R Sin ( ( N − 1) / N )   N 
42
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
 ( 2H ) 
N
0  r  I 
1 =   ln  
2   N   r . ( 2 R ) Sin ( / N ) Sin ( 2 / N ) Sin ( 3 / N ) .............Sin ( ( N − 1) / N ) 
N −1
0  r I  ( 2 H ) 
1 = ln  
2  req 
1/ N
req =  r . ( 2 R ) Sin ( / N ) Sin ( 2 / N ) Sin ( 3 / N ) .............Sin ( ( N − 1) / N ) 
N −1
 
So, finally the self-inductance of the entire bundle is given as:

 1 0  r I  ( 2 H ) 
L= = ln   For ENTIRE BUNDLE
I 2  req  43
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
And inductance for each sub-conductor is given as:
 1  1 N 0  r I  ( 2H ) 
L= =
'
= N ln  
i I 2  eq 
r
0  r  ( 2 H ) 
L = (N )
'
ln   for Each SUB-CONDUCTOR
2  req 
It is observed that the inductance of each sub-conductor is N-times that of the
inductance of the whole bundle. As all the sub-conductors are in parallel so this is true
in that way also.
So, for a Bundle Conductor the denominator of the Maxwell coefficient is actually the
Geometric Mean Radius (req). In this manner the Inductance of Line can be calculated.
44
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
Ques. A 345 kV line has ACSR Bluebird conductor 1.762 inches (0.04477m) in
diameter with an equivalent radius for inductance calculation of 0.0179m. The line
height is 12m. Calculate the inductance per Km length of conductor and the error
caused by neglecting the internal flux linkage?
Sol. Given: SINGLE- CONDUCTOR
(i) r = d/2 = (0.04477/2) = 0.22385 m.
(ii) req = r’ = 0.0179 m
(iii) H = 12 m.
As derived earlier Inductance for Single Conductor is:
0  r  ( 2 H ) 
L=
'
ln  '  H/m
2  r 
0 = 4   10−7 H / m, r = 1 ( for non − magnetic material )
45
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
4   10−7  ( 2 12 ) 
L= ln   mH/Km
2  0.0179 
L = 1.4402 mH/Km
Now, if we neglect the internal flux linkage then
0  r  ( 2 H ) 
L= ln   H/m
2  r 
4   10−7  ( 24 ) 
L= ln   H/m
2  0.04477 / 2 
46
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
L = 1.3955 mH/km
1.44 − 1.3955
Error =  100
1.44
Error = 3.09%
Induc tan ce = 1.4402 mH / Km
47
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
Ques. The dimension of a 3-phase, 400 kV horizontal line as shown in the fig. drawn
below are: H = 15m and S = 11 m (Phase Separation). The conductor is having 2 x 3.18
cm dia, and B = 45.72 cm. Calculate:
(a) The matrix of inductances per Km, for un-transposed configuration.
(b) The same when there is complete transposition?
48
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
So, the above case shows a multi-conductor system where each conductor is having 2 –
sub conductors that are present on the circumference of a circle and are having Bundle
spacing as B = 45.72 cm. So,
N = 2, B = 45.72 cm, r = d/2 = 3.18 cm / 2 = 1.59 cm.
And as derived earlier that;

(a) For an un-transposed configuration the matrix of inductance is given as:
  2 H1   I12   I13  
ln  '  ln   ln   
  r   12 
A  13  
A
0 r   I 21   2H 2   I 23  
 L nn = ln   ln  '  ln  
2    A21   r   A23  
 
  I 31   I 32   2H 3 
 A 
ln ln   ln  ' 
  31   32 
A  r  49
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
As all the conductors i.e. 1, 2 and 3 are at the same heights above the ground plane so;
H1 = H2 = H3 = H = 15 m
And as line conductors are always located in air so,
0 = 4   10−7 H / m, r = 1
As stated earlier that for a multi-conductor lines for self inductance the magnitude of r’
is equal to ‘req’ and for mutual inductance ‘req’ i.e. denominator is equal to aerial
distances i.e. A12, A13 etc. 1/ 2
1/ N   B  
1
r = req =  2. r . R
' N −1
 =  2  0.0159    
  2sin ( / 2)  
r ' = req = 0.08526 m

