Energies 15 03043 v2

energies
Article
Novel Characterization of Si- and SiC-Based PWM Inverter
Bearing Currents Using Probability Density Functions †
Ryan Collin 1, * , Alex Yokochi 2 and Annette von Jouanne 1
1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA;
annette_vonjouanne@baylor.edu
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA; alex_yokochi@baylor.edu
* Correspondence: ryan_collin1@baylor.edu; Tel.: +1-360-470-1180
† This is an extended version of our paper, Novel Characterization of Si- and SiC-based PWM Inverter Bearing
Currents Using Probability Density Functions, IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE),
Vancouver, Canada, 10–14 October 2021, pp. 5146–5153.
Abstract: The high frequency PWM voltage pulses from a two-level six-switch inverter produce a
common-mode voltage in an electric machine’s windings, a fraction of which appears on the machine
shaft due to electrostatic (capacitive) coupling. When the shaft voltage exceeds the dielectric strength
of the bearing lubricating grease, electric discharge machining (EDM) electrostatic discharges occur
within the bearing, which can lead to premature failure. According to pulsed dielectric theory,
the breakdown voltage across a dielectric increases with an increase in voltage slew rate (dv/dt).
Therefore, the faster voltage rise times of wide bandgap devices are expected to produce higher
magnitude shaft voltages and EDM bearing currents. This paper presents circuit modeling of EDM
currents and compares the shaft voltage and bearing current amplitudes of silicon- and silicon
carbide-based PWM inverters through experimental measurements and a statistical analysis using
probability density functions. The statistical analysis provides insights regarding the correlation
between bearing failure and the number of damage causing discharges over time which is a key step
Citation: Collin, R.; Yokochi, A.; von in developing bearing lifetime prediction models.
Jouanne, A. Novel Characterization
of Si- and SiC-Based PWM Inverter Keywords: PWM; motor drive; variable frequency drive; common-mode; shaft voltage; EDM bearing
Bearing Currents Using Probability current; SiC
Density Functions. Energies 2022, 15,
3043. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en15093043
Academic Editor: Nicu Bizon 1. Introduction

The electric machine is one of the fundamental energy conversion tools available
Received: 2 March 2022
to human civilization, with modern machines allowing for highly efficient electrical to
Accepted: 11 April 2022
Published: 21 April 2022
mechanical energy conversion, and vice versa. The induction motor (IM) is one of the
primary machines used in industrial applications and is most likely to fail due to a bearing
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral fault, which accounts for approximately half of all failures [1–5]. One of the causes of
with regard to jurisdictional claims in bearing failure is high frequency electric discharge machining (EDM) bearing currents due
published maps and institutional affil-
to PWM variable frequency motor drives. These currents degrade the rolling elements and
iations.
races of the bearing, causing premature failure. High frequency EDM bearing currents
due to PWM inverters have been well studied for silicon (Si) semiconductor devices [6–17].
However, studies on bearing currents for wide bandgap devices such as silicon carbide
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
(SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) are lacking, and the area is relatively unexplored. The
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
few recent studies in this area have shown that the faster dv/dt slew rates and higher
This article is an open access article switching frequencies of wide bandgap semiconductor devices increase both the amplitude
distributed under the terms and and occurrence of bearing current events [18–20], implying that these devices are more
conditions of the Creative Commons dangerous for bearing health than silicon (Si) devices. With the continued push for higher
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// power density in motor drive systems, wide bandgap devices will be the semiconductor
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ choice of the future for weight and energy efficient critical applications such as electrified
4.0/). transportation. Therefore, it is essential to understand the impacts of high device voltage
Energies 2022, 15, 3043. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093043 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 3043 2 of 22
slew rates and switching frequencies on bearing health. Additionally, using EDM bearing
current data to produce bearing lifetime projections would enable machine operators to set
appropriate maintenance schedules.
