THE COLLEGE OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT POSTAL COURSES Foundations Introduction This paper builds on the work carried out at an earlier level by introducing those types of foundations used predominantly for commercial and industrial buildings. The examples given are typical of the forms of construction but, clearly, each building requires individual foundation selection and design. Learning objectives On completion of this paper you should be able to: 1 2 Identify the principal types of foundations used for commercial and industrial buildings. Select a foundation for a given type of building or type of loading. Demonstrate the effectiveness of a foundation in relation to the loads that it has to carry Identify the principal functions associated with a particular type of foundation 3 8004THE COLLEGE OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT POSTAL COURSES: Foundations Some definitions 1 Ultimate bearing capacity of asoil. Foraparticular foundation this isthe value of the loading intensity at which the ground will fail 2 Allowablebearing pressure, ‘This is the maximum allowable loading intensity which may be imposed upon the ground at the base of the foundation, The allowable bearing pressure will be dependent on the nature of the site, the soil and the structural characteristics of the building, 3. Subsidence. Subsidence may be defined as the downward movement of the ground on which a building stands, from causes unconnected with loading from the building. (For example shrinkage of clay, mining subsidence, etc.) 4 Settlement. Settlementis the downward movementofthe soil orany structure upon itdue to the load which has been applied by the structure. Settlement is a natural and expected effect which is predictable. a Note that heave (negative settlement) is the upward movement orexpansion of asoil resulting from removal of loading, re-hydration of cohesive soils, or the effects of frost. 5 Compaction. Compaction is the improvement in the density and strength of the soil by the application of forces which will drive outairand force the soil particles closer together. 6 — Consolidation. Consolidation is the act of increasing the density and strength of the soil largely by the expulsion of water either by mechanical means or under the loading imposed by the construction.Foundations Modes offailure Ithelpsin understanding the design and construction of foundations to appreciate how a foundation ‘may fail. In Figure | you will see that foundations will fail predominantly by either soil movement away fromthe foundation, soil failure asa result of overloading, shear failure ofthe foundation itself Itof being under-designed, orbending where the foundation isable to move relative to the out necessarily a shear failure occurring asares loading FIGURE 1 Foundations—failure modes (c) Shear failure lure due to overloading (a) Bending failure Soil movement or subsidence failure is best prevented by taking foundations down toa level at which such movementis not likely to occur. Soil failure due to overloading is best prevented by the proper design of foundations to make sure that the allowable bearing pressure is not exceeded. Shear failure is avoided by designing the foundation to be of adequate thickness orto be suitably reinforced to prevent the loads from punching through the foundation. Bending failure is similarly prevented. However, probably the most serious cause of failure in foundations is differential settlement. This will occur where either the loads imposed on the soil froma particular structure are unequal ‘or where the resistance of the soil varies. Differential settlement is bestavoided by careful design of the foundations follo’ thorough investigation of the soil types which are likely to be encountered. wa very 6 8004Foundations Itisageneral rule that the bearing capacity of a soil improves with depth, and thus the deeper ‘wecan take a foundation the more likely we are to prevent failure due to the causes outlined above. However, this isnotalways the case; indeed, at some considerable depth we may encounter bands of soil which are particularly weak. The importance of a thorough investigation of soil before foundations are selected or designed cannot be over-emphasised. Stripfoundations Strip foundations were dealt with in some detail atan earlier level and are simply mentioned here to give a complete picture of foundations. An important point to note is that strip foundations are designed fora continuous oad which is presumed tobe equal along the whole length of the strip foundation. Figure 2 demonstrates how ‘unequal loads imposed upon a wall, for example, are distributed by the wall until, at the point of loading of the soil, the foundation is assumed to be carrying equal loading. Strip foundations will ‘not be successful if the distribution of the load does not follow this pattern. For example, if we imposea particularly heavy point load at one position ona strip foundation, we are likely to cause punching shear failure at that point. This does notmeanto say that we cannot carry heavy point loads on strip foundations, but we doneed to take special precautions to prevent the localised failure. Such precautions willinclude enlargementof the strip foundation, or increasing its thickness locally. Figure3 gives an example of how we may combine pointloads and continuous loads on toa strip foundation, ‘The selection of this type of foundation depends on the nature of the loading: generally, only if we have continuous loading shall we select. strip foundation, You should refer to your earlier studies for details of stepped strip foundations. Structural integrity Aswith any other foundation type, the structural integrity of the strip foundation depends upon perfect contact between the bottom of the foundation and the soil which carries the load. To this end the soil mustbe properly protected after excavation to make sure that no weathering occurs. The soil should not be allowed to dry out nor to become wetted by the weathering process andthe concrete foundations should be cast as soon as possible and certainly within 24 hours of exposing the final surface, ‘The structural integrity between the wall being carried by the foundation and the foundation itself is ensured by a good bed of mortar or concrete between the load and the foundation. In any foundation the transfer of the load from the structure to the foundation should be achieved through a flexible material which will take up precisely the shape of the loaded base and the top of the foundation. Normally, of course, this would be layer of cement mortar. 