Power Transmission and Distribution Systems Compared

EE-206: Power Transmission and
Distribution
Dr. Narayana Prasad Padhy
Picture of India at Night
2
Energy Resources Map of India
3
Power Transmission
4
Power Map of India
5
What is Power System
6
Generation, Transmission, Distribution, Utilization
7 Source: http://www.bravoprojects.co.in/transmission.php
Structure of Power System
8
Historical Background
 Commercial usage of electricity started after 1870s.
 1870's and 1880s; DC power systems were popular. Small
systems were sold to factories around the world, both in
urban areas, and remote undeveloped areas for
industrial/mining use.
 1882: Power station at Pearl Station New York by Edison
six DC generators supplying power to 59 consumers, 110
V DC, Undergraund Cable 1.5 km, lamp load.
 1884: DC Motors were developed by Franck Sprague.
 1886: Limitations of DC become apparent, higher losses
and voltage drops. Invention of transformer and AC system
in France.
9
Historical Background
 1886: First practical AC distribution system in USA by William Stanley at
Great Barrington, Massachusetts for Westinghouse.
 1888: Tesla held several patents of ac motors, generators, transformers and
transmission system.
 1889: AC transmission line 4kV, 21 km, single phase, in north America
between Willamette falls to Portland by Westinghouse.
 1893: First three phase line in Southern California, 12 km, 2.3 kV,
 1895: Niagara falls AC power plants (>40 km, 2.3 kV),
 Upto 1921: Phenomenal growth in electric companies, 12 kV, 44 kV, 60 kV.
 1920: Europe standardized 60 Hz and suspended insulators for HV.
 1922-1990: 165 kV -> 1100 kV
 1954: HVDC transmission system by Swedish Power Board.
 1972: Back-to-back connected HVDC station providing asynchronous tie
between power systems Quebec and New Brunswick.
10
Voltage Levels Vs. Year
Voltage
Year
Level
12, 44, 60
Upto 1921
kV
1922 165
1923 220
1935 287
1953 330
1965 500 kV
1966 765 kV
1990 1100 kV
11
Indian Experience
Voltage
(kV) 1200kV
800kV
765kV HVDC
500kV
HVDC
400kV
220kV
1977 1990 2000 2002 2012 2017-18

Year
12
Development of 1200kV UHV AC
• 1200kV UHV AC, test line
charged at Bina, Madhya
Pradesh in October 2012.
• Has been Developed

Indigenously through Public
Private Partnership (PPP) with
35 Indian manufacturers in open
collaboration.
• 1200 kV connect the two cities

in Maharashtra will, in a couple
of years
13
Extra High Voltage
 The International Electro-technical
Commission has classified the voltages into
the following levels (IEC 60038).
Low Voltage - upto 1 kV

Medium Voltage - 1 kV to 35 kV
High Voltage - 35 kV to 230 kV
Extra High Voltage - 230 kV to 800 kV
Ultra High Voltage - above 800 kV
14
Why High Voltage Transmission?
 Improves the performance of
transmission lines.
 Efficiency
 Regulation
 Reduces the requirement of

conductor material.
 The installation cost of
transmission line per kilometer.
 Increase in the transmission
capacity of the line.
 Flexibility for future growth of
the system
15 Source: NASA Satellite Snapshot

Comparison of Right of Way Requirements
16
Why AC Generation and Transmission?
 Economics!!! Easier and Cheaper to generate
 AC power and transmit Voltage (and current)
transformation
 „Efficient utilization: Cheap and effective AC motors
17
Topological Difference
 Transmission – Mesh (or Loop) (Why?)
 ‰
Reliability: main concern
 ‰
A contingency has system-wide effects
 „Distribution – Radial (Why?)

 ‰
Economics!
 ‰
A fault has local disruption
 ‰
Protection issues
18
Introduction
 We are witnessing enormous development in terms of voltage rating, power
ratings, components, architecture, planning, etc.
 Modern power system are vast electrical networks inter-connecting hundreds
of rudimentary systems spread over a country giving rise to national grid.
 Advantages of interconnections:
 Reduced reserve capacity
 Reduced capital cost
 Effective and economic use of available generation
 Improved reliability and operational efficiency
 Disadvantages
 Fault propagation
 Higher circuit breaker ratings
 Proper management of dispatch of power
19
Introduction
 Power System provides vital service to the society.
 Electrical power is somewhat like air we breathe: We think of it only when it is
missing.
 Modern society cannot exists without electricity.
 Power system is the branch of electrical engineering where we study in depth for
its design, operation, maintenance and analysis.
 Power System Engineering is one of the important and core subject of electrical
engineering.
 The ease of transmission of electrical energy gives rise to a possibility to a
generating electrical energy in bulk at the centralized place and transmit it over
large distance to be used by a large number of users.
 Component needed for generation, transmission and distribution of electrical
energy form a huge complex system termed as Electric Power System.
 The development of power system has contributed to the phenomenal advances of
human kind over past century.
20
Syllabus
21
Syllabus
22
Syllabus
23
Syllabus
“Power System Engineering”
24
Comparison of AC and DC Systems
 P is the amount of power transmitted over same distance.
 Vm is the maximum voltage for AC and DC system.
 R1 , R2 and R3 are the resistances of each conductor for
DC, Single phase AC and Three Phase AC.
DC 2 wire (mid point

earthed)
AC 2 Wire (Single phase)
AC 3 wire (Three phase)

25
Comparison of AC and DC System
26
From above three equations, we have
27
 The conductor cross-sectional areas for systems is
 Therefore, ratio of conductor weights
28
Comparison of AC and DC Systems
 Advantages of DC Lines
 There is no skin effect in DC transmission. Therefore, small cross sectional area
conductor required or Lower losses,
 In High Voltage DC Transmission lines, there are no Dielectric losses,
 Due to absence of inductance, there is low voltage drop,
 No charging current, best suitable for undersea cable transmission,
 lower tower clearances, require less insulation,
 Lower switching overvoltages,
 No problem of stability and synchronism,
 Disadvantages of DC Lines
 Transformation of voltage levels
 AC Circuit breakers is cheap than DC Circuit breakers.

29
30
Distribution
Overhead vs. Underground Systems
2
3
 Other points: Safety, Flexibility, Current carrying capacity and
voltage drop, electromagnetic interference
 Capacitance is predominant in the cables. This gives large charging
current which limits the length of the cables.
 Therefore long distance transmission overhead lines are preferred.

Cables are mainly used at distribution levels.
 Cables are preferred in following conditions:

 Public safety involved and low interference is required
 Large populated cities
 Scenic beauty of city is important
4
 Submarine crossing, and substation and transformer connections
Why High Voltage Transmission?
 Improves the performance of
transmission lines.
 Efficiency
 Regulation
 Reduces the requirement of

conductor material.
 The installation cost of
transmission line per kilometer.
 Increase in the transmission
capacity of the line.
 Flexibility for future growth of
the system
5 Source: NASA Satellite Snapshot

Choice of Working Voltage
 The cost of conductor is expensive item in overhead
transmission and this is greatly affected by the choice of
the voltage level.
System 1 System 2
V1 V2 = mV1
I1 I 2 = I1 / m
R1=V1/I1 R2 = V2/I2=m2R1
a1=k/R1 a2 =k/(m2R1) = a1/ m2
 There will be a saving in cost of conductor material if the
power is delivered at higher voltages.
6
Comparison of Right of Way Requirements
7
 But higher system voltages will entail more cost of
insulation in equipments like transformers, circuit-
breakers, lightning arresters, switches, etc.
 Cost of insulation increases rapidly with increasing
voltages.
 Therefore for certain length of transmission line and
certain amount of power transfer the voltage level beyond
which it becomes uneconomical.
 Therefore, the question is how to select the transmission
and distribution voltages?
8
 If C is total annual cost as function of conductor cross
section A and working voltage V
C = f(A, V)
 For minimum cost
δf / δA =0
δf / δV =0
 This will result in most economical conductor cross
section and system voltage, if the function f can be defined
accurately.
9
Transmission Cost as Function of Voltage Level.
10
L kVA  V is the line voltage in kV
V  5.5 
1.6 150  L is the line distance in km
L 3P  P is the estimated
V  5.5 
1.6 100 maximum power in kW
per phase
 Using these empirical relations preliminary estimate is

made.
 Then voltage level is chosen by doing complete
economic study of existing interconnected system.
11
Transmission and Distribution Tower Structures
12
Structure of Distribution System
 Receives electrical energy from HV/MV levels
 Supplies energy to the consumers At MV/LV levels and
Single phase or three phase
13
Primary Distribution System
14
Secondary Distribution System
15
Structure of Distribution System
16
Connection Schemes of Distribution System: Radial
17
Connection Schemes of Distribution System: Ring-
Main
18
Connection Schemes of Distribution System:
Interconnected
19
20
Review of First Chapter
 Introduction
 Brief History
 Structure of electrical supply system
 DC vs. AC system
 Overhead vs. Underground
 Choice of working voltages
 Structure and connections of distribution system
21
22
Distribution
Line Parameters
Electrical Parameters
 Resistance
 Inductance
 Capacitance
 Conductance
 Conductance is due to leakage over line insulators.