50
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
So by considering the Maxwell’s coefficient only of the above equation we get:
 2 15 
P11 = P22 = P33 = ln   = 5.863
 0.08526 
Now, considering the mutual inductances i.e. due to conductor ‘2’ and ‘3’ on conductor
‘1’ i.e.
 I12   4 H 2 + S2 
P12 = ln   = ln  

 A12  
S

 I12   4  225 + 121 
P12 = ln   = ln   = 1.0664
 A12   11 
P12 = P21 = P23 = P32 = 1.0664
51
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
As the distances are similar in these cases. Now by considering the mutual inductance
due to conductor ‘3’ on ‘1’ we have:
 4 H 2 + ( 2S )2   
P13 = ln   = ln  4  225 + 484 
 2S   22 
   
P13 = P31 = 0.525
So by considering the above calculation we can write the inductance matrix as:
5.863 1.0664 0.525  1.1726 0.213 0.105 

4  10 
−7
 Lut = 1.0664 5.863 1.0664  L ut =  0.213 1.1726 0.213 
2   0.105 0.213 1.1726 
0.525 1.0664 5.863 
52
INDUCTANCE OF LINE
(b) For a completely transposed line the self inductance of each phase will remain
unchanged but the mutual inductances in this case produced due to nearby conductors
will have the same expression for inductance for each conductor arrangement.
As in this case each phase occupies each of the 3 – positions for 1/3 of the distance so
the average mutual inductance will be:
0.2 (1.0664 + 1.0664 + 0.525)

= = 0.177 mH / Km
3
So by considering the above calculation we can write the inductance matrix as:
1.1726 0.177 0.177 

 L ct =  0.177 1.1726 0.177 
 0.177 0.177 1.1726 
53
Thanks
54
UNIT 3
Effects of Electrostatic Field
Day & Date: Tuesday, 5th October 2021