7 8004Foundations FIGURE2 Loadtransferthrough foundations Loads may not be equal Single pad for Strip foundation for point load continuous or distributed loading FIGURE 3 Combined loads onstrip foundations RIC column Half brick outer cladding Blockwork inner skin Wait tes cast into Plain concrete foundation carries Binding t columns and (necessary for column > cading reinforcement tremtorced under columns) 8 8004Foundations Atthis point itis worth mentioning the importance of making provision for service entries into a building using a method which will not impair the structural integrity of the foundation. Asa ‘general rule, the services ducts should be keptas small as possible, and eitherbe surrounded by the foundation concrete, or have a suitable lintel to transfer loads through the foundation. Figure 4 illustrates a suitable method, and also shows the importance of keeping services trenches a reasonable distance away from foundations. Flexible joints should always be used in these circumstances, ; FIGURE 4 ‘Thermal insulation not shown Lintel over Pea gravel bed and surround Provision of services through house sub-structure. (Left a strip footing, some ofthe bricks in the wall willhave to be cut out (Right) with trench i, a pipe, duet, or box is fixed into the trench before the concrete is placed. The duct should be sensibly larger than the pipe (or service) and positioned with reasonable accuracy. Lacktil pipe with flexible materia. Provision for movement Drainage or service trench Beware of weakening the soil suppor toa foundation by digging trenches adjacent to it. The depth should be large enough so that L exceeds h Maintenance of lateral supportFoundations Padfoundations Pad foundations are designed to carry individual loads from, say, steel stanchions or reinforced concrete columns. In this respect they are extremely efficient foundations, since the size can be designed specifically for the load which we know the foundation will carry. Itfollows, therefore, that the selection of pad foundations depends upon the type of structure and would normally be selected for framed structures. The area of the pad foundation is determined from the load to be carried and the allowable bearing pressure ofthe soil. would seem, therefore, that each pad foundation is unique in its size and possibly its thickness to carry the load imposed upon it. In practice designers will often standardise the size of pad foundations particularly where the difference in loading is small or negligible, Standardisation in this way is particularly important if we are to obtain the most efficient construction, We use the term buildability in construction, and a construction site which has pad foundations all the same size is much closer to good buildability than one in which the pad foundations are all of different sizes. The operatives can quickly become familiar with the sizes on standardised foundation and there is less likelihood of error. Pad foundations may be either unreinforced or reinforced depending upon circumstances and depending particularly upon the nature ofthe loading and the allowable bearing pressure on the soil. Figures 5 and 6 indicate the construction of pad foundations. Figure 5 shows an unreinforced foundation, and in Figure 6 the foundation is reinforced. Note particularly the use of a layer of blinding’ concrete when reinforcementhas to be placed. Thisallowsusto providea working surface which will avoid reinforcement becoming contaminated by dirt or water. Structuralintegrity Notice particularly in Figure 5 how the joint between the steel stanchion base plate andthe underside of the pad foundation is formed. In order that the stanchion will be plumb itis necessary to shim, using thin steel plates, before the holding-down bolts are tightened. The gap between the steel base plate and the foundation concrete is then filled with grout. Itis this grout which ensures the proper transfer of load, and the structural integrity between the load and the foundation. In the case of the reinforced conerete column (Figure 6) and the reinforced concrete pad foundation, notice how the starter bars for the column are carried down to the bottom of the foundation and are linked to the pad foundation reinforcement. Notice also the user of the kicker forthe reinforced concrete column to ensure that the column. iscorrectly positioned on its setting-out grid, and that a suitable jig is provided forthe formwork which is necessary for casting the concrete column. Asbefore, the construction of pad foundations has to be carefully controlled if weare to ensure that the loads are properly transferred to the subsoil. ‘The term ‘blinding’ refers othe protection ofa surface, or tthe filling of rrgulartiesin the surface, Surfaces may be blinded wwithsand, gravel, ash pfa, mora concree,geotextile material, or similar. The material elected depends upon the reason fr the blinding: for example, we may blind hardcore with sand in order to provide a hase fora polythene damp proof membrane, bite ‘would usea weakconcret blinding 50-7Smm thik ifahard, level working surface isnecessar fr the setting upor einforcement 10 8004Foundations FIGURES Unreinforced pad foundation for st {a) Excavate for foundation {timber if necessary) (c} Place and level shims, erect stanchion © Kicker © tormwork i f ‘sleeve Polystyrerié (Removed before grouting up} Prate washer ae (b) Cast foundation with holding down bolts (d) Grout up and tighten botts (e} Encase in concrete and backfill u 8004Foundations