To accurately predict bearing operational lifetime it is essential to understand the rate
at which damage is generated in the bearing due to bearing currents. This requires knowing
both the amplitude of the EDM bearing current discharges (and thus, associated energies),
as well as how often they occur. Various approaches to characterize bearing currents
have been presented, but primarily account for only the largest amplitude discharges in a
specified time frame [17,21–25], which disregards smaller amplitude discharges that still
cause EDM damage and contribute to vibration accumulation.
Therefore, for robust lifetime prediction models of bearings subject to EDM currents,
the amplitudes of the EDM discharges as well as the rate at which they occur must be accu-
rately characterized and known. This paper presents a novel methodology for describing
EDM current amplitudes over various motor conditions (addressing the bearing current
characterization gap in the literature), advances the research towards bearing lifetime
models, and is applicable to any motor drive system driven by a PWM inverter.
This study makes several contributions to the study of EDM bearing currents, expand-
ing on the work presented in [26]. First, in depth discharge circuit modeling is presented to
understand the effects of motor parasitics on EDM discharge characteristics. Next, a novel
statistical approach is presented to holistically characterize shaft voltages and EDM bearing
currents in an electric machine. The distribution of discharge intensities is described using
inverse Gaussian distributions constructed using experimental data collected from an IM
subject to differing loads and operational temperatures, where shaft voltage and EDM
bearing current waveform data is recorded using an oscilloscope. Data is collected for Si
IGBT devices that have a slew rate of 2800 V/µs and SiC MOSFET devices that have a slew
rate of 11,500 V/µs. Finally, the statistical data collected is used along with a theoretical
framework to explain the differences between Si and SiC bearing currents across motor
operating conditions.
This paper extends the work reported in [26] by enhancing the statistical analysis of
the discharges to include the variations in discharge resistance and using inverse Gaussian
probability distribution functions, as well as by adding a section (Section 5.5) that ties
together the bearing voltage ratio (BVR) and pulsed dielectric (PD) theories, conceptually
discussing how they apply to the EDM current phenomenon.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the background and a review
to provide further motivation for the EDM bearing current issue, Section 3 describes the
methods and materials, Section 4 presents in depth EDM bearing current parasitic modeling,
and Section 5 statistically characterizes Si and SiC shaft voltages and EDM bearing currents.
2. Background and Review

The power electronic inverter of a PWM motor drive generates high frequency voltage
pulses that produce time varying phase currents that drive the machine. In an ideal three
phase motor driven by balanced voltages, the phase voltages and currents sum to zero.
However, in many PWM drives such as the two-level six-switch inverter, the phase voltages
do not sum to zero. Consequently, a nonzero voltage potential is present at the motor
neutral point, known as the common-mode (CM) voltage as given in Equation (1).
VA + VB + VC
VCM = (1)
3
To minimize switching losses and reduce torque ripple, fast on/off times for an
inverter’s semiconductor switches and high device switching frequencies are desirable.
The introduction of these high frequency components in the CM voltage of the windings
causes a CM current to flow through otherwise irrelevant parasitic capacitive paths in
the machine. These parasitic paths lead to electrostatic energy build up on the machine
shaft. The resulting shaft voltage is a function of the BVR given in Equation (2) for an intact
hp) to reap the benefits of energy regeneration and improved power quality when multi-
ple drives are connected to the same ac bus, whereas diode bridge rectifiers are commonly
used for power ranges <25 hp. In this paper, a 5 hp motor drive system is considered,
therefore the diode bridge rectifier will be the ac-dc front end converter used. Since this
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 converter has negligible effects on motor CM voltages, the shaft voltage and bearing 3 of cur-
22
rent activity analyzed in this paper will be due to the two-level six-switch inverter driving
the machine. The CM current consists of two primary components: the displacement cur-
rent (iDISP
bearing ) and the
lubricant stator-to-frame
where, current1,(iCSF), is
as seen in Figure asthe
seen in Figure
stator 1. Two additional
winding-to-rotor currents
capacitance,
sr
are generated within the machine and are a result of the BVR and
Crf is the rotor-to-frame capacitance, and Cb is the bearing capacitance [9,10]: the CM current: EDM
bearing currents (iEDM) and circulating bearing currents (iCIRC). The currents iDISP and iEDM
flow along the same path, however the
VSha f t former is C a srdv/dt displacement current while the
BVR =
latter is due to electrostatic discharge. = (2)
VCMA part Csrof+iDISP
Cr f also
+ 2Cflows
b
through Crf.