 Also, conductance is quite variable.
 It is fortunate that the effect conductance is such a
negligible component of shunt admittance.
Types of Conductor
 Copper
 Aluminum:
 Cheaper,
 lighter,
 but less conductive (requires large cross section for same resistance)
 less tensile strength than copper
 Types of Aluminum conductors
 AAC (All Aluminum Conductor)
 AAAC (All Aluminum Alloy Conductor)
 ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)
 ACAR (Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced)
 Expanded ACSR
ACSR Conductor
 Internal steel strands increase the tensile strength

 Outer aluminum strands carry the current
 Stranded conductor with twisted wires for strength and
flexibility of mechanical handling.
 Twisting is done in opposite direction to avoid unwinding
ACSR Conductor Data Sheets
Resistance
 The DC resistance of conductor at specified temperature
is:
T l
R 
A
 ρT is the resistivity of the conductor at temperature T

 l is the length of the conductor in m
 A is the cross-sectional area of conductor in m2
Resistance
 Temperature dependence of resistance:
Rt  R0 (1   0T )
 R0 is the resistance at 00C

 α0 is the temperature coefficient of the resistance of conductor
 Thus, if the resistance at temperature T1 is known, the

resistance at any other temperature T2 can be computed
using:
Rt 2 (1   0T2 )

Rt1 (1   0T1 )
AC Resistance:
Skin and Proximity Effect
Skin Effect
Proximity Effect
Currents in same direction Currents in opposite direction

Inductance
 Most dominant line parameter
di
e L
dt
d d di
e  
dt di dt
d
 Therefore L
di

 In linear magnetic systems L
i
Steps in Calculating Inductance
 Consider current (I) is flowing through the conductor and
assume it uniformly distributed over cross-section
 Magnetic field intensity (H) using Ampere’s law at a distance x
from center.
 Magnetic flux density B (=μ0 H) at a distance x from center.
 Calculate flux (dφ) through small tubular section per unit
length
 Flux linkages (dλ) due to dφ amount of flux per unit length .
 Integrate dλ to get total flux linkages per unit length .
 Inductance per unit length from flux linkage per ampere
(L=λ/I)
Internal Inductance
r 2  I
x2
x 2  I x  2 I
Ix r
Therefore
1 x2 I
Hx  I  x
2x r 2
2r 2
H x  dl  I x
H x  dl  I x
here  dl  2x
Which gives flux through small tube of
thickness dx
Ix
Hx 
2x
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/power-system/ui/Course_home-1.htm
Inductance of the Lines
dφ
Ix
Internal Inductance
Flux linkages due to flux in the tube
Total internal Flux linkages
0 I  x 4 
xr

2r 4  4 
 x 0 
0 I  r 4   0  4    10 7
 
4 
 0 
2r  4 
int
Thus Lint 
I
External Inductance
Therefore
I
Hx 
2x
Flux linkages due to flux in the tube
Total internal Flux linkages due to flux

between D1 to D2
H x  dl  I  I
 0 ln D2  ln D1 
2
H x  dl  I
here  dl  2x and

 0  4    10 7
Inductance of Single-Phase Line
1

r1'  r1e 4
 0.7788 r1
Inductance of Single-Phase Line
If r1 = r2 = r , then
Flux Linkage of Conductor A due to Current in
Conductor A
Dap
 APA  2  10 I ln
7
r'
Conductor B
Dbp
 APB  2 10 ( I ) ln
7
D
Total Inductance
 A   APA   APB
P Dap Dbp
7 7
 2 10 I ln  2 10 I ln
r' D
 1 1 
 2 10 7 I  ln    ln Dap  ln    ln Dbp 
  r'  D 
Dap
 D  Dap  
Dbp  2  10 7 
I ln    ln  
  r'   D 
  bp  
If P is at very long distance from conductor Dap  Dbp
  D 
 A  2 10 7 I  ln   
  r'  
A B   D 
I -I LA  2  10 7  ln   
  r'  
21
Distribution
Review of Last Lecture
 Completed chapter : Introduction to Transmission and
Distribution System
 Structure of distribution system
 Radial, Ring main, Interconnected ring main
 Difference between American and European distribution system
 Started Chapter “Line Parameters and Performance of Power

System”
 R, L, C, G
 Conductor material and Types
Inductance of Three-Phase Line (Symmetrical
Spacing)
Symmetrical Spacing Un-Symmetrical Spacing

Conductor A
Dap
apa  2 10 I a ln
7
r'
Conductor B
Dbp
apb  2 10 I b ln
7
D
Conductor C
Dcp
apc  2 10 I c ln
7
D
Spacing)
Spacing)
Expanding,
Spacing)
 1 1
a  2  10  I a ln  ( I b  I c ) ln
7
 r' D
 I b ln D pa  I c ln D pa  I b ln D pb  I c ln D pc 
If point P is far away, then we can approximate

Dpa  Dpb  Dpc
Spacing)
Inductance of phase-a
D
7
Lb  2  10 ln
r'
7 D
Lc  2  10 ln
r'
Spacing)
Symmetrical Spacing Un-Symmetrical Spacing

Spacing)
 Dap D pb D pc 
a  2  10 7  I a ln  I b ln  I c ln 
 r' Dab Dac 
Expanding,
Dap  1 1 1
apa  2  10 7 I a ln a  2 10 7  I a ln  I b ln  I c ln
r'  r' Dab Dac
apb  2  10 7 I b ln
D pb  I a ln D pa  I b ln D pb  I c ln D pc 
Dab
D pc
apc  2  10 7 I c ln
Dac
Spacing)
 1 1 1
a  2  10  I a ln  I b ln
7
 I c ln
 r' Dab Dac
 I b ln D pa  I c ln D pa  I b ln D pb  I c ln D pc 
 1 1 1
a  2  10 7  I a ln  I b ln  I c ln
 r' Dab Dac
D pb D pc 
 I b ln  I c ln 
D pa D pa 
 1 1 1
a  2  10 7  I a ln  I b ln  I c ln
 r' Dab Dac If point P is far away, then we can approximate
I a ln D pa  I b ln D pb  I c ln D pc 
Dpa  Dpb  Dpc
 1 1 1 

a  2  10  I a ln  I b ln
7
 I c ln 
 r' Dab Dac 
Inductance of Three-Phase Line (Asymmetrical
Spacing)
 1 1 1 

a  2  10  I a ln  I b ln
7
 I c ln 
 r' Dab Dac 
Inductance of Three-Phase Line (Asymmetrical
Spacing)
 1 1 1 
a  2  10 7  I a ln  a 2 I a ln  aI a ln 
 r' Dab Dac 
 1 1 1 
b  2  10 7  I b ln  aI b ln  a 2 I b ln 
 r ' D ab D bc 
 1 1 1 
c  2  10 7  I c ln  a 2 I c ln  aI c ln 
 r' Dca Dbc 
Therefore
Inductance of Three-Phase Transposed Line
(Asymmetrical Spacing)
 Asymmetrical spacing
causes flux linkages and
inductance for each phase to
be different.
 This results in unequal
voltages at the receiving end.
l
l l l
La  Lb  Lc
L 3 3 3 H /m
l
Therefore
a + a2 = - 1
19
Distribution
Composite Conductor
 1 1 1 
a  2 10  I a ln  I b ln
7
 I c ln 
 r' Dab Dac 
I a  Ib  Ic    I m  I n  0
 1 1 1 1 1 

a  2 10  I a ln  I b ln
7
 I c ln    I m ln  I n ln 
 r' Dab Dac Dam Dan 
Composite Conductors
1 1 1 1 

a  2  10 I  ln
7
 ln 
 n r ' Dab Dac  Dan m Daa' Dab'  Dam' 
 1 1

  1  n  1  m 
a  2  10 7 I  ln    ln   
  r ' Dab Dac  Dan   Daa' Dab'  Dam'  
 
Similarly,
n strands that are electrically parallel:
Substituting the values of La , Lb etc.
Where,
Where,
Bundled Conductors
http://en.wikipedia.org/
Bundles Conductors
Stranded conductors Bundled conductors

Bundles Conductors
A B C
Bundled Conductors
 Extra high voltage lines corona causes problems such as

power loss, interference, etc.
 The high voltage surface gradient is reduced considerably
by having two or more conductors.
 It also reduces the inductance of lines and effective
voltage drop along the line.
Bundled Conductors
where n=2,3 ....
Where, Ds is the GMR of the conductor

Double Circuit Line
 The double-circuit transmission line consists
of two circuits.
 Increased reliability with enhanced cost.
 To decrease the inductance the self GMD of

the should be made as high as possible and
mutual GMD should be made as low as
possible
 Individual phase conductors should be

placed as far apart as possible.
http://en.wikipedia.org/
Double Circuit Line
17
Distribution
Capacitance of the Line
Capacitance of a Straight Conductor
Capacitance of Single-Phase Line
Capacitance of Single-Phase Line
q
C AB 
V AB
Phase to Ground Capacitance of Single-Phase Line
Three Phase Line: VAB due to charge QA
A B C
QA DAB
DAB
QA QA DAB
VAB _ A  
rA
20 x
dx 
20
ln
rA
VAB due to charge QB
A B C
DAB QB
RB
QB QB rB
VAB _ B   dx  ln
DAB
20 x 20 DAB
VAB due to charge QB
A B C
DBC
QC
DAC
DBC
QC QC DBC
VAB _ C  
DAC
20 x
dx  ln
20 DAC
Voltage Difference between conductor A and B
Q D Q r QC DAB
VAB _ A  A ln AB VAB _ B  B ln B VAB _ C  ln
2 0 rA 2 0 DAB 2 0 DAC
Using the principle of superposition

V AB  V AB _ A  V AB _ B  V AB _ C
QA D Q r Q D
 ln AB  B ln B  C ln BC
2 0 rA 2 0 D AB 2 0 D AC
Similarly,
QA DAC QB DBC QC rC
V AC  ln  ln  ln
2 0 rA 2 0 DAB 2 0 DAC
Symmetric Spacing
C
QA D Q r Q D
V AB  ln AB  B ln B  C ln BC
2 0 rA 2 0 D AB 2 0 D AC
QA D Q r Q D
 ln  B ln  C ln
D D 2 0 r 2 0 D 2 0 D
1  D r
  Q A ln  QB ln 
D 2 0  r D
A B Similarly,
QA D Q D Q r
V AC  ln AC  B ln BC  C ln C
2 0 rA 2 0 D AB 2 0 D AC
QA D Q D Q r
 ln  B ln  C ln
2 0 r 2 0 D 2 0 D
1  D r
  Q A ln  QC ln 
2 0  r D
Phase Voltage
1  D r 1  D r
V AB   A
q ln  q ln  V AC   q A ln  qC ln 
2 0  r
B
D 2 0  r D
Capacitance of Symmetric Three-Phase Line
1  D  D 
 