FIGURE 6 Pad foundation orreinforced concrete column {b) Place blinding concrete, ad reinforcement and starter bars (c} Cast conerete pad, set out column and cast kicker (a) Place column cage reinforcement (e} Cast column and backfill 12 8004Foundations Tothis extent the soil beneath the foundation must not be allowed to weather, and even in the case of unreinforced foundations we may wish to puta layer of blinding concrete over a newly exposed soil to preventit from weathering. Alternative techniques are to cover the soil witha sheet of polythene, or to delay excavating the last 50mm of soil until we are ready to cast the concrete. In the case of pad foundations, accuracy is obviously of vital importance since the accuracy of the whole of the structure above ground will depend on the setting out of the foundations. Since the pads are cast directly into the soil, the tolerance on the shape and size of the pads has to be fairly large. 15-20mm would probably be considered reasonable, but the actual positioning of the column or stanchion which sits on the foundation needs to be as precise as we can possibly get, and accurate setting out methods are essential. You will lear later that the holding-down bolts for steel stanchions need to be flexible to allow for quite a considerable amount of movement so that we can get the setting out of the column to the required accuracy. Ya Raft foundations ‘As you will have learnt from earlier studies, raft foundations are used particularly where the soils are difficult or where differential settlement is likely to occur, for example on filled sites, peat, silts, ete. They function in exactly the same way as a raft built to go on water. The raft moves in sympathy with the water or, in our case, the subsoil, keeping the structure which the raft is carrying intact. It may be that the structure goes out of plumb or out of level, but it nevertheless remains structurally stable, Provided the amount of movement which occurs in the soil beneath the raft is reasonably small, then a raft will function adequately. However, excessive movement, although not damaging to the structure, may prove ‘unsatisfactory and unacceptable to the occupants of the building. There is also the dangerthat very large movements will lead to failure of the raft itself. Rafts may be cither rigid or flexible depending upon the expected movement which could take place in the soil. ‘Simple rafts Asimpleraftof the type you will have encountered in earlier studies is shown in Figure 7. Notethat this type of raftis only economic provided that the thickness of the raft does not exceed 300mm. Above this thickness the weightof the raft becomes excessive and we will find ourselves providing too much concrete (and hence weight) in order to carry the loads. Notice also that the raft will be reinforced both topand bottom since the nature the movement and hence the nature ofthe stressing in the raft will not be known, 13 8004Foundations FIGURE7 Simpl Insulation thled cavity) Insulating screed and finishes Dem. Reinforced raft In this case, the concrete raft is cast in three layers; the ‘irs ayer upto the lower layer of mesh reinforcement; the second layer to the upper mesh reinforcement and the finally. to the complete thickness of 200mm. Flexiblerafts Where wecan anticipate the nature of the movement that will occur, butare powerlesstodo anything, about this movement, we may wish to adoptaflexible raft. This will allow the foundationto move in sympathy with the soil, producing often considerable movements in the structure it carries. Provided these movements have been allowed for in the structure, then sucha process is acceptable. Figure 8 shows a flexible raft designed for the SCOLA system of schools’ construction. (The ‘SCOLA system was specifically developed foruse in areas which are subjectto mining subsidence.) Effectively the raft consists of anumber of pad foundations, generally quite large in area, each carrying an individual load and loosely joined together by means of a single layer of mesh reinforcement which acts as a hinge. The pads are separated by fibreboard or similar material to maintain the required flexibility. The movement shown in the sketch is obviously greatly ‘exaggerated, although subsidence of several metres can occurin some mining areas. Figure 8 also shows an unjointed flexible raft. This consists of a thin reinforced slab of concrete again placed on thick layer of sand and covered with athin layer of unreinforced concrete ‘The principle hereis that the rafts able to bend under differential movement, and although this will ‘cause some movement in the structure which may haveto be repaired, it should preventtotal failure of the construction. Once again the nature of the movement that we are likely to encounter needs to be known before designing sucha flexible raft. 14 8004Foundations Progress of subsidence wave —> Ground subsides into worked out coal seam Tension “ Compression Sueuime iy satdne te Mining subsidence r ‘reinforcement building paper ‘150mm concrete, hinge pads 150mm sand Flexible raft (greatly exaggerated movement) Cavity fill insulation pg — Cay | screed on rigid insulation on | 150mm concrete Its important in this cease that any subsoil 150mm compacted 160mm reinforced Water is kept well sand concrete raft below the compacted sand, lt may be Flexible ratt (unjointed) necessary t0 install land drainage ta this end. 15 8004Foundations Beamandslab raft Ifaraftis designed, and itis found that the thickness of the slab needs to exceed 300mm, then the mode of design needs to change. Between a total thickness of 300mm and 1m wecan usea beam, and slab raft, Such a raftis illustrated at Figure 9. Inthiscase the raftconsists of grid of beams which may be either downstand beams as shown in Figure 9 or upstand beams as shown in Figure 10. These beams are joined together by means of aslab of concrete which is double reinforced inthe same mannerasasimpleraft, These rafts are normally very rigid and will not allow the sort of flexible movement which was discussed above. ‘An important