Figure
Figure 1. The
1. The high
high frequency
frequency components
components of of
thethe inverter
inverter CM CM voltage
voltage excite
excite a CM
a CM current
current through
through
the parasitic capacitive paths in a machine.
the parasitic capacitive paths in a machine.
The CM current paths in a machine are shown in Figure 1, while Figure 2 depicts a
typical three-phase ac-dc-ac converter used in motor drive applications and the CM voltage
that the inverter portion of the converter generates. The front end ac-dc diode bridge
rectifier also generates a CM voltage [27]. However, the diode bridge rectifier CM voltage
consists of low frequency triplen harmonics, which have negligible effects on the bearing
currents considered in this paper. For active front end rectifiers, the PWM control of the
rectifier can increase the CM voltage that is seen by the motor [28], which can increase
shaft voltage amplitudes according to Equation (2), which in turn leads to larger amplitude
bearing current discharges. However, due to the additional cost, active front end rectifiers
are typically offered by drive manufacturers on larger drive systems (e.g., >25 hp) to reap
the benefits of energy regeneration and improved power quality when multiple drives
are connected to the same ac bus, whereas diode bridge rectifiers are commonly used for
power ranges <25 hp. In this paper, a 5 hp motor drive system is considered, therefore
the diode bridge rectifier will be the ac-dc front end converter used. Since this converter
has negligible effects on motor CM voltages, the shaft voltage and bearing current activity
analyzed in this paper will be due to the two-level six-switch inverter driving the machine.
The CM current consists of two primary components: the displacement current (iDISP ) and
the stator-to-frame current (iSF ), as seen in Figure 1. Two additional currents are generated
within the machine and are a result of the BVR and the CM current: EDM bearing currents
(iEDM ) and circulating bearing currents (iCIRC ). The currents iDISP and iEDM flow along the
same path, however the former is a dv/dt displacement current while the latter is due to
electrostatic discharge. A part of iDISP also flows through Crf .
Energies 2022, 15,
Energies 2022, 15, 3043
x FOR PEER REVIEW 44of
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22
Figure
Figure 2.2. A typical three-phase
A typical three-phase ac-dc-ac
ac-dc-ac motor drive power
motor drive power electronic
electronic converter
converter for lower power
for lower power
applications (<25 hp). The ac grid input voltages are converted to dc via a three-phase diode bridge
applications (<25 hp). The ac grid input voltages are converted to dc via a three-phase diode bridge
rectifier. A two-level six-switch inverter then synthesizes the dc bus into the PWM phase voltages
rectifier. A two-level six-switch inverter then synthesizes the dc bus into the PWM phase voltages
necessary to drive the machine, which is depicted with a low frequency RL model. The inverter CM
necessary
voltage is atoresult
drive of
thethe
machine, whichvoltages.
PWM phase is depicted with a low frequency RL model. The inverter CM
voltage is a result of the PWM phase voltages.
2.1.
2.1. Displacement
Displacement Current
Current
The bearing displacement current
The bearing displacement current iiDISP (see Figure 1) is due to the time rate of change
DISP (see Figure 1) is due to the time rate of change
of
of the
the shaft
shaft voltage,
voltage, which
which acts
acts across
across the
the inner
inner and
and outer
outer race
race of
of both
both the
the drive
drive end
end (DE)
(DE)
and non-drive end (NDE) bearings. This mode of bearing current is small
and non-drive end (NDE) bearings. This mode of bearing current is small in amplitude,in amplitude,
and
and researchers
researchers agree that bearing
agree that bearing displacement
displacement current
current has
has negligible
negligible effects
effects on bearing
on bearing
operation and lifetime [6,29].
operation and lifetime [6,29].