6 0   r 
2 q A ln r q A ln
   
Three-Phase Asymmetric Transmission Line
->a ->a
->b ->b
->c ->c
First Second Third
1   1  D r D 

D
 q A ln AB  q B ln
r D
 qC ln AB  V AB First   q A ln AB  q B ln  qC ln AB 
V AB First
2 0  2 0  r D AB D AC 
r D AB D AC 
1  D r D 
1  D r D  V AB   q A ln BC  q B ln  qC ln BC 
V AB   q A ln BC  q B ln  qC ln BC  Second
2 0 
Second
2 0  r DBC DBA 
r DBC D AB 
1  D r D 
1  D r D  V AB Third   q A ln AC  q B ln  qC ln AC 
V AB Third   q A ln CA  q B ln  qC ln CA  2 0 
2 0  r DCA DCB 
r D AC DBC 
->a ->a
->b ->b
->c ->c
First Second Third
QA D Q D Q r
VAC first  ln AC  B ln BC  C ln C
2 0 rA 2 0 DAB 2 0 DAC
QA D Q D Q r
VAC second  ln BA  B ln CA  C ln C
2 0 rA 2 0 DBC 2 0 DBA
QA D Q D Q r
VAC third  ln CB  B ln AB  C ln C
20 rA 20 DCA 2 0 DCB
1  D r D 
V AB First   q A ln AB  q B ln  qC ln AB 
2 0  r D AB D AC 
1  D r D 
V AB   q A ln BC  q B ln  qC ln BC 
2 0 
Second
r DBC D AB 
1  D r D 
V AB Third   q A ln AC  q B ln  qC ln AC 
2 0  r D AC DBC 
VAB First  VAB Second  VABThird

VAB Transp 
3
1   DAB DAC DBC   r3   DAB DAC DBC  
 q ln    q ln 
 
  q ln   

6 0 
A

3

B C 
r  DAB DAC DBC   DAB DAC DBC  
VAC First  VAC Second  VACThird

VAC Transp 
3
1   DAB DAC DBC   DAB DAC DBC   r3 
 q ln    q ln 
 
  q ln 
  

6 0 
A

3

B C 
r  DAB DAC DBC   DAB DAC DBC  
Capacitance of Three-Phase Asymmetric
Transmission Line
V AB First  V AB Second  V ABThird
V AB Transp 
3
1   D AB D AC DBC   r3 
 q ln    q ln 
  
6 0  A

3

B 
r  D AB D AC DBC  
V AC First  V AC Second  V AC Third
V AC Transp 
3
1   D AB D AC DBC   r3 
 q A ln    qC ln   
6 0  
3
 
Transmission Line
1   D AB D AC DBC   r 3

V AN Transp   2q A ln  
  q A ln   
18 0  
3
 
1   D D DBC   D AB D AC DBC  
V AN Transp   2q A ln  AB AC   q ln   
18 0 
A
   
3 3
r r
1   D AB D AC D BC   
1/ 3
 q A ln  

2 0   r 3
 
Transmission Line
Efect of Earth on Capacitance
Without ground
With presence of Ground

Effect of Earth on Capacitance
2 0
C
 2H 
ln  
 r 
Single Phase Line
Effect of Ground
Therefore
where
Therefore
Without Earth Effect With Earth Effect

Three-Phase Line
1  D AB rB DBC 
V AB   A
q ln  q ln  q ln 
2 0 
B C
rA D AB D AC 
Without earth effect
1  DAB rB DBC DBA' DBB' DBC ' 

VAB  q A ln  qB ln  qC ln  q A ln  qB ln  qC ln 
2 0  rA DAB DAC DAA' DAB' DAC ' 
With earth effect

Symmetrical Three Phase Line
1  DAB rB DBC DAB' DBB' DBC ' 
VAB   A
q ln  q ln  q ln  q ln  q ln  q ln 
2 0 
B C A B C
rA DAB DAC DAA' DAB' DAC ' 
1  D r D DAB' DBB' DBC ' 

VAB   A
q ln  q ln  q ln  q ln  q ln  q ln 
20 
B C A B C
r D D DAA' DAB' DAC' 
Three-Phase Line
1  DAC DBC rC DCA' DCB ' DCC ' 

VAC   q A ln  qB ln  qC ln  q A ln  qB ln  qC ln 
2 0  rA DAB DAC DAA' DAB' DAC ' 
With earth effect

Symmetrical Three Phase Line
1  D D r D D D 
VAC   q A ln AC  qB ln BC  qC ln C  q A ln CA'  qB ln CB '  qC ln CC ' 
2 0  rA DAB DAC DAA' DAB' DAC ' 
1  D D r D D D 
VAC   q A ln  qB ln  qC ln  q A ln CA'  qB ln CB '  qC ln CC ' 
2 0  r D D DAA' DAB' DAC ' 
Capacitance of Symmetrical Three Phase Line
1  D r D D D 
VAB  q A ln  qB ln  q A ln AB'  qB ln BB'  qC ln BC' 
20  r D DAA' DAB' DAC' 
1  D r D D D 
VAC   q A ln  qC ln  q A ln CA'  qB ln CB '  qC ln CC ' 
2 0  r D DAA' DAB' DAC ' 
with transposition
1  D r 3 DAB' DBC ' DCA' 3 DAA' DBB' DCC ' 3 DAB' DBC' DCA' 

VAB  q A ln  qB ln  q A ln  qB ln  qC ln
20  r D 3 DAA' DBB' DCC ' 3 DAB' DBC' DCA' 3 DAB' DBC' DCA' 
1  D r 3 DAB' DBC ' DCA' 3 DAB' DBC' DCA' 3 DAA' DBB' DCC ' 

VAC  q A ln  qC ln  q A ln  qB ln  qC ln
20  r D 3 DAA' DBB' DCC ' 3 DAB' DBC' DCA' 3 DAB' DBC' DCA' 
Then VAN with transposition
VAB  VAC 1 1  D 3 DAB' DBC ' DCA' 


VAN   3q A ln  3q A ln
3 3 2 0  r 3 DAA' DBB' DCC ' 
Capacitance of Symmetrical Three Phase Line
VAB  VAC 1 1  D 3 DAB' DBC ' DCA' 

VAN   3q A ln  3q A ln
3 3 2 0  r 3 DAA' DBB' DCC ' 
Therefore
Without earth effect

32
Distribution
Performance of Transmission Line
Line Parameters-Part 2
Introduction
 Performance Parameters
 Efficiency
Output P
% Efficiency  100  100
Output  Losses P  3I r R
2
 Regulation
No Load Voltage  Full load Voltage

%Full Load Regulation 
Full load Voltage
VR _ NL  VR _ FL
  100
VR _ FL
Distributed and Lumped Parameters
Is Ir
Vs Vr
Transmission line with Small section ∆x

uniformly distributed line
parameters (R, L, C, G)
 z = Series impedance /unit

length/phase
z ∆x
I(x+ ∆x) I(x)  y = Shunt admittance / unit
length/phase
 l = Length of transmission line
V(x+ ∆x) y ∆x V(x)
 Z = Total series impedance/
phase
 Y = Total shunt impedance/
phase
Transmission Line Models
 Short line : Length less than 80 km.
 Shunt admittance is neglected
 Lumped parameter model
 Medium line: Length between 80 km to 200 km.
 Shunt admittance needs to be considered
 Lumped parameter model
 Nominal π model
 Nominal T model
 Long line: Length longer than 200 km.
 Distributed parameter model
 Shunt admittance effect is important
 Equivalent π or T equivalent can be derived
ABCD Parameters of Transmission Line
Passive, Linear, bilateral
Matrix Format VR _ NL  VR
%R  100
VS   A B  VR  VR
 I   C D  I 
 S    R VS
 VR
A
AD  BC  1  100
Passive and Bilateral VR
A D
Short Transmission Line
VS  1 Z  VR 
Matrix Format
 I   0 1   I 
 S    R
A=1, B=Z, C=0, D=1
VS
P  VR
%  100 A VS  VR
P  3I R
2
Regulation  
VR VR
Regulation of Short Transmission Line
VS
IZ IX
IR
VR
ϕ
V cos   I R   VR sin   I X 

I=IR=IS
VS 
2 2
R
VS  VR2 cos2   I 2 R 2  2 VR I R cos  VR2 sin 2   I 2 X 2  2 VR I X sin 

VS  VR2  2VR IR sin   2VR IX sin   I 2 R 2  X 2 
VS  VR 1  

2 IR sin  2 IX sin  I 2 R 2  X 2  Small quantity
VR VR VR2
Regulation of Short Transmission Line
 2 IR cos  2 IX sin  
VS  VR 1    
 VR VR  x x2 x3
1 x  1    .......
2 8 16
 IR cos  IX sin  
VS  VR 1   
 VR VR 
VS  VR  IR cos   IX sin 
P
%  100
VS  VR P  3I R
2
Regulation 
VR
I R cos  I X sin 
Regulation  
VR VR
Medium Transmission Line
 Medium transmission lines are modelled with lumped

series impedance and shunt admittance.
 Nominal π Representation
 Nominal T Representation
Nominal π Representation
Nominal π Representation
Therefore A, B, C, D parameters
Nominal T Representation
IM
Z
VM  VR  I R and I M  YVM
2
VS  VR  I R  Y VM  I R 
Z Z
2 2
Z Z  Z   I S  YVM  I R
 VR  I R   Y VR  I R   I R 
2 2  2    Z 
 Y  VR  I R   I R
Z Z Z2 Z  2 
 VR  I R  Y VR  YI R  I R
2 2 4 2  YZ 
 YVR    1 I R
 2 
Nominal T Representation
Therefore A, B, C, D parameters
ABCD Parameters of Long Transmission Line
We are interested in terminal conditions: x = l we have V = Vs
and I = IS
VS  cosh l VR  Z C sinh l I R
sinh l 
IS  VR  cosh l I R
ZC
The ABCD parameters of the long transmission line
Voltages and currents at any point on the

line
Vx  cosh x VR  Z C sinh x I R
sinh x VR  cosh x I R

1
Ix 
ZC
Method to Evaluate Hyperbolic Functions
of Complex Number
 l   l  j l
cosh(l  jl )  cosh(l ) cos( l )  j sinh( l ) sin(  l )
1
sinh( l  jl )  sinh( l ) cos( l )  j cosh(l ) sin( l )
 2 l2  4 l4
cosh  l   1    ....
2! 2!
2
 3 l3  5 l5
sinh  l    l    ....
3! 5!
el e jl  e l e  jl 1 l

cosh(l  jl ) 
2 2

 e l  e l   l 
3
el e jl  e l e  jl 1 l
sinh( l  jl ) 
2 2
 
e l  e l   l
Equivalent π Representation of Long Transmission
Line
Comparing the ABCD

parameters compute Z’
and Y’/2
Line
Compare
Rearranging for Y’/2

Re
Line
Compare
Nominal π : Medium Transmission Line Equivalent π : Long Transmission Line