feature of a beam and slab raft which uses downstand beams is that the soil underneath the slab is contained by the beams. In this case, if any movement occurs, this contained soil cannot slip away, reducing supporto the slab. Clearly the construction of abeam and slab raft is much more complicated than fora simple raft and this type of foundation would only be selected where its use can be clearly justified. Cellularraft If the loading suggests that a raft exceeding 1m in thickness is necessary, then we should be considering the use of cellular raft. Cellular rafts are rarely economic atthicknesses of less than Imbut they can be economic for considerable thicknesses, even 3 or 4 storeys in height. Figures 11 and 12 show in outline the construction of cellular raft foundations. The raftitself canbe of relatively light construction withathin upper slab, thin lower slab, each of which is joined together by means of a perimeter wall, and internal ‘partitions’. The ‘cells’ created by this grid of walls may either be leftempty, or filled with some lightweight material, orused fortheconveyance of services, or for storing oil ete. An important feature of cellular rafts is the buoyancy effect. If we can arrange that the total weight of the raft below ground level is less than the weight of the soil that was excavated to allow the raftto be constructed, then we will have abuoyancy effect. ‘We can think of itthis way. If we remove a tonne of soil over a square metre of excavation, then if we cast foundation which only weighs half.atonne, the load on the soil will have been reduced by half a tonne and we will be carrying half atonne of superstructure for nothing: in other words, ‘with no increase on the load on the soil. This buoyancy effect is very importantin theconstruction of very high multi-storey buildings. The buoyancy effect is further enhanced if water is present in the soil, since acellular raft foundation may tend to ‘float’ in the same way that araft would float on water. During the construction of cellularrafts, we may have to take positive steps to prevent the raft from physically lifting asa result of buoyancy effect. We may, forexample, ballastthe foundation, allow it to flood with water, or simply add kentledge on top of the raft to prevent it from lifting, Kentledge isamethod of applying loads to any construction by means of weights suchas concrete, pig ironor the like. Cellular rafts would always be designed as rigid rafts and would be expected to carry the structureabove without distortion. 16 8004Foundations FIGURE 9 Beam and slab raft Plastered lightweight Additional insulation ‘block inner skin ‘may b9 necessary \_ Lightweight (insulating) screed Brick outer shin Mesh reinforced slab DR C: Blinding Boom Downstand beam Binding The raft would normally be cast in two stages: the first being the casting ofthe grid of downstand ‘beams, the second being the completion of the raft FIGURE 10 Upstand beam and slab raft Stanchion (plated) Floor concrete Y i Base plate Upstand beams Hardeore filing oF void Blinding Finishes, insulation, fire protection, ete not shown Having cast the base raft, formwork is necessary in order to cast the upstend beams. Ifthe voids are 10 be left, then permanent formwork is required in order 0 cast the floor concrete, 7 8004Foundations lar raft FIGURE 11 Cell Notice in this ease that the upper and lower slob of all the cell walls are doubly reinforced since the nature of the movement in the raft will not be known at this External wall a Sereed and thishes — 150mm top slab 150mm col walls Lining for eit store Woterprocting may be required a 200mm base slab Cells may be hollow filled with lightweight material or used for specitic purposes Part section - cellular raft FIGURE 12 Double storey cellular raft The external or perimeter wal wil be treated as a retaining wail but may possibly be constructed in advance of the construction of the rest of the rat. In tis case we must ‘nsuro structural integrity betwoen the retaining wall end Building frame the upper, lower and any intermediate fioors inthe raft basement, Access to cells if required) Floor finish ee Cladding Access point ‘it required (score! wat designed serocaning wall Part section double storey cellular raft (waterproofing not shown) 18Foundations Itis interesting tonote that some of the very tallest buildings often have some of the deepest. cellularraft foundations. Clearly construction under ground is far more expensive than construction on ground, and the only reason forconstructing multi-storey basements in the form of cellularrafts is totake advantage of the buoyancy effect and hence reduce the overall cost of foundations. Structural integrity The construction of a cellular raft is perhaps more critical than the other types we have dealt with so far. The loads must be transferred to the soil properly and adequately and the bearing capacity of the soil must have been properly evaluated, since we will frequently be dealing with much higher loadings. With cellular rafts we also have to take account of waterproofing. Since the foundation is now behaving like a basement, we would need to keep the water out if we intend to make use of the space. Particularly with multi-storey basements where we would wish to use the space for, say, car parking or for display, or even accommodation, then preventing the ingress of water is important and suitable steps would need to be taken to waterproof the foundation. Methods of waterproofing are dealt with under the paper ‘Basements’. 