2.2.
2.2. Stator-to-Frame
Stator-to-Frame Current
Current and
and Circulating Bearing Current
Circulating Bearing Current
The
The stator-to-frame
stator-to-framecurrent
currentiSFiSF(see
(seeFigure
Figure1) 1)
is the largest
is the component
largest componentof the
of CM
the cur-
CM
rent, due to the large capacitive coupling C between the stator windings
current, due to the large capacitive coupling CSF between the stator windings and stator
SF and stator core,
where the core
core, where is electrically
the core connected
is electrically connectedto the frame
to the frame ofofthe
themachine,
machine,which
whichisisat
at system
system
ground potential. The
ground potential. The flux
flux generated
generated fromfrom this
this mode
mode of of CM
CM current
current magnetically
magnetically couples
couples
to
to the
the loop
loopthat
thatcomprises
comprisesthe therotor, DEDE
rotor, bearing,
bearing,frame,
frame,andand
NDE bearing.
NDE When
bearing. the high
When the
frequency induced
high frequency voltage
induced exceeds
voltage the dielectric
exceeds strength
the dielectric of the
strength ofbearing lubricant,
the bearing a cir-a
lubricant,
culating bearing
circulating bearingcurrent
currentiCIRC is produced
iCIRC is producedon this path,
on this as shown
path, as shownin Figure 1 [30].
in Figure 1 [30].
2.3. Electric
2.3. Electric Discharge
Discharge Machining
Machining Bearing
Bearing Current
Current
During a rising or falling edge of the
During a rising or falling edge of the CM CM voltage,
voltage, aa voltage
voltage is is produced
produced on on the
the shaft
shaft
of the machine via electrostatic (capacitive) coupling, according to Equation (2). As the
of the machine via electrostatic (capacitive) coupling, according to Equation (2). As the
machine spins,
machine spins, the
the bearing
bearing lubricant
lubricant forms
forms aa thin
thin film
film onon which bearing rolling
which bearing rolling elements
elements
ride, achieving
ride, achieving hydrodynamic
hydrodynamiclubrication.
lubrication.AnAnelectric
electricfield
fieldisisformed
formedacross thethe
across thin
thinbearing
bear-
lubricant film due to the shaft voltage, creating a bearing capacitance C . Two
ing lubricant film due to the shaft voltage, creating a bearing capacitance Cbb. Two separate separate
capacitances are formed between the inner race to ball and ball to outer race, although they
capacitances are formed between the inner race to ball and ball to outer race, although
are often lumped together into a single component. When the shaft voltage produces an
they are often lumped together into a single component. When the shaft voltage produces
electric field that exceeds the dielectric strength of the lubricant film, the lubricant breaks
an electric field that exceeds the dielectric strength of the lubricant film, the lubricant
down resulting in an electric discharge machining bearing current iEDM (see Figure 1),
breaks down resulting in an electric discharge machining bearing current iEDM (see Figure
where all the electrostatic energy stored in the rotor assembly capacitances is dissipated
1), where all the electrostatic energy stored in the rotor assembly capacitances is dissipated
during the discharge. Since the ratio of energy dissipated to bearing ball/race discharge
during the discharge. Since the ratio of energy dissipated to bearing ball/race discharge
surface area is large, the temperature increases significantly, and local melting may occur at
surface area is large, the temperature increases significantly, and local melting may occur
the bearing steel if the temperature exceeds the solidus temperature of the bearing steel.
at the bearing steel if the temperature exceeds the solidus temperature of the bearing steel.
The damaging EDM discharges produce pits and pillars on the ball and race surfaces on
The damaging EDM discharges produce pits and pillars on the ball and race surfaces
a microscopic level, which appear as frosting and fluting on a macroscopic level. Over time,
on a microscopic level, which appear as frosting and fluting on a macroscopic level. Over
these EDM bearing currents result in premature bearing failure due to increased vibration.
time, these EDM bearing currents