Line
For impedance (z) = 0.1 + j 0.51 Ω/km and admittance (y) = j 3.17 x 10 -6 mho/km
Length Lumped Parameters Distributed Parameters

(km) Z(Ω) Y(mho) Z’(Ω) Y’(mho)
100 52.41 < 79o 3.17 X 10-4 < 90o 52.27 < 79o 3.17 X 10-4 < 89.98o
250 131.032 < 79o 7.93 X 10-4 < 90o 128.81 < 79.2o 8.0 X 10-4 < 89.9o
500 262.064 < 79o 1.58 X 10-3 < 90o 244.61 < 79.8o 1.64 X 10-3 < 89.6o
Lossless Transmission Line
Vx  cosh x VR  Z C sinh x I R
sinh x 
Ix  VR  cosh x I R
Zc
In loss less line, resistance is assumed to be zero
R  jL jL L
ZC  R=0 ZC  
jC jC C
 x  x ( R  jL)  jC  x  x jL  jC

R=0
 x  jx  j LC x  j  x
cosh( 0  jx)  cosh( 0) cos( x)

Vx  cos x VR  jZC sin x  I R  j sinh( 0) sin( x)
I x  j 1 Z C sin x VR  cos x  I R sinh( 0  jx)  sinh( 0) cos( x)
 j cosh( 0) sin( x)
Summary
A=D B C
Short
80km 1 Z 0
lumped
YZ  YZ 
1 Z Y  1
Medium 2  4 
80-200 km
lumped  YZ 
YZ  1
1 Z Y
2  4 
Long
cosh   x 
1
>200km Z C sinh   x  sinh   x 
distributed ZC
23
Distribution
Ferranti Effect
 In long transmission lines and cables, receiving end
voltage becomes greater than sending end during no-load
or light load conditions. This effect is known as Ferranti
effect .
 This occurs due to high charging current.
VS  cosh l VR  Z C sinh l I R
I R  0  VS  cosh l VR
VS VS VS
Therefore VR   
cosh l  cosh  jl  cos l 
 Thus VR will be less than or equal to unity.

 Actual value depends on L, C and l.
Voltage and Current Profiles
Receiving End Open Circuited
For Example 300 km line with β=0.0013

βl = 0.39 rad = 22.3o
Sending end voltage 500 kV or 1.0 p.u.
For 330 km line VR=1.107 p.u.

VS
VR  For 600 km line VR=1.407 p.u.
cos   l 
For 1250 km line VR will reach to
  0.0013 rad / km infinite
Surge Impedance Loading
 Characteristic impedance of a line is also called as surge
impedance for the special case of loss less line.
L
ZC 
C
 The term surge impedance loading or SIL is often used to

indicate the nominal capacity of the line.
 The term SIL or natural power is a measure of power
delivered by a transmission line when terminated by surge
impedance.
 It is convenient to express the power transmitted in terms of
per unit of SIL.
Typical Parameters of Line
Vx  cos x VR  jZC sin x  I R
I x  j 1 Z C sin x VR  cos x  I R
 I 
V x  VR cosx   jZC R sin x  
 VR 
 V 
I x  I R  j 1 Z C  R sin x   cosx  
 IR 
 If the line is terminated with surge impedance Zc :
VR
VR  Z C I R  ZC 
IR
V x  V R cos  x   j sin  x   V R e jx

I x  I R cos x   j sin x   I R e jx
V S  V R e j l
I S  I R e j l
Comparison of Different Loading
Vx  cos   x VR
SIL
VS Vx  VR e j x
Vx  cos   x VR  jZC sin   x  I R
X=l X=0
Sending End Receiving End
Power Transfer Through Transmission Line
VS   VR  0
ABCD
Gen Load
S S  PS  jQS SR  PR  jQR
VS AVR
VS  AVR  BI R  IR  
B B
Let VR  VR 0, VS  VS  , A  A  , and B  B 
VS A VR
IR 
VS 

A  VR 0 IR          
B  B  B B
Power Flow Through Transmission Line
VS A VR VS A VR
IR           I R*          
B B B B
 Complex power VRIR* at receiving end:

2
VS VR A VR
VR I R*  PR  jQR          
B B
 Separating real and imaginary parts
2
VS VR A VR
Real Part: PR  cos      cos    
B B
2
VS VR A VR
Imaginary Part: QR  sin      sin    
B B
Receiving End Circle Diagram
2
VS VR A VR
Var VR I R  R          
B B
2
A VR VS V R
     VR I R  R     
B B
VR I R
  R
W
2
A VR
B VS VR
B
 
 
Power Flow Through Transmission Line
2
VS VR A VR
B B
2
VS VR A VR
Imaginary Part QR  sin      sin    
B B
 Maximum power will get transferred, if β=δ

2
VS VR A VR
PR _ max   cos    
B B
2
A VR
QR _ max   sin    
B
Maximum Power in Short Line Approximation
2
VS VR A VR
PR _ max   cos    
B B
For Short line A=1, B=Z, C=0, D=1
A  D  10, B  Z  , C  0, cos   R / Z
2 2
VS VR VR VS VR VR
PR _ max   cos     2
R
Z Z Z Z
2
A VR
QR _ max   sin  
B
With large X/R Ratio
2
VS VR A VR
B B
2
VS VR A VR
Imaginary Part QR  sin      sin    
B B
Generally, R  X then Z  jX
A  D  10, B  X 90 , C  0,
VS VR VS VR
PR  sin  PR _ max 
X X
2
V  VR  
VS VR VR VR VR
QR  cos    QR  S V
X X X X
Sending End Power
VS AVR
I S  CVR  DI R but I R  
B B
V AVR  BC DVS ADVR

I S  CVR  D S   VR  
B B  B B B
D BC AD D V  AD  BC 
 VS  VR  VR  VS  R
B B B B B
DVS VR
IS  
B B
Let VR  VR 0, VS  VS  , A  D  A  , and B  B 
D  VS  VR 0
IS  
B  B 
A VS VR
        
B B
Sending End Power
A VS VR A VS VR
IS          I *
S         
B B B B
A VS VR
PS  jQS  VS I  VS 
*
S        VS  
B B
2
A VS VS VR
VS I  PS  jQS 
*
S         
B B
 Separating real and imaginary parts

2
A VS VS VR
Real Part: PS  cos      cos    
B B
2
A VS VS VR
Imaginary Part QS  sin      sin    
B B
Steady State Stability Limit
In gen, for stable

condition
ω δ
ω δ
Power Transfer Capability
2
VS VR VR SIL sin 
PR  sin   sin  
B Z c sin  l  sin  l 
SIL SIL
PR _ max  
sin  l  sin  
• Thermal Limit
• Voltage drop limit
• Stability limit
Loadability Curve
Reactive Power Requirement
Compensation of Transmission Lines
 It is modification of electrical (not physical) characteristics to satisfy following requirement.
 To produce substantially flat voltage profile at all levels of power transmission.
 To improve the stability of the system.
 To meet economical way for reactive power requirement of the system.
 Types of compensation
 Surge impedance compensation or Z0 –Compensation.
Line length compensation or θ-Compensation or L L


Z0  
C C
 Compensation by sectioning
xL

bc
 Active and passive compensation
 Shunt and Series compensation

   LC  L  C
 xL bc
Both the types of Compensation
Change in Degree of
ZC β
parameters Compensation
Without -- 0
Shunt
Series
Same as
Both
above
Shunt Reactors
Shunt Capacitors
Synchronous Condensers
 Reactive power production is not affected by system voltage.
 Synchronous condenser contribute to short-circuit capacity.
 It can exchange kinetic energy during power swings.
 10 to 20% overload capacity up to 30 minutes.
 Smooth control of reactive power

Static Var Systems (SVS)
 Ideal SVS system
SVS System
Effect of Using Switched Capacitor
Characteristics of The SVS System
Practical Static VAR Systems
Summary of Chapter
 Parameters of transmission line
 Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance
 Bundled conductors, double circuit line
 GMD, GMR (self GMD)
 Effect of ground on capacitance
 Performance
 Short, medium, long transmission line
 Lossless line approximation
 Power relations (sending and receiving end), circle diagram
 Simplified power relations
 Limitations of long transmission line
 Compensation: concept and devices used.
34
Distribution
Overhead Transmission Lines
Mechanical Design, Insulators, Electrical Design

Main Components of Overhead Line
 Conductors: Thermal limit, regulation, stability corona, etc.
 Copper
 Aluminum: ACSR, AAAR, AAC, Expanded ACSR
 Support Structure (Towers): cost, voltage level, conductor

size, conductor spacing (cross-arm length), etc.
 Galvanized steel (for high voltage)
 Wood, concrete, steel or aluminum poles (for low voltage)
 Insulators: Voltage level