'd foundations Piles are used to transfer the load from a construction to a greater depth than we can achieve using any of the foundation methods outlined above. We would select piled foundations where: © A bearing stratum exists but only at a considerable depth. © There are particular construction problems such as having to construct foundations in ‘waterlogged soil or in marshland. * No firm stratum is known to exist at any depth. Effectively piles work by transferring the zone of pressure from immediately beneath the construction to some greater depth, which is normally to the bottom of the piles as shown in Figure 13 Classification of piles Piles are classified under three headings: © Method of transferring a load to the soil. — End bearing. A pile is said to be end bearing if all the load is transferred to the soil at the end of the pile as illustrated in Figure 14. ~ _ Friction piles. A pile is said to be a friction pile if the surface of the pile is making good contact with the soil and the load is predominantly transferred to the soil through surface friction. Again itis illustrated in Figure 14, 19 8004Foundations FIGURE 13 Mechanism of pi 1 ~ = Foundation Ty 1 , ' | ' ‘Bulb of pressure 1 (soil volume stressed by load ! application) Pile | Bulb of 4 pressure ——~ transferred to bottom of pile «Mode of installing. ~ _ Apile is classified as a replacement pile if we first remove the soil by auguring or drilling and then place the pile. We cast the pile in the hole that has been formed. — Apile is classified as a displacement pile if the pile or the former is driven into the soil, pushing the soil to the side. This, of course, has the effect of compressing the soil and improving the bearing capacity of the soil © Method of construction. ‘As the names imply, the pile may be either precast or insitu. In this case precast includes preformed suchas steel tube, steel I-section, timber piles orprecast concrete. Insitu piles can of course only be of either reinforced or unreinforced concrete Selection ‘The selection of apile depends very largely on the conditions under which we are working. If, for example, wehave to place piles through water or marine works then itis unlikely that we would wish to use insitu techniques. We would almost certainly use preformed piles which can be driven through the water into the soil below. You will also be aware that in order to forma displacement pile weneed to drive either the pile or the former into the soil, and this will both be noisy and cause considerable vibration. Ifnoise and vibration arenot acceptable, then we should select areplacement pile which can be constructed much more quietly and with considerably less vibration than a displacement pile. Other factors to be considered include the cost of the installation, the number of piles we are dealing with in total, and the availability of a particular system.Foundations FIGURE 14 Pile classification Seemed en Siege r= Dieplacoment p Replacement pile r ' : ester ea a eee, oa : wm yy V d “skin tretion A pokg - » toed bering ‘stratum » ¢ es 4 Some ae ay ae Friction loade ort, End bearing The notes which follow identify anumber of concrete piling systems and give brief guidance ‘onthe method of construction and circumstances under which they may selected. If you would like further information, you should contact the suppliers direct. pa 8004Foundations 1 Insitu, displacement, friction pi system Figure [5 illustrates the construction of a very successful piling system: the steel casing is driven into the soil by hammering on to aconsolidated plug of gravel. At the required depth (which may be determined by the resistance to driving), the gravel plug is expelled by holding the casing and hammering on the plug. The casing is then charged with concrete which is rammed toformabase, followed by the insertion of areinforcement cage and further concrete which isrammedas the casing, is withdrawn. The resulting pile has excellent frictional properties. The piling process is very noisy and can only be used where noise and vibration is acceptable. Because of the high frictional resistance achieved, these piles can be relatively shorteven in fairly weak soils. ‘This systemis generally used when a large number of piles are required, and the noise and vibration which accompanies this method is acceptable. FIGURE 15 Installation construction sequence casing Drop —J hammer etrcement 7 ka Bulbous 4g base b wo) o) to @ to 4) Consolidating the aggregate plug (1). Driving pite by hammering on plug fe) Casing held as plug expelled (€) Forming the shaft le) Comploted pile 2 80042 Insitu, displacement, end Figure 16 shows the construction of an insitu pile which uses a precast concrete shell casing. Again, this method of piling is very noisy and accompanied by alotof vibration. The piles are very successful provided a loadbearing stratum can be reached, and they can be installed quite rapidly. However, the system is only economical if arelatively large number of piles are required. FIGURE 16 Installation construction sequence: insitu, displacement end-bearingsystem 1. The pile shells are threaded on to a stoe! mandrel whose diameter corresponds to their ‘internal diameter, a stee! band acting as a slaeve at each shell int. The internal face of each Joint band is coated with mastic to prevent water penetration. Finally a pile shoe is fitted to the lower end of the bottom shell 2, The whole assemblyis then driven into the ground, lengthening the pile by adltion of stee! mandrel sections and concrete shells es necessary until the required set or dopth ie acheived. 2 Withdrawal of the mandre! leaves a stable, watertight hollow concrete column at the base of which ‘is an integral pile sho. 4. Steel reinforcement in the form of a prefabricated cage, is placed in the hollow core whieh is then filled with concrete and compacted. Ths, together with the precast shells, forms the final sold load. bearing pile. As the core is cast situ, theres norsk ofits strength having been afected by stresses ‘setup during driving. 