Venue: MS Team.
Time: 11:30 AM - 12:15 PM.
1
EFFECTS OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
Ques. Discuss the effect of high Electrostatic Field on Human, Plants and Animals.
Why do birds survive even when comes into contact with EHV Lines?
Sol.
❖ Before discussing the various effects of High Electrostatic Field on Human, Plants
and Animals this must be considered very clearly that both electrostatic effect and
electromagnetic effects are responsible for causing various hazards.
❖ Electro-static effects are produced due to extremely high voltage in overhead EHV
lines and Electromagnetic effects produced due to line loading current and s.c.
currents.
❖ So, both can cause the adverse effects on human, plants and animals but here we are
required to discuss only Electrostatic Effects.
❖ Due to hazards caused because of Electrostatic Fields the production of shock
currents of various intensities takes place. These shock currents are broadly
classified as: 2
❖ Primary Shock Currents: These are the currents which are responsible to cause
direct physiological harm. The normal range for these type of currents is 6 – 10 mA
and for a human body of about 2 -3 KΩ resistance only 25 volts can produce
primary shock currents. Due to these currents:
➢ Blood circulation through heart can be arrested.
➢ If passes through brain then can stop respiration.
➢ If passed through chest then cause asphyxia.
The primary shock currents required to cause damage, varies directly with body
weight.
❖ Secondary Shock Currents: These type of currents do not cause the direct
physiological harm but can produce adverse reactions. They can be of any nature i.e.
steady state or 50 Hz or its harmonic or transient in nature etc.
❖ The magnitude of the currents ranging from 1 to 6 mA are termed as ‘Let go’
currents and they can only cause a slight tingling sensation on the fingers. But these
currents may increase to the primary shock currents. 3
❖ Effect of High Electro-static Field on Human Beings: As the use of EHV lines are
increasing day by day the danger due to high E.S. field is also increasing in the same
manner. It is most important to study the effect on human beings as any unwanted
incident can directly result in loss of life. The various effect due to E.S. field in this
case are:
➢ Due to high E.S. field if a Farmer is ploughing his field by a tractor and having
umbrella over his head, than the umbrella will be charged and also his tractor
will be charged. Then if he touches any grounded object he will get a shock.
➢ If a vehicle is parked under a transmission line then due to its field it will be
charged and when a person picks up his vehicle and touches a ground then he
will get a shock. If the discharge current is more then Let-go current then a
serious damage can take place. So, if a parking is required to do under a line then
the minimum recommended safe clearance is:
17 m: 345 kV.
20 m: 400 kV. 4
For, trucks & Lorries: Extra ‘3m’ clearance.
➢ The high voltage also charge the Fences. Buried cables & pipe lines and when they
are operated by human, they will cause serious damage. So, for precaution:
Metallic Fences: Must be grounded at every 75m.
Pipelines of (Length > 3Km) and
(Diameter > 15 cm): Must be buried at least 30 m.
➢ The danger of ‘OZONE EMANATION’ which can cause serious harm to sensitive
tissue of a human being is also one of the adverse effect i.e. to be considered
seriously.
➢ So these are the effects of high electrostatic field on huma beings. Experimentally a
human being can resist an electric field only upto 15kV/m (R.M.S) and the line
must be designed by considering the same which will decide the required minimum
clearance.
5
➢ The human body is a composed of some biological materials like blood, bone,
brain, lungs, muscle, skin etc.
➢ The permeability of human body is equals to permeability of air but within a human
body has different electromagnetic values at a certain frequency for different
material.
➢ The human body contains free electric charges (largely in ion-rich fluids such as
blood and lymph) that move in response to forces exerted by charges on and
currents flowing in nearby power lines. The processes that produce these body
currents are called electric and magnetic induction.
➢ In electric induction, charges on a power line attract or repel free charges within the
body. Since body fluids are good conductors of electricity, charges in the body
move to its surface under the influence of this electric force. For example, a
positively charged overhead transmission line induces negative charges to flow to
the surfaces on the upper part of the body.
6
➢ Since the charge on power lines alternates from positive to negative many times
each second, the charges induced on the body surface alternate also. Negative
charges induced on the upper part of the body one instant flow into the lower part of
the body the next instant. Thus, power-frequency electric fields induce currents in
the body (Eddy Current) as well as charges on its surface.
7
➢ The currents induced in the body by magnetic fields are greatest near the periphery
of the body and smallest at the center of the body.
➢ It is believed that, the magnetic field might induce a voltage in the tissue of human
body which causes a current to flow through it due to its conductivity of around
them.
➢ The magnetic field has influence on tissues in the human body. These influences
may be beneficial or harmful depending upon its nature.
➢ The magnitude of surface charge and internal body currents that are induced by any
given source of power-frequency fields depends on many factors. These include the
magnitude of the charges and currents in the source, the distance of the body from
the source, the presence of other objects that might shield or concentrate the field,
and body posture, shape, and orientation. For this reason the surface charges and
currents which a given field induces are very different for different Human and
animals.
8
➢ When a person who is isolated from ground by some insulating material comes in
close proximity to an overhead transmission line, an electrostatic field is set in the
body of human being, having a resistance of about 2000 ohms.
➢ When the same person touches a grounded object, it will discharge through his body
causing a large amount of discharge current to flow through the body. Discharge
currents from 50-60 Hz electromagnetic fields are weaker than natural currents in
the body, such as those from the electrical activity of the brain and heart.
➢ For human beings the limit for undisturbed field is 15 kV/m, R.M.S., to experience
possible shock.
➢ When designing a transmission lines this limit is not crossed, in addition to this
proper care has been taken in order to keep minimum clearance between
transmission lines.
➢ According to research and publications put out by the World Health
Organization(WHO), EMF such as those from power lines, can also cause:
9
Short term Health Problem
➢ Headaches.
➢ Fatigue
➢ Anxiety
➢ Insomnia
➢ Prickling and/or burning skin
➢ Rashes
➢ Muscle pain
Long term Health Problem:
Following serious health Problems may be arise due to EMF effects on human Body.
(1) Risk of damaging DNA:
➢ Our body acts like an energy wave broadcaster and receiver, incorporating and
responding to EMFs. In fact, scientific research has demonstrated that every cell in
your body may have its own EMF, helping to regulate important functions and keep
you healthy. 10
➢ Strong, artificial EMFs like those from power lines can scramble and interfere with
your body’s natural EMF, harming everything from your sleep cycles and stress
levels to your immune response and DNA!.
(2) Risk of Cancer:
➢ After hundreds of international studies, the evidence linking EMFs to cancers and
other health problems is loud and clear. High Voltage power lines are the most
obvious and dangerous culprits, but the same EMFs exist in gradually decreasing
levels all along the grid, from substations to transformers to homes.
(3) Risk of Leukemia:
➢ Researchers found that children living within 650 feet of power lines had a 70%
greater risk for leukemia than children living 2,000 feet away or more
(4) Risk of Neurodegenerative disease:
➢ “Several studies have identified occupational exposure to extremely low-frequency
electromagnetic fields (EMF) as a potential risk factor for neuro degenerative
disease.” 11
Surface Current Surface Current Density(mA/m2)