 Porcelain
 Glass
Transmission Line Design
 Choice of support structure
 Pulling of conductor with permissible tension limit
 Insulators to sustain normal and abnormal system voltages.
 Mechanical Design Main Factors

 Factors affecting
 Conductor load per unit length
 Tower spacing, span length
 Temperature
 Conductor tension
 Mechanical loadings
Tower Structures (High Voltage)
Tower Structures (Guyed wire, Low Voltage)
Low Voltage poles

Guyed wire towers
Calculation of Sag and Tension
 Sag is defined as vertical distance between the point where
the line is joined to the tower to the lowest point on the line.
 Span is horizontal distance between two towers.
 Vertical distance between lowest point on line to the ground
plane is called ground clearance.
 Knowledge of maximum sag is essential in determining
ground clearance.
 220 kV line GC 7.0 m SL 380 CC 5.1 m
 400 kV line GC 8.8 m SL 400 CC 7.0 m
 Sag depends on the tension with which conductors are
pulled.
Sag and Tension:
Sag and Tension Calculations
 Reliability of the electric service depends on whether conductors have been
properly installed.
 Design engineers must determine the amount of sag and tension to be given to the
wires at a given temperature.
 Values of sag and tension at winter and summer condition and at various load
conditions must be known.
 Tension in conductors contributes to the mechanical load on structures at an angle
in the line.
 Sag should be minimum to avoid extra pole height and spacing between the conductors.
 Sag and tensions depends on initial tension when are clamped in place.
 Stress in the conductor is function of sag.
 w =weight per unit length

 2l =Span length
 H = tension at point O
 O is the lowest point on the wire
 T = tension at point P
Integrating
Thus
At x=0, s=0, therefore c1=0

Also
Integrating
Thus
At y=0, x=0, therefore

For tension at point P,
We know
Support at Same Heights
If the towers at same height and span is 2l, i.e. half span is l
T at Ends
Supports at Different Heights
2l
2l-x1
ya
yb
Supports at Different Heights
For tower B
For tower A
Therefore, difference in tower heights

Approximate Formulae for Sag and Tension
and
and
Parabolic Approximation
 In case of short spans (distribution lines) with small sag
(less than 10%), the curve can be considered as parabola.
 Sag less than 6% could give only 0.5% error
 Sag between 6-10 % could give only 2% error
For small spans

Effect of Ice Covering and Wind
 If the ice thickness is more than 0.5 cm then it is considered.
 Effect of ice covering (wi) is to increase the weight of conductor (wc) ,
and thus increases the vertical sag.
 If r is radius of conductor and t is thickness of ice
layer.
Vi   r  t    r 2
2

  r 2  2rt  t 2  r 2 
  t 2

 2rt m 3
If  is the density of ice

Wi   t 2  2rt  kg/m
Therefore, total weight (WT )
WT  Wc  Wi
Effect of Ice Covering and Wind
 The wind pressure acts on the conductor in
horizontal direction. Assume that wind
blows uniformaly.
 If p is the wind pressure, wind loading (ww) 2r

Conductor alone ww  2 r p kg/m
Conductor + Ice ww  2 r  t  p kg/m

2 r  t 

p  0.006 v 2
kg/m 2
The wind pressure depends on the velocity
of the wind.
Stringing Chart
 The curves of sag and tension with temperature variation are called
the Stringing Charts.
 Stringing chart is helpful in providing sag and tension at any
temperature, if the sag and tension is know at any particular
temperature.
 They are useful in erecting line conductors at specified temperature
and loading conditions.
 At high temperature, sag is more and tension is less whereas at low
temperature sag is less but tension is more.
Stringing Chart
w Load per unit length
f Stress (tension per mm2)
S Conductor length (half span)
d Sag
θ Temperature
A Area of cross section of conductor
α Coefficient of linear expansion
E Young’s modulus
 Subscripts 1 and 2 denote temperatures at maximum load conditions and

under stringing conditions (installation or erection of transmission line).
Stringing Chart
 For short spans
w2l 3
 and T=A f S l 2 2
6A f
 At temperature θ1
2
w1 l 3 w1 l 2
S1  l  2 and d1 
6 A 2 f1 2 A f1
 At temperature θ2
2
w2 l 3 w2 l 2
S2  l  2 2 and d2 
6 A f2 2 A f2
Stringing Chart
 Due to increase in temperature from θ1 to θ2,increase in
length is:
2 1  S  2 1  l l  l 0  
 There is another effect increase in temperature from θ1 to

θ2 ,decrease tension or stress from f1 to f2 :
 f1  f 2   f1  f 2  f l 0
  S   l l 
 E   E  E
 Therefore new length is:

 f1  f 2 
S 2  S1   2  1  l   l
 E 
Stringing Chart
 f1  f 2 
2 2
w2 l 3 w1 l 3
l  2 2  l  2 2   2  1  l   l
6 A f2 6 A f1  E 
 Simplifying
2
w2 l 2 E  2 2

 f 2  f 2  f1  2 2   2  1  E 
2 w 1 l E
2
6A  6 A f1 
 This is cubic equation in f2 which can be solved using

mathematical algorithm. Then the sag is:
w2 l 2
d2 
2 A f2
Stringing Chart
Tension
Sag
Temperature
Sag Template
 It is plot of curve used for locating the tower positions.
Sag Template
31
Distribution
Type of Towers
 Type A tower (suspension string)
 Used on straight runs and up to 20 line diversions
 Type B tower (tension string)
 Used for line diversions from 20 to 150
 Type C tower (tension string)
 Type D tower (tension string)
 Type E tower (Dead End tower with tension string)
 Used for line termination and starting
 Special tower
 Suspension tower: (Span about 1000m)
for river or mountain crossing
 Transposition tower: Transposition of line
Jaoa B. G. Silva, “Innovative solutions for ovehead line supports,” Cigre Meeting, SC B2, Iceland, July 2011.
Type of Towers
Suspension Tower Tension Tower

Ruling or Equivalent Span
 There are several situations span length is not same.
 Therefore, tension in each span will be different.
 This is not possible in case of suspension type insulator,
because it will swing to equalize the tension.
 Therefore, the uniform tension in each span is calculated by
defining the equivalent span (or ruling span).
L31  L32  L32    L3n

Le 
L1  L2  L3    Ln
 Le is the equivalent or ruling span

 Li is the each individual span in line
Ruling or Equivalent Span
 Also approximate ruling span is:
Le  Lavg  Lmax  Lavg 

2
3
 Lavg is the average span in line

 Lmax is the maximum span in line
 The ruling span is then used to calculate the horizontal component of tension, which is to be
applied to all the spans between the anchor points. Then the sag at each span is computed using
2
w li
di 
2H
 Span should not be more than twice the ruling span or less than half the ruling span.
Conductor Vibrations
 In addition to Horizontal swing due to wind pressure,
there are two types of vertical vibrations:
 Aeolian or resonant vibrations
 It is caused by vortex phenomena in light winds.
 Low magnitude (up to 5 cm), loop length 1-10 m, and high frequency
(5-40 Hz)
 Less harmful because of small magnitude
 These vibrations are common in conductor and more or less always
present.
 The Armour rods or dampers are used to damp these vibrations.
Armour rods Stock-bridge dampers

Conductor Vibrations
 Galloping (or dancing conductors)
 Generally happened due to asymmetrical layer of ice formation.
 When this asymmetrical ice coated conductor exposed to light winds
(particularly when the slope of ground is higher).
 High magnitude (up to 6 m) and low frequency (0.25-2 Hz).
 These vibration may cause flashover between the conductors.
 To avoid this flashover horizontal configuration is preferred.
 Also if conductor is perfectly circular the effect can be minimized.
 The stranded conductors can be wrapped up with PVC to make
conductor perfectly circular.
Vert. Hori.
Innovative Designs
Jaoa B. G. Silva, “Innovative solutions for overhead line supports,” Cigre Meeting, SC B2, Iceland, July 2011.
Insulators for Overhead Line
 Insulators are used to insulate towers from the live
conductors
 The insulators are attached to the tower and support
the line conductors.
 Important characteristics:
 Homogeneous materials without voids and
impurities.
 Minimum leakage current.
 High dielectric or breakdown strength.
 Mechanically strong to bear the conductor load
 Longer life.
 Porcelain:
 Porcelain is widely used as it is cheap.
 It is thoroughly vitrified to remove voids and
glazed before use to keep surface free of dust and
moisture.
 Breakdown strength is around 120-280 kV/cm
 Glass:
 Toughened glass is another choice having higher
dielectric strength (1200 kV/cm), mechanical
strength and life, higher thermal shock resistant,
lower coefficient of expansion
 Flaws can be detected easily by visual inspection.
 Main disadvantage is moisture rapidly condenses
on the surface giving high surface leakage current.
 Expensive
 Polymeric Insulation:
 Silicone rubber and EPDM (Ethylene propylene diene
monomer) are used for insulation purpose.
 Low cost, light weight, smaller in size, higher life,
improved dielectric performance under contamination or
pollution.
 They are used in combination with fiber glass rod.
 These are under field trials and may take time to be used
extensively.
 Tracking and erosion of the shed material, which can
lead to bad pollution performance and can cause
flashover.
 Chalking and crazing of the insulator’s surface, which
resulted in increased contaminant collection, arcing, and
flashover.
Insulator Ratings
 Three voltages ratings
 Working voltage
 Puncture voltage
 Flashover voltage
 Flashover voltage is less than puncture voltage.