5. Completed pile, trimmed to cut-of level 23 8004Foundations 3. Insitu, replacement, friction system Figure 17 illustrates a system that uses a borehole which may be lined during or after boring. Although precast concrete units form the core of the pile, itis the insitu concrete grouting which achieves the necessary frictional prope! ‘The systemis relatively quiet, free from vibration, fairly rapid, and is mosteconomical if the pilesare reasonably short, This type of pile is often favoured when working close to occupied buildings. FIGURE 17 Prestcore piling pean | oes | citer wae Grout Hole bored and lined with steel casing as boring proceeds Assembly of short cylindrical precast concrete units Building up length of core pile Precast core and vertical reinforcement in final position ‘Stee! casing is freed and then withdrawn during grouting process Finished pileFoundations 4 Insitu, replacement, endbearing system FIGURE 18 - Westpile tripod bored piles are available in two sizes ~ 430 and 530 mm diameter to carry ‘maximum working loads of 500 KN end SOOKN respectively, depending on ground conditions. They can be constructed in most types of soll 0 depths of up to 20 metres, although in ideal conditions depths up to 25 metres can be attained. The tripod rigs, operated by air-winches, are ‘small enough for use where access is dificult ‘end where working space including heedroom ‘is very confined. The compressor may, if necessary, be located some distance from the work area. This piling method is ideally suited to work inside buildings or amongst vibration ‘sensitive plant, equipment and live services, It ‘may also bo used to advantage in the ‘construction of bored pile retaining walls Westpite tripod bored piles usuelly support @ proportion of loading by friction and in these ‘cases both compressive and tensile loadings can be sustained. Pile construction soma Reinforcement cage In unstable ground, 3 temporary @ Aker completion of boring and pl casing is installed by the rig to spoil removal, the temporary tomporary casing is ‘hole support, the length easing is left in and the pile brogressivaly withdrawn. sing depending on soil reinforcement is placed. This Where ground water is not Zonditions ‘reinforcement can be designed to seated off by the lining tubes ©& ® Spoil is removed trom suit particular loading conditions the concrete is placed by tremie the borehole by ‘drop tool which may include bending ar pipe ‘methods. In stable soils such Stiff clays, Boring can be carried out by the ‘open hole technique. tension forces, Courtesy: Westpile 25 ‘8004Foundations 5 Insitu, replacement, end-bearingsystem ‘The system illustrated at Figure 19 uses ahollow, continuous flight auger which is ‘turned’ into the soil until the required depth hasbeen achieved. A grouting pump is then connected to the auger, and grout pumped down as the augeris lifted and removed. The auger will still be rotating clockwise so thatthe sol isbeing lifted out with the auger. Withthe soil removed and the borehole full of grout, reinforcement cage is inserted into the wet grout, and vibrated down. This system is both rapid and quiet, and lengths of up to 30mare possible. Some friction can be achieved, but generally a loadbearing stratum is required. ‘Sytems based on this method are gaining in popularity due tothe speed of installation, and the ability to place the piles in difficult locations. Modern augers can easily cope with all types of soil, and the piles can even be installed through concrete floors, pavings, or foundations. The piles can be constructed as small as 100mm diameter, in which case they may be classified as ‘mini-piles’. FIGURE 19 Grouted replacement pi Grout pumped into bore Reinforcement Bearing stratum rs fo ‘a {a} Continuous fight auger turned into soil (b) Boring continued to required depth {oc} Auger lifted (rotation continues) with soil as concrete grout is pumped down contre tube (a) Borehole filled with grout. auger removed, reinforcement cage lowered or vibrated into grout 26 8004Foundations 6 Precast, displacement, end-bearingsystem Figure 20 shows a system which uses precast concrete pile sections. The toe unit is stood up in a small excavated hole, further sections about Im long are added, and a hydraulic jack placed. The Jack takes its reaction from suitable kentledge (or weights), and the pile is jacked down. Further sections are added as necessary and jacked down until the required depth or jacking resistance is achieved. This method of piling would be selected either when the lengths of the piles vary or are uncertain duc to variable ground conditions, or where quiet, vibration-free piling is essential. This system canalso be used in underpinning The jacking-down rig shown in the sketch can also be used for pile testing. FIGURE 20 Jacked-down piling Kentledge Track ‘Stee! locating pin _> Precast concrete Seetionai pie, rigwhich carries kentledge (dead weights) of water in tanks, sme rig can be used to test bearing capacity of piles as described below. 27 80047 Insitu, replacement, end-bet Insituations where very large loads are to be transferred to considerable depths, the use of under- reamed piles such as that shown in Figure 21 may be considered. Using a special auger, a borehole up to 2m diameter and up to a maximum of 60m deep is. formed. The special auger can be expanded to produce the under-ream. When the auger is withdrawn, the shaft is filled with concrete, and reinforcement placed, usually only inthe upper few metres. ‘This methods fairly quiet and vibration-free, and is foundin situations where only afew piles are to be used but each carries exceptional loading (around 1000tis not unreasonable). FIGURE 21 Under reamed pile Continuity | ge reinforcement ‘Steel casing to upper 3m Bored concrete pile ‘Shaft alia (a) (up to 2m) 60: splay 10 UnderreamFoundations Structuralintegrity ‘The structural integrity of piles iscrucial tothe success of the foundation system and very high levels. of supervision are necessary to ensure that the piles are properly constructed using the correct. ‘materials and procedures. In many cases the structural integrity of a pile will be tested as described below. Pilecaps Pile caps are usually constructed of concrete to such adepthas will ensure full transfer of loadto the piles and, atthe same time, resist punching shear. Since itis almostimpossible to bore or drive pilesexactly vertical ortoan exactrake, the pile cap shouldbe large enough in plan toaccommodate any deviation in the final position of the pile heads. The piles should project into the pile cap and, in the case of concrete piles, have the pile reinforcement bonded to the cap reinforcement (Figure 22). Steel piles may be fitted with cleatsto ensure full transmission of load from cap to pile; alternatively, the pile may be bedded deeply in the pile cap. The size of the pile cap will be determined by the spacing of the piles which form the pile group; this will depend great deal upon structural considerations. The general rule for spacing piles in clay isaminimum spacing of three times the diagonal measurement ofthe pile; in most cases this would note less than I metre centres. The pile cap should overhang the outer piles by a distance of at least. 