Density(mA/m2)
<1 Absence of any established effects.
1 To 10 Minor biological effects.
10 To 100 Well established effects
(a) Visual effect. (b) Possible nervous system effect
100 To 1000 Changes in central nervous System
>1000 Ventricular Fibrillation
(Heart Condition 0. Health hazards).
12
Effect of High Electro-static Field on Animals: The following are the effects that are
observed for animals i.e.:
➢ If the cages of pigeons and hens are placed near EHV lines (about 30 kV/cm) then
their beaks started chattering due to high electrostatic field and hence they are
unable to pick up grain. This will seriously affects their growth.
➢ Due to high E.S. field the bodies of the animals will get a charge and when they
proceed to drink water a high spark is produced usually between their nose and the
ground pipe.
Effect of High Electro-static Field on Plants: The following are the effects that are
observed for plants i.e.:
➢ At a field strength of 20 kV/cm (R.M.S) the sharp edges of the stalk of plants such
as Wheat, Rice, Sugarcane etc. give corona discharge and will cause serious damage
to the grain bearing upper portion of the plants.
➢ At a field strength of 30 kV/cm (R. M. S) the by-products of corona i.e ozone &
N2O becomes very large and this seriously affects the growth of plants and grain.13
➢ Most of the areas in agricultural and forest lands where high power transmission
lines pass. The voltage level of high power transmission Lines are 400KV, 230KV,
110KV, 66KV etc. The electromagnetic field from high power transmission lines
affects the growth of plants.
➢ Gradually increases or decreases and reaches to maximum current or minimum
current and thereafter it starts to fall down to lowest current or raises to maximum
current or a constant current. Again the current, it evinces with little fluctuations till
the next day morning.
➢ Current in Power transmission lines varies according to Load (it depending upon
the amount of electricity consumed by the consumers). Hence the effect of EMF
(due to current flowing in the power lines) upon the growth of plants under the high
power transmission lines remains unaltered throughout the year.
➢ From various practically study it was found that the response of the crop to EMF
from 110 KV and 230 KV Power lines showed variations among themselves. Based
14
on the results the growth characteristics like shoot length, root length, leaf area, leaf
➢ fresh weight, specific leaf weight, shoot/root ratio, total biomass content and total
water content of the four crop plants were reduced significantly over the control
plants.
➢ Similar trend were observed in the biochemical characteristics like chlorophyll.
➢ Reduced growth and physiological parameter was primarily due to the effect of
reduced cell division and cell enlargement. Further the growth was stunted which
may be due to poor action of hormones responsible for cell division and cell
enlargement.
➢ The bio-chemical changes produced in this plant due to EMF stress quite obvious
and it affects the production leading to economic loss.
➢ It is concluded that the reduced growth parameter shown in the crop plants would
indicates that the EMF has exerted a stress on that plants and this EMF stress was
quite obvious and it affects the production leading to economic loss. So further
research activities are needed to safe guard plants from EMF stress.
15
THANKS
16
UNIT 4
Load Frequency Control
Day & Date: Friday, 22nd October 2021