Flashover Voltage
Safety Factor 
Working Voltage
Types of Insulators
 Pin type insulators

 Suspension type insulators
 Strain type insulators
 Shackle insulator
 Post type insulators
Pin Type Insulator
 Supported on steel bolt or pin
which is firmly supported on cross-
arm.
 Conductor is tied to insulator on
groove by annealed binding wire.
 Generally used for 11 kV and 33
kV lines.
 They can be made in one piece up
to 33 kV and two pieces for higher
voltages.
 Pin type insulators are
uneconomical for higher voltages.
Suspension Type Insulators
 Consists of one or more insulating units hung from
cross arm and conductor is connected at lowest unit.
 String is free to swing (lower mechanical stresses);
thus long cross arms are required.
 Economical voltages above 33 kV. Each typical unit
is designed for 11 kV.
 Failed unit can be changed

without changing whole
string.
 V shaped insulator strings
can also be used to avoid the
swings.
 400 -> 21-23 units -> 3.84 m
http://www.electrotechnik.net/
Strain Type Insulator
 The insulators are similar to

suspension type insulator but used
in horizontal position.
 Generally used at the towers with
dead end, angle towers, and road
and river crossings.
 They can take tension off the
conductors. When tension is very
high two or more strings are used
in parallel.
Shackle, Post and Polymeric insulators
Shackle insulators or
spool insulators
Post type insulators Polymeric insulators
http://www.electrotechnik.net/
Potential Distribution over String
 Capacitance of disc:
Capacitance between metal
work of the insulator units;
some times called as mutual
capacitance.
 Capacitance to ground:
capacitance between metal
work of insulator to tower.
Capacitanc e per insulator mC

m 
Capacitanc e to ground C
http://www.epemag.net/electricity-generation-pylons.html
Potential Distribution over the String
 If V is voltage across the conductor and
ground. We have:
Also
j mCV2  j mCV1  j C V1
mV 2  m V1  V1
 m 1
V2   V1
 m 
 1
V2  1   V1
 m
 Similarly,
 3 1 
V3  1   2  V1
 m m 
 Similarly,
 mC V4   mC V3   C V1  V2  V3 
 6 5 1 
V4  V1 1   2  3 
 m m m 
String Efficiency
 Let m = 5
 1 V2  1.2V1
V2  V1 1  
 m
 3 1 
V3  V1 1   2  V3  1.64 V1
 m m 
 6 5 1 
V4  V1 1   2  3  V4  2.41V1
 m m m 
Voltage Across String

String Effciency  100
n  Voltage across unit adjacent t o line
(1  1.2  1.64  2.41) V1
 100  63 .8 %
4  2.41V1
Methods of Equalizing the Potential
 Methods to improve string efficiency

 Selection of m
 Grading of units
 Static shielding or guard rings
 Semiconducting high resistance glaze layer on surface of
insulator
Selection of m
 If the value of m is increased, which can
be achieved by increasing the cross-arm
length.
 Increased cross-arm length decreases the
capacitance between earth and metallic
connections.
 However increasing cross-arm length is
not economical after certain distance.
 Theoretically, one can achieve equal
voltage distribution when m is infinity.
 It is found that value of m greater than
10 is not economical.
Grading of Units
 Voltage across capacitor is
inversely proportional to the
capacitance for given current.
 By correct grading of
capacitances complete equality
voltage can be achieved.
 We have,
I 2  I C 1  I1
 C2 V   C V   C1 V
C2  C  C1 
Grading of Units
I3  IC 2  I 2
 C3 V  2 C V   C2 V
But C2  C  C1 
 C3 V  2 C V   C  C1 V
C3  3C  C1
C3  C1  1  2C
Generalized case:
Cn  C1  1  2  3    n  1C
Forexample, if C1=5C, then
C2  6 C, C3  8 C, C4  11 C, and so on
Grading of Units
 Thus if capacitance of one unit is
fixed other capacitances can be
easily determined.
 This requires units of different

capacities, which is uneconomical
and impractical.
 Therefore this method is usually
not employed except for very high
voltage lines.
 In that case, string is graded in
groups, may be two/three.
Static Shielding
I 2  I x  I1  I C 1
I3  I y  I 2  IC 2
I 4  I z  I3  IC3
Voltages can be equal if
I x  I C1
Cx (n  1)V   C V
C
Cx 
n  1
Also, I y  I C 2
Cy (n  2)V  2 C V
2C
Cy 
n  2
3C pC
CZ  C 
Similarly, n  3 and p n  p 
Static Shielding
 In practice, it is very difficult to
achieve the condition of equal voltages.
 However the partial advantage can be
gained by this method using grading
ring (guard ring) and used normally.
 Further, when the horn gap is also used,
it also protect the insulator from the
flashover.
Static Shielding: Corona Ring
Semiconducting Glaze
 The method is based on fact that insulator achieve resistor
voltage divider effect.
 String efficiency increases due to increase surface leakage
resistance during wet conditions.
 The leakage current becomes same for all units and no
more only dependent on capacitance.
 The method is restricted due to risk of thermal instability
and difficult to produce glaze of longer life.
Numerical Method (FEM, BEM, FDM, etc.)
Summary of the Chapter
Mechanical Electrical
 Factors affecting mechanical  Insulator Characteristics
design  Materials used
 Calculation of Sag, Tension,
 Type of insulators: Pin, Suspension,
Conductor Length strain, shackle, post
 Additional loading
 Potential Distribution Over an Insulator
 Ice loading String
 Wind loading  String Efficiency
 Stringing Charts  Methods to improve string efficiency
 Sag Template  Selection of m
 Types of tower  Grading of units
 Equivalent or Ruling Span  Static shielding or guard rings
 Vibrations in conductors  Semiconducting Glaze
34
Distribution
Corona
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge
What is Corona?
“Corona is a luminous discharge due to

ionization of the air surrounding an electrode,
caused by a voltage gradient exceeding a certain
critical value (breakdown strength of air).”
Why Corona is Important?
 Corona from conductors may cause audible noise and radio
noise.
 Audible noise from conductors may violate noise standards.
 Radio noise from conductors may interfere with radio,
television and communications systems.
 Corona loss may be significant when compared with resistive
loss of conductors.
 Corona can cause possible damage to polymeric insulators.
 Therefore, corona free lines needs to be designed which
requires an understanding of factors that affect corona.
Corona
 The breakdown of a gas takes place when a self sustained
discharge or ionization process is set in.
 This takes place when the electric field stress exceeds a
certain critical value.
 For air breakdown strength (at 250C and 760 mm Hg) is
30 kV/cm for DC and 30 kV/cm (peak) for AC.
 In the case of uniform field this condition is satisfied at all
the points and there will be complete breakdown by
forming an arc between the electrodes.
 However, if the electric field is highly non-uniform the
breakdown condition may not be all over the gap.
Uniform Field
HV HV
GND GND
Voltage Electric Field

Corona Formation
 The electrons gets accelerated in
electric field. The velocity of electron
depends on the intensity of the electric
field.
 If the electric field strength exceeds
certain critical value, electrons gain
sufficient velocity and energy to knock
one of the outer orbit electron from the
one of the two atoms of air molecule.
 This is called as ionization and the ion
formed with the missing electrons are
called as positive ion.
 Both electrons then again gets
accelerated in electric field causing
more ionizations and ultimately forms
an electron avalanche.
Non-Uniform Field
Conductor
• There are always free-electrons in the air

due to ultraviolet radiations from sun,
cosmic rays from outer space, radioactivity
of earth, etc.
• Therefore in non-uniform field, some
region of dielectric experiences higher field
strength than the critical value, while other
region field stress is well below critical
Ground value.
Corona Formation
 Thus, self sustained discharge condition will be valid only in the
strong field region giving rise to partial discharge called corona.
 This associated with a glow and a hissing (or frying sound) and when
it takes place in air and ozone, oxides of nitrogen and nitric acid (in
the presence of moisture) are formed.
 The corona manifests itself by visual corona, audible noise, radio
interference.
 The avalanches, being electrons in motion, actually constitute
electric current and produces electric and magnetic field in the
vicinity. Since they are sudden and short in duration induce high
frequency voltage pulses in near by radio (or television) antenna.
 The positive conductor has more uniform bluish (or violet) white
glow near to conductor and on negative polarity isolated reddish tufts
or beads are formed.
Corona (Laboratory Testing)
Gonen T., “Electric Power Transmission System Engineering: Analysis and Design”, John Wiley and Sons.
Corona (Testing)
Corona
http://wn.com/Inspecting_for_Corona
Critical Disruptive Voltage
 The minimum potential difference required between the
conductor to start ionization is called critical disruptive voltage
or corona inception voltage
Potential Difference between the conductor

q
ln x  ln( D  x) rD r
20

q
ln( D  r )  ln( r )  ln( r )  ln( D  r )
20

q
ln
 D  r
2
D>>r
20 r 2
Therefore,
 Above expression is for single phase line and V’=V/2
 Now this can be used to single phase with V’=V/2

or for three phase line V’= V / 3
 Gradient increase a x decreases and will be maximum at

conductor surface i.e. x=r
 Therefore,
 When gmax reaches g0 (breakdown strength of air) air

breaks down.
Above g0 is for fair (standard) whether conditions, at any

other condition
p 273  25 p
where    0.392
273  t 760 273  t
δ is the relative air density or air density correction factor
Electric Field of Stranded Conductor
 The critical disruptive voltage or corona inception voltage
is then given by
 Here, the assumption is conductor is solid having smooth

surface, however in practical cases (like ACSR),
conductor will not be having smooth surface. To account
for surface irregularities a factor m0 is used. Thus,
m0 = surface irregularity factor or stranding factor

 Surface irregularity factor depends on state of cross section of
conductor and state of its surface.
 It also considers dust and dirt on the conductor surface.
 The value of m0 lies between 0.8 to 1.
 m0 = 1 for smooth, polished, solid and cylindrical conductors
 m0 = 0.93 ̶ 0.98 for weathered (rough surfaced), solid cylindrical
conductors
 m0 = 0.87 ̶ 0.9 for weathered for stranded conductors (with more
than 7 strands)
 m0 = 0.8 ̶ 0.87 for weathered for stranded conductors (up to 7
strands)
 Now when D and r expressed in cm.
Vd  g 0  m0  r ln D r  kV (rms)
Visual Critical Disruptive Voltage
 At the critical disruptive voltage corona starts, but it will
not be visible. It requires further ionization by collision.
 If the voltage is further increased at some point corona
becomes visible. This voltage is called as visual critical
disruptive voltage or visual corona inception voltage.
 The voltage gradient (gv) for visual corona is given by
[Peek]:
 0.301 
g v  g 0  1   kV/cm
  
 r 
 Therefore, Vv  g v mv r ln  D r  kV
 0.301 
Vv  g 0  1   mv  r ln  D r   kV
 r  