150mm. Figure 23 illustrates the construction above piles when only light loads are involved. A pile ‘cap can be omitted, but steps must be taken to ensure that only the piles and notthe soil in between ‘themcarry the loading. Note that the full construction in respect of compliance with the Building Regulationsisnot shown.Foun FIGURE 22 Pile caps Column XN. " Finished floor love! ' ti Paved erat | —— Coluran reinforcement Pile cut back to ‘expose reinforcement SRT Pile cop —— Binding | | Pe peje into H i cap at tbest Somm Typical 30 8004Foundations Precast concrete beam Prestressed pre-cast SS beam” Inst concrete between beam ends Isometric sketch FIGURE 23 Pile caps Insita concrete ftoor Internal wail sar ong Grid of bored or Bence pies "|_| Thermal insulation, dom Part section piled ground floor slab ete NOT shown o 31 8004Foundations Piletesting Test loading of piles serves a two-fold function: firstly to check the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile, and second to check the workmanship involved in forming the pile. ‘The testis carried out on a trial pile in close proximity to the borehole used for other tests, so as to obtain an accurate correlation of the various tests. The pile head should be cut off or built up to the necessary elevation and suitably capped to produce a horizontal bearing surface. The pile is then tested by one of two tests the maintained load test, or © the constant rate of penetration (CRP) test. Inthe maintained load test the load may be applied either by means of ajack which obtains itsreaction fromkentledge heavier than the test load, or by means of ajack which obtains fromasuitable anchor. When using the anchor method, the anchor pile should be at least 3 test-pile diameters away from the test pile (centre to centre). The load is applied in increments of about 25 percent of the working load, up to the full normal working load. Smaller increments are then added until the specified limit has been reached. Settlement is measured until ithas ceased, or is as ittleas0.1 mm in 20 minutes. When this state has been reached, a further increment should be applied and the final settlement noted. At each stage of loading the settlement and time scale is plotted. Loading may be stopped at working load, or at ultimate bearing capacity Inthe constantrate of penetration test, the pile is made to penetrate the soil ataconstant speed by continually increasing the load. The pile movement creates stresses in the soil until it fails in shear, thus having reached the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile. Since the purpose of this test isthedetermination of theultimate bearing capacity, itis difficult to FIGURE 24 Test loading using Kentledge establish the exact settlement — under any given load. The equipment used in thistest can be the same as that used in the maintained loadtest. The reaction achieved by kentledge or anchor method should be greater than the estimated ultimate bearing capacity of the pile. The force from zero to ultimate bearing y is applied through a hydraulicjack which has sufficient travel to accommodate the total movement of the pile. The jack is operated to give auniformrate of penetration, ranging from 0.75 ‘mm/min in lay to 1.5 mm/min in sand or gravel. By plotting load 4 against penetration, the ultimate ae bearing value canbe established Courtesy: BSP International Foundations Lid 32 8004Foundations Combined foundations Itsometimes happens that two or more loads froma structure are relatively close togetherand if we designeda pad foundation for each of suitable size they mightoverlap. Inthis case, it would become ‘economical to combine the two loads ontoasingle foundation. Such combined foundations are not. ‘uncommon and, as shown in Figure 25, we can deal with both equal loads and unequal loads. Although the figure only shows two loads being combined together, there is no reason why three oreven more loads should not be combined ontoa single foundation ifthatbecomes necessary. Note carefully, though, that in combining loads onto single foundation the centre of gravity of the loads must coincide with the centre of area of the foundation. To this end we may need tochange the geometry of the foundation in order to ensure that the allowable bearing pressure on the soil remains constant. Figure 25b shows atrapezoidal foundation which illustrates this principle. Figure 26 shows abalanced base foundation which may be necessary when, for some reason oranother, we are unable to apply the load concentrically to the foundation. The load at ‘A’, for example, is unable, due toa restriction, to siton the centre of the pad foundation which has been designed forit. In this case the eccentric loadings may cause rotation in the pad foundation, and this can be avoided by linking that foundation to some other loaded foundation. Balanced base foundations should only be used when itis absolutely essential. ‘The better way of dealing with the situation where we are unable to geta foundation underneath the load due to some restriction, is probably to use a cantilever foundation such as thatillustrated at Figure 27. Notice in this case that we are still dealing with acombined foundation, since weneed the foundation at ‘B” in order o carry the end ofthe cantilever which has its fulerumat‘C’, By using cantilever foundation of this type itis possible not only to deal with problems of obstruction but. alsotoachieve considerable architectural effect, mainly