Venue: MS Team.
Time: 11:30 AM - 12:15 PM.
1
Load Frequency Control:
Introduction to control of active and reactive power flow, turbine

speed governing system. Speed governing characteristic of
generating unit and load sharing between parallel operating
generators. Method of Load Frequency Control: Flat frequency,
flat tie line and tie line load bias control.
2
❖ In a power system, both active and reactive power demands continually vary with
the rising or falling trend.
❖ Power input (steam input to turbo-generators or water input to hydro-generators)
must, therefore, be continuously regulated to match the active power demand.
❖ Otherwise the machine speed will change with consequent change in frequency,
which may be highly undesirable.
❖ Also the excitation of generators must be continuously regulated to match the
reactive power demand with reactive generation, failing which the voltages at
various system buses may go beyond the prescribed limits.
❖ It is necessary to maintain the frequency of the power system constant (maximum
permissible variation in supply frequency is ± 0.5 Hz).
3
Reasons for maintain the frequency of the power system constant (maximum
permissible variation in supply frequency is ± 0.5 Hz):
❖ The frequency control keeps the balance between generation and absorption of real
power and thus makes the operation of power station in parallel satisfactory.
❖ The speed of synchronous and induction motors, extensively used in industry as
prime movers, depends upon supply frequency (the synchronous speed being equal
to 120 f/P where f is supply frequency and P is the number of poles) and so change
in supply frequency causes variations in speed of motors of consumers- not desirable
for consumers, particularly the process industries depending on constant speed
drives.
❖ The variation in supply frequency beyond permissible limits also affects the
performance of electric motors. 4
❖ The extensive use of synchronous clocks establishes a strong requirement for
maintaining supply frequency constant in order to have correct timing from such
clocks.
Primary Control:
❖ When the load on a generator or a group of generators increases, the rotors slow
down resulting in reduction in frequency. However, the governors adjust the input so
as to bring the frequency to the original level. This control of frequency by the
action of governors is called the primary control.
❖ The action of the governors is automatic. A drop in speed due to increased load
causes governor action so as to increase the input (admit more steam into the turbine
in case of steam power plants) and thus output. 5
❖ If the system is connected to numerous loads in a Power system, then the system
frequency and speed change with the characteristics of the Governor as the Load
changes.
6
Secondary Control:
❖ In the event of loss of load or sudden change in load, the governor controls the speed
of generators.
❖ However, frequency control by governors alone is not adequate and ‘secondary
control’ is necessary.
❖ In secondary control, the loading on different plants is changed according to the
instructions of the central load despatcher.
7
Secondary Control:
❖ Load and frequency control of interconnected generators introduces problems which
are relatively simple in a system having one or two generating stations but are more
difficult and complex in large interconnected systems with many stations scattered
over a wide area.
8
Turbine Speed Governing System
Reactive power
depends on voltage
magnitude
Real power depends on

changes in rotor angle,
 and frequency
Measure of the change in rotor angle, , the error 9

 to be corrected
10
The system consists of following components:
❖ Fly Ball Governor
❖ Hydraulic Amplifier
❖ Linkage Mechanism
❖ Speed Changer
11
Fundamentals of Speed Governing System
Fly Ball Speed Governor:
❖ This is the heart of the system which senses the change in speed
(frequency).
❖ As the speed increases the fly ball move outwards and the point B
on linkage mechanism moves downwards. The reverse happens
when the speed decreases.
Hydraulic Amplifier:
❖ It consists of pilot value and main piston.
❖ Low power level pilot value movement is converted into high power
level pilot value.
❖ This is necessary in order to open or close the steam value against
high pressure system. 12
Linkage mechanism:
❖ A,B,C is a rigid link pivoted at CDE in another rigid kink pivoted
at D.
❖ This link mechanism provides a movement to control value in
proportion to the change in speed.
Speed Changer:
❖ It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine.
❖ Its downward movement opens the upper pilot value so that more
steam is admitted to the turbine under steady state condition.
❖ The reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer. 13
Methods Load Frequency Control: Interconnected Power System
❖ Very small isolated generating stations can have manual control of

frequency.
❖ The governors adjust the input to bring the frequency within
permissible limits.
1. Flat Frequency Control:

❖ Consider two stations A and B operating in parallel and interconnected by
a tie-line.
❖ Frequency of the system is maintained constant by regulating only one
station A and without any regulation of station B. If the load at either
station A, station B or both changes, the generation at station A is changed
to maintain a balance between generation and load on the system. This
type of frequency control is called flat frequency control.
14
❖ Drawback of this method of frequency control is that station A must

have enough capacity to absorb the load variations for the entire
system.
❖ Secondly the tie-line between the two stations would have to absorb all
load variations at station B as the generation at station B is maintained
constant.
❖ These may make the operation of generator at station A uneconomical
and could result in certain limitations in the operation of the system.
15
2. Parallel Frequency Control:
❖ In this method of frequency control both stations A and B would be
regulated simultaneously to maintain frequency constant. By this method,
the load swings are shared by both stations A and B and therefore, the
swings on each station and on the line would be reduced.
3. Flat Tie-Line Control:

❖ In this method of frequency control the increase in load of an area is met
by increasing the generation in that area and thus power flow in the tie-
line is kept constant irrespective of load demands. This method is used
when a small system and a large system are interconnected through a tie-
line. The large system maintains the system frequency constant while the
small system is controlled to keep the tie-line power constant. 16
❖ This method is not suitable when two or more large systems are
interconnected as in such cases and with this type of control the tie-line
power and frequency deviation have a tendency to swing back and forth
(in addition to the swings at tie-line natural frequency) following a load
change.
❖ The control equipment used consists of the frequency controller only at
the larger system and tie-line power controller- recorder at the smaller
system.
4. Tie-Line Load Bias Control:
❖ This is the modification of (1) and (3) in that the system is allowed to
follow its normal regulating characteristic directed toward holding normal
frequency. 17
❖ This is the most widely used method on large interconnections. All power
systems assist in regulating frequency and tie-line power flow regardless
of where from the frequency variation originates.
❖ The amount of assistance given by any one system is controlled by simple
adjustment of the control equipment. The control equipment consists of
load frequency controller and tie-line load recorder-controller.
❖ The tie-line instrument biases the frequency controller till a desired
relationship between tie-line loading and system frequency is achieved.
18
Automatic Load-Frequency Control
❖ In modern large interconnected systems, manual operation is not feasible
as continuous watch on the frequency and loadings of various generators
and tie-lines has to be kept by the operators and they have to continuously
make adjustments.
❖ The manual controls are sluggish and involve inherent human time lags.
Obviously, automatic control is more efficient method of load- frequency
control.
1. The problem of automatic load-frequency control resolves itself into:
2. The measurement of a quantity,
3. Interpretation of the measurement in terms of deviation from a control
point, and
4. The application of corrections to restore the measured quantity to its
normal value. 19
❖ In some cases more than one measurement is needed for proper operation
of the control equipment. In one of these control systems.
❖ The loads on various generators, stations, and systems are measured
through the summation of various thermal- converter millivolt outputs and
frequency is measured by a frequency-bridge type instrument.
❖ As the system frequency changes, the bridge circuit is rebalanced by the
instrument movement which positions a slide wire used for transmission
of a direct voltage.
❖ All these data’s are fed into master controller; it is able to detect the need
for more or less generation and to send impulses to the different stations
calling for load increase or decrease.
❖ By the use of area requirement, proportional load control, the equipment
is able to call for changes at the several generating stations such that they
20
❖ each, in effect, supply the load of their respective areas, thereby causing a
minimum of power flow over the tie feeders from one station to another.
❖ Within each generating station it is possible to select the units that will be
employed for regulation and for adjustment of the percentage of the
required load change that is placed on each machine.
The following three types of area control may be used, one at a time, as
selected by the system operator.
❖ Flat frequency control varies the power input to the prime mover in order
to correct the system frequency to the predetermined value.
❖ Flat tie-line control varies the power input to the prime mover so that the
tie-line load is corrected to a predetermined schedule. In this method
another system is required to maintain frequency constant. 21
❖ Tie-line bias control is a modification of the above two types of area