 Surface irregularity factor (mv) is different from m0.
 Local corona: For conductor with irregular surface, visual
corona occurs at different point than whole surface called
as local corona.
 mv = 1 for smooth, solid, cylindrical and polished conductor
 mv = 0.93-0.98 for smooth, solid, cylindrical and weathered
conductor
 mv = 0.80-0.85 for general corona on stranded conductor
 mv = 0.70-0.75 for local visual corona on weathered stranded
conductor
 Now when d and r expressed in cm.
 0.301 
Vv  g 0  1 
  mv  r ln  D r   kV (rms)
 r 
Corona Loss
 The ionized charges near the conductor surface take energy from
the supply system and thus there is loss of some energy due to
corona.
 Peek’s Empirical relation for corona in fair whether condition
f  25
Pc  241 10 5 
r
Vp  Vc 2 kW/phase/k m
 d
Where VP phase to neutral operating voltage in kV and f is frequency.
• For storm or foul whether condition voltage is 0.8 Vc
f  25
Pc  241 10 5 
r
Vp  0.8Vc 2 kW/phase/k m
 d
This relation is correct results when 1) Corona loss is predominant

2) Frequency lies between 25 and 125 Hz 3)Ration of Vp/Vc > 1.8
4) radius of conductor is greater than 0.25 cm.
Corona Loss
 When the ratio Vp/Vc < 1.8 Peterson’s formula gives
good results
1.11066 10 4 f V 2
Pc  F kW/Phase/k m
ln d / r 2
 Here F is corona factor determined by test depends on

Vp/Vc.
Vp/Vc 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2

F 0.012 0.018 0.05 0.08 0.3 1 3.5 6.0 8
Factors Affecting Corona
 Atmospheric factors
• Temperature • Pressure
• Dust and dirt • Rain, snow, fog
 Electrical factor
• Frequency • Supply voltage
 Line configuration
• Conductor configuration • Profile of conductor
• Diameter of conductor • Surface condition
• Number of conductor per • Heating of conductor by
phase load current
• Conductor spacing
 Atmospheric Factors
p 273  25 p
   0.392
273  t 760 273  t
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
5
Pc  241 10 
r
 d
 Temperature:
 Pressure:
 Dust, dirt:
 Rain, snow, fog:
 Electrical Factor
p 273  25 p
   0.392
273  t 760 273  t
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
5
Pc  241 10 
r
 d
 Frequency
 Voltage
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
Pc  241 10 5 
r
 d

• Diameter of conductor • Heating of conductor by
• Conductor spacing load current
• Number of conductor per • Surface condition
phase
Merits and Demerits of Corona
 Merits
 Act as safety valve during lightning and switching surges. The
waves gets dissipated as corona loss.
 Other applications:
 Van de Graaff generator, Electrostatic precipitator, Electro printing,
Ionization counting, Electrostatic deposition
 Demerits
 Corona loss reduces efficiency.
 Ionized air around the conductor works as conducting medium
increases effective diameter of conductor.
 This increases capacitance and decrease surge impedance
loading.
 Audible Noise, RI, TV, Interference with communication lines.
Prevention of Corona
 Economic consideration, it is advisable to build the line corona free
for all the whether. Modern practice is to build corona free line in
fair whether condition.
 To prevent corona loss, critical disruptive voltage higher the phase
voltage.
 Increasing conductor spacing
 Increasing radius of conductor (Expanded ACSR)
 Use of bundled conductors
 Spacing between bundled conductor
 Homogenous Insulators:
 Elimination of sharp points:
 Using Corona rings:
 Surface Treatments:
Corona Ring
Corona Review
 What is corona?
 Mechanism of corona formation
 Critical disruptive voltage
 Visual critical disruptive voltage
 Corona loss
 Factors affecting corona
 Methods to prevent corona
 Radio Interference
35
Summary of the Course till now
 Comparison between AC and DC
 Line parameters: Resistance, Inductor and Capacitor
 Performance of transmission line: Short, Medium and
Long
 Surge impedance loading
 Compensation of transmission lines
 Overhead transmission lines: Sag and Tension
 Insulators
Corona
What is Corona?

noise.
loss of conductors.
Corona
Uniform Field
HV HV
GND GND

Corona Formation
field.
Non-Uniform Field
Conductor

of earth, etc.
Ground value.
Corona Formation
interference.
Corona (Testing)
Corona

q
2 0

q
ln( D  r )  ln(r )  ln(r )  ln( D  r )
2 0

q
ln
 D  r
2
D>>r
2 0 r 2
Therefore,


 Therefore,

breaks down.
Above g0 is for fair (standard) whether conditions, at any

other condition
p 273  25 p
where    0.392
273  t 760 273  t
Corona
What is Corona?

noise.
loss of conductors.
Corona
Uniform Field
HV HV
GND GND

Corona Formation
field.
Non-Uniform Field
Conductor

of earth, etc.
Ground value.
Corona Formation
interference.
Corona (Testing)
Corona

q
2 0

q
ln( D  r )  ln(r )  ln(r )  ln( D  r )
2 0

q
ln
 D  r
2
D>>r
2 0 r 2
Therefore,


 Therefore,

breaks down.
Above g0 is for fair (standard) weather conditions, at any

other condition
p 273  25 p
where    0.392
273  t 760 273  t
is then given by


conductors
than 7 strands)
strands)
Vd  g 0  m0  r ln D r  kV (rms)
[Peek]:
 0.301 
g v  g 0  1   kV/cm
  
 r 
 0.301 
Vv  g 0  1   mv  r ln  D r   kV
 r  

as local corona.
conductor
conductor
 0.301 
Vv  g 0  1 
  mv  r ln  D r   kV (rms)
 r 
Corona Loss
corona.
 Peek’s Empirical relation for corona in fair weather condition
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
V p  Vc 2 kW/phase/km
 d

• For storm or foul weather condition voltage is 0.8 Vc
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
V p  0.8Vc 2 kW/phase/km
 d
This relation gives correct results when 1) Corona loss is

predominant 2) Frequency lies between 25 and 125 Hz 3) Ratio of
Vp/Vc > 1.8 4) radius of conductor is greater than 0.25 cm.
Corona Loss
good results
1.11066104 f V 2
Pc  F kW/Phase/km
lnd / r 2

Vp/Vc.
Vp/Vc 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2

F 0.012 0.018 0.05 0.08 0.3 1 3.5 6.0 8
phase load current
p 273  25 p
   0.392
273  t 760 273  t
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
 d
 Temperature:
 Pressure:
 Dust, dirt:
p 273  25 p
   0.392
273  t 760 273  t
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
 d
 Frequency
 Voltage
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
 d

phase
 Merits
 Demerits
loading.
for all the weather. Modern practice is to build corona free line in fair
weather condition.
voltage.
Corona Ring
Corona Review
 What is corona?
 Corona loss
Corona
is then given by


conductors
than 7 strands)
strands)
Vd  g 0  m0  r ln D r  kV (rms)
[Peek]:
 0.301 
g v  g 0  1   kV/cm
  
 r 
 0.301 
Vv  g 0  1   mv  r ln  D r   kV
 r  

as local corona.
conductor
conductor
 0.301 
Vv  g 0  1 
  mv  r ln  D r   kV (rms)
 r 
Corona Loss
corona.
 Peek’s Empirical relation for corona in fair weather condition
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
 d

• For storm or foul weather condition voltage is 0.8 Vc
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
V p  0.8Vc 2 kW/phase/km
 d
This relation gives correct results when 1) Corona loss is

predominant 2) Frequency lies between 25 and 125 Hz 3) Ratio of
Vp/Vc > 1.8 4) radius of conductor is greater than 0.25 cm.
Corona Loss
good results
1.11066104 f V 2
Pc  F kW/Phase/km
lnd / r 2

Vp/Vc.
Vp/Vc 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2

F 0.012 0.018 0.05 0.08 0.3 1 3.5 6.0 8
phase load current
p 273  25 p
   0.392
273  t 760 273  t
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
 d
 Temperature:
 Pressure:
 Dust, dirt:
p 273  25 p
   0.392
273  t 760 273  t
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
 d
 Frequency
 Voltage
 D
Vc  m0 g 0   r ln 
 r
f  25
Pc  241105 
r
 d

phase
 Merits
 Demerits
loading.
for all the weather. Modern practice is to build corona free line in fair
weather condition.
voltage.
Corona Ring
Corona Review
 What is corona?
 Corona loss
Underground Cables
Advantage of Underground Cables
 Underground cables have technical advantages over the
overhead lines
 Not exposed to environmental conditions
 Inductance is lower in cable so voltage drop is less
 However, high erection cost, low heat dissipation and high
charging current makes it uneconomical for long distance
transmission
Cable Structure
http://www.coppercanada.ca/publications/pub21e/21e-Section6.html
Components of Power Cable
 Conductor for carrying
current
 Conductor shield to provide
smooth radial electric field
 Insulation to insulate high
voltage conductor
 Insulation shield (optional)
to provide smooth radial
electric field. Also act as
hermitic seal of cable.
Metallic shield electric field, thermal, charging current, shock and RI
Metallic sheath and/or plastic jacket for mechanical protection.
Metal sheath protect cable from water ingress.
Metal wire armoring (optional) for mechanical protection
Paper-Insulated Lead- Sub- Marine Cable
Covered Cables (PILC)
Single Core and Three Core Cables
Three Core Cable