by allowing the upper storeys of buildings tooverhang the lower storeys. Structuralintegrity With combined foundations structural integrity is probably more important than with any other foundation types. This is because weare relying upon the effects of two foundations acting togetherto carry the load satisfactorily. Great care needs to be taken with the size and position of the foundations, and with the way in which the load and structure is transferred to those foundations. Eccentric loadings, exceptas stated above, must be avoided if the foundations are to work satisfactorily. We should also ensure that only the loads for which the combined foundation has been designed should be allowed to impose upon the foundation,Foundations A FIGURE 25 Combined foundations Controle of Toundation Load & greater than food A Combined equal loads (a) Combined unequal loads (b) FIGURE 26 Balanced-base foundation 8 Heavier load Eccentric load edt foundetions 34 8004Foundations FIGURE 27 Cantileverfoundation Load 8 greater than Joga A to resist iting effect ‘Stub column foundation must be below that of the obstruction! Figures 25,26 and 27: These sketches are in ‘outline only to show the principles of the foundation method. Requirements to comply with Building Regulationsare not shown, Some general construction notes Concrete used in foundations tends to be ‘poured’ rather than placed and normally only receives a spade finish. Although this is perfectly satisfactory for the average domestic strip foundation or simple pad foundation, it is not satisfactory for the larger foundations and particularly raft foundationsillustrated above. ‘Theconcrete needstobe a structural concrete capable of carrying the loads tobe imposed upon it. The site engineer will also frequently be using this concrete as the setting out point for the whole of the construction, and therefore we need a surface upon which to work satisfactorily. We would normally expect to use formwork for pad foundations to ensure that they are correctly sized and, certainly, formwork would be required for all except simple rafts, and for combined foundations. The thickness of the concrete s of vital importance. Unfortunately, once concrete has been placed the thicknesses cannot be scen. Where we are casting directly into the ground there may be 35 8004Foundations some dispute as to the thickness of concrete. Suitable techniques such as marking formwork should be adopted to ensure that an adequate thickness has been achieved. Ithas been mentioned earlier that soil under a foundation needs proper protection until the concrete is cast, but equally we must remember that during the placing of concrete we need to prevent contamination of the concrete by the soil. To this end, the excavation for foundations ‘would normally need some form of timbering or other protection, to ensure that contamination does not occur. Structural integrity has been stressed throughout these notes, and it is important, when a concrete foundation is being cast, that thought is given to structural integrity. Reinforcement, for ‘example, which ensures continuity between the foundation and the structure, should be placed before the concrete is cast if possible, thus ensuring it is in the correct position. Except as described under piling, the practice of inserting starter bars into wet concrete is not considered satisfactory. Notice, however, that the position of starter bars should be checked after the concrete has been cast, to ensure they have not moved outside the line of concrete, or reduced the available cover. The same precaution should be taken in respect of holding-down bolts for steel frames. Construction joints ‘The effectiveness of any of the foundations described above depends largely on how well they are designed and constructed. To this end the position of day joints should be carefully designed to censure that the structural integrity of a foundation isnot compromised. Particularly in the case of raft foundations, the joints between concrete bays should be designed to cause the minimum of interference with the structural integrity of the foundation. Inpad and combined foundations, no joints should be permitted: they shouldbe castinasingle operation. Temporary foundations Although grillage foundations are no longer used for new structures, they were used extensively inthe past. Many of the skyscrapers in New York, for example, are founded on grillage foundations. ‘The principle of the grillage is that the loads fromthe structure are distributed over alarge area very quickly (within a small depth). A pad foundation would not be able to achieve this since it would almost certainly fail in bending. Although we do notuse grillage foundations forbuildings any more, they do providea very important means of carrying temporary loadings such as we might experience fromhaving to place acrane close toa building under construction. Figure 28 illustrates the traditional grllage, and how this type of foundation can be adapted for modern useas atemporary foundation. 36 8004Foundations FIGURE 28 Grillage foundations 4 cick. & emer J Stele Sections botes yf |e °F ispener te \ \ f \ ! : 7 Foundation sk Grillage plattorm Temporary load Timber pack Temporary Services duct ting fexsting) Bridging grillage Temporary gril ges 37 8004As with all work underground, safety is of primary importance and adequate steps should be taken to ensure that operatives working on foundations are not subjected to hazards. All temporary works should be properly designed and good working practices observed in maintaining adequate support for the soil and for the concrete where appropriate, Summary ‘This paper has examined a number of different types of foundations and suggested suitable applications and construction methods. However, in looking at sketches of foundations and reading descriptions, it is very easy to underestimate the practical problems involved in constructing foundations on a building site. You should try to observe foundation works in progress and evaluate the procedures being used. 38, 8004