control and has been found to work very satisfactorily on power systems
where a large number of generators and stations are required to be kept
under control.
❖ If the system frequency variation is more than a predetermined value, say
1/4-1/2 Hz, the control can be made to change from automatic to
“manual” automatically and sound an alarm, so the system operator can
correct the faulty condition. 22
THANKS
23

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UNIT 1

Day & Date: Tuesday, 18th August 2021

Central Sector 97,637 25.2%

❖ Transmission losses can be reduced by increasing voltage levels.

L: Series inductance per unit length.

C: Shunt capacitance per unit length.

V: Line to neutral voltage. 12

Surge Impedance Loading Limit:

❖ Series compensation may be used to increase the line loading.

❖ As line load increases a stage comes when it becomes necessary to adopt a

❖ At the SIL the reactive power consumed by the line inductances (  L I 2 ) is

approximately equal to the reactive power generated by the line capacitance

❖ The Surge Impedance (Zc) of a line is related with the Number of

Conductors used in the line i.e. Conductor Configuration.

Wi + Ws = Wc + Wr [HEAT BALANCE EQUATION] (1)

Ws = Sa . Is . Dm (watts / meter) (4)

Sa = Solar absorption coefficient = 1 for black body or well-weathered

Factors affecting Current Carrying Capacity:

d m = 0.0318 m  a = 2.7 10−8  − m at 200 C

(1) I 2 R Heating (Wi ) :

Wi = 12.5 (1 + 0.0045 t ) watts / m

Wc =18(t − ta ) 1  1  0.0318 watts / m

Wc = 3.21(t − 40) watts / m

Put , t = 44.2 Wi = 14.97 Watts/m.

Ans. From the previous example by considering heat balance equation

( 273 + t ) = (626.16 − 11.078 t )  10

Applying Trial and Error Method:

(a) By putting t = 43: 99.71 x 108 = 149.806 x 108

(d) By putting t = 47.05: 104.923 x 108 = 104.38 x 108

( 273 + t ) = (721.036 − 11.08 t )  10

Applying Trial and Error Method:

(a) By putting t = 40: 95.97 x 108 = 277.836 x 108

(d) By putting t = 54.65: 115.249 x 108 = 115.514 x 108

(b) Increasing Diameter of the Conductors:

❖ Capital Cost (CC) = a + bV + c A Rs / Km

Per unit length (l = 1) A 50

  0.1667 P1/ 3 (0.7937) b1/ 3 

So from the above equations we get:

Suitable standard Transmission voltage = 400 kV.

Day & Date: Monday, 14th September 2020

❖ To transmit the large blocks of power over long distances

multiple conductors per phases.

bundle are uniformly distributed on a circle of Radius ‘R’.

❑ To reduce Corona Losses.

•Bundling also reduces the voltage

❖ Bundle Spacing (B): The spacing

❖ Bundle Radius (R): The radius of the

❖DERIVATION: To derive the expression of the Geometric Mean Radius let us

❖Now to generalise the equation let us consider the following steps

❖So by generalising the above expressions we have:

(a) 400 kV: N = 2, d = 2r = 3.18 cm, B = 45 cm.

req = 8.4587 cm = 0.084587 m. 17

req = 21.72949 cm = 0.2172949 m

These cases are:

 H . dl = Total Current Enclosed

Where, Hy = Magnetic Field Intensity

0 = 4   10−7 H / m, r = 1 ( for non − magnetic material )

❖ Now as we know that:

d = Be . dye / meter length of the conductor

❖ Here, in this case for a Solid Round Conductor:

req = r ' = r . e −1/ 4 = 0.7788 r

and, H = Height above the ground plane.