Single Core Cable (Below 66 kV)
Materials Used in Cables
 Conductors: Copper or aluminum
 Stranded for flexibility
 Size is decided by required ampacity
 Temperature rise should be in limit to avoid degradation of the
insulation
 Insulation Material
 Paper (impregnated)
 PVC (polyvinyl cloride)
 Thermoset materials (XLPE, TR-XLPE, EPR)
 Liquid and gaseous insulation
Main Properties of Insulating Material
 High insulation resistance

 Higher dielectric strength
 Good mechanical properties
 Immunity to chemical attack
 Non-hygroscopic (free from moisture)
 Less costly
 Long life and low degradation
 Higher thermal conductance
 Low relative permittivity and less tangent angle (loss tangent)
 Easy handling, manufacture and installation
Insulation: Paper
 Dry paper is excellent insulator but looses the property quickly if it

becomes wet.
 Dry paper is hygroscopic, so it must be sealed from air contact.
 Thus, it is sheathed with water resistant materials. (paper insulated,
lead covered (PILC) cable)
 Performance is improved by impregnating with mineral oil.
 It has relative permittivity of 3.6 and can withstand 20kV/mm.
 Ratings: 800C continuous loading, 1300C short time overload and
2000C for short circuit.
 Requires special jointing mechanism to ensure the appropriate
sealing.
 Weight of cable is also higher as compared to PVC and XLPE
Underground Cables
Advantage of Underground Cables
 Underground cables have technical advantages over the
overhead lines
 Not exposed to environmental conditions
 Inductance is lower in cable so voltage drop is less
 However, high erection cost, low heat dissipation and high
charging current makes it uneconomical for long distance
transmission
Cable Structure
http://www.coppercanada.ca/publications/pub21e/21e-Section6.html
Components of Power Cable
 Conductor for carrying
current
 Conductor shield to provide
smooth radial electric field
 Insulation to insulate high
voltage conductor
 Insulation shield (optional)
to provide smooth radial
electric field. Also act as
hermitic seal of cable.
Metallic shield electric field, thermal, charging current, shock and RI
Metallic sheath and/or plastic jacket for mechanical protection.
Metal sheath protect cable from water ingress.
Metal wire armoring (optional) for mechanical protection
Paper-Insulated Lead- Sub- Marine Cable
Covered Cables (PILC)
Single Core and Three Core Cables
Three Core Cable

Single Core Cable (Below 66 kV)
Materials Used in Cables
 Conductors: Copper or aluminum
 Stranded for flexibility
 Size is decided by required ampacity
 Temperature rise should be in limit to avoid degradation of the
insulation
 Insulation Material
 Paper (impregnated)
 PVC (polyvinyl cloride)
 Thermoset materials (XLPE, TR-XLPE, EPR)
 Liquid and gaseous insulation
Main Properties of Insulating Material
 High insulation resistance

 Higher dielectric strength
 Good mechanical properties
 Immunity to chemical attack
 Non-hygroscopic (free from moisture)
 Less costly
 Long life and low degradation
 Higher thermal conductance
 Low relative permittivity and less tangent angle (loss tangent)
 Easy handling, manufacture and installation
Insulation: Paper
 Dry paper is excellent insulator but looses the property quickly if it

becomes wet.
 Dry paper is hygroscopic, so it must be sealed from air contact.
 Thus, it is sheathed with water resistant materials. (paper insulated,
lead covered (PILC) cable)
 Performance is improved by impregnating with mineral oil.
 It has relative permittivity of 3.6 and can withstand 20kV/mm.
 Ratings: 800C continuous loading, 1300C short time overload and
2000C for short circuit.
 Requires special jointing mechanism to ensure the appropriate
sealing.
 Weight of cable is also higher as compared to PVC and XLPE
Insulation: PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
 Synthetic insulation material, most used for low voltage cable
insulation.
 Resistant to oil and chemicals, and clean to handle.
 Normal PVC difficult to work below 50C, but special PVC can be
worked upto -200C.
 At higher temperature it becomes soft so should not be allowed to
exceed 700C.
 It has relative permittivity of 5 and can withstand 17 kV/mm.
 Advantages:
1. Reduced overall cost
2. Unaffected by moisture, common acids and alkalis
3. Reduced weight
4. No compound drainage trouble
Insulation: Thermoset Materials
 These are also synthetic polymer materials which do not soften, flow
or get distorted when subjected to heat and pressure.
 XLPE (Cross linked polyethylene)
 Long chains of polyethylene molecules are linked by carbon atoms.
 Better electrical properties than PVC.
 Extensively used for medium and high voltage cables (up to 500 kV).
 Worked up to -400C and can be used up to 900C, short-time-130 0C,
short-circuit-250 0C.
 It has relative permittivity of 2.5 and can withstand 18 kV/mm.
 Good mechanical strength and lighter in weight
 TR-XLPE (tree retardant XLPE): It contains special
additive which resists tree formation.
 EPR (Ethylene propylene rubber): Higher thermal
rating, thus higher ampacity. Dielectric properties
are lesser than XLPE.
Insulation: Liquid and Gaseous
Insulation
 In solid insulation voids are main problem which starts the partial
discharge and may lead to breakdown.
 Void formation can be prevented by
 Filling the cable with an insulating gas (N or SF6) at high
pressure.
 Use of low viscosity oil under (mineral oil) pressure.
 This results in much higher safe electric stresses and also high
permissible operating temperature.
Electric Field Intensity with Voids
Effect of Void Permittivity
Air Voids Voids filled with oil with

higher dielectric strength
Pressurized Cable (Oil filled & oil pressure)
 Above 220 kV, It is necessary to avoid

void formation.
 Voids are generally formed by cyclic
heating and cooling and can be
prevented by use of oil under pressure.
 Oil channel is made by spiral steel
tape.
Gas Pressurized and Gas Filled Cables
 Mainly two types: 1. Impregnated gas pressure cable

2. Gas filled cables.
Operating Range of the Cables
Gonen T., Electric Power Transmission System Engineering Analysis and Design, CRC Pres, 2010.
Summary of Materials of Cable Component
Conductor Insulation Shield Sheath Jacket Armor
•Copper •Paper •Semicondu •Lead •PVC •Galvanized

Or •PVC -cting •Aluminum •Polythene steel
•Aluminum •XLPE (Insulation •Nylon
•TR-XLPE with carbon •Neoprene (Optional)
•EPR impregnati-
(Stranded) on)
•Vulcanized
rubber •Aluminum,
•Polythene Copper
(tape)
Belted and Screened or shielded Cable
Belted H-Type Screened S. L. Type

Screened
 Belted cables are used up to 11 kV.
 There are two types of screened cables H-Type (Hochstadter) and
S.L. type (Separate lead). Used up to 33 kV
George F. Moore, Electric cables handbook, Blackwell Science, 1997
Electric Field 3-Phase Cables
Belted H-Type Screened

Belted and Screened or shielded Cable
Electrical Characteristics of Cables
 Insulation resistance
 Cable inductance
 Cable capacitance
 Electrical stress inside insulation
 Grading of cable
 Capacitance grading
 Inter-sheath grading
 Dielectric losses and tan delta (loss tangent)
 Sheath and armour losses
 Breakdowns in cable insulations
Insulation Resistance
 Resistance of small section dx is:
 Therefore insulation resistance is
 Insulation per unit length

Conductor Inductance
 For single core cable:
D = separation distance between phase conductor

r’ = 0.7788r
r = radius of the conductor
 For three core cable:
D = separation distance between

cores (equilateral spacing)
r’ = 0.7788r
Capacitance of Single Core Cable
Therefore, voltage is
Therefore C=q/V gives, capacitance between core to sheath

Power Transmission and Distribution Systems Compared

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Power Transmission and Distribution Systems Compared

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EE-206: Power Transmission and

1977 1990 2000 2002 2012 2017-18

• Has been Developed

• 1200 kV connect the two cities

Low Voltage - upto 1 kV

 Reduces the requirement of

15 Source: NASA Satellite Snapshot

 „Distribution – Radial (Why?)

“Power System Engineering”

DC 2 wire (mid point

AC 2 Wire (Single phase)

AC 3 wire (Three phase)

From above three equations, we have

 The conductor cross-sectional areas for systems is

 Therefore, ratio of conductor weights

 Therefore long distance transmission overhead lines are preferred.

 Cables are preferred in following conditions:

 Reduces the requirement of

5 Source: NASA Satellite Snapshot

 Using these empirical relations preliminary estimate is

 Conductance is due to leakage over line insulators.

 Internal steel strands increase the tensile strength

 ρT is the resistivity of the conductor at temperature T

 R0 is the resistance at 00C

 Thus, if the resistance at temperature T1 is known, the

Currents in same direction Currents in opposite direction

Total internal Flux linkages

Total internal Flux linkages due to flux

here  dl  2x and

If r1 = r2 = r , then

 Difference between American and European distribution system

 Started Chapter “Line Parameters and Performance of Power

Symmetrical Spacing Un-Symmetrical Spacing

If point P is far away, then we can approximate

Symmetrical Spacing Un-Symmetrical Spacing

n strands that are electrically parallel:

Substituting the values of La , Lb etc.

Stranded conductors Bundled conductors

 Extra high voltage lines corona causes problems such as

where n=2,3 ....

Where, Ds is the GMR of the conductor

 Increased reliability with enhanced cost.

 To decrease the inductance the self GMD of

 Individual phase conductors should be

Using the principle of superposition

First Second Third

First Second Third

VAB First  VAB Second  VABThird

VAC First  VAC Second  VACThird

With presence of Ground

Without Earth Effect With Earth Effect

Without earth effect

1  DAB rB DBC DBA' DBB' DBC ' 

With earth effect

1  D r D DAB' DBB' DBC ' 

1  DAC DBC rC DCA' DCB ' DCC ' 

With earth effect

Then VAN with transposition

VAB  VAC 1 1  D 3 DAB' DBC ' DCA' 

Without earth effect

No Load Voltage  Full load Voltage

Transmission line with Small section ∆x

 z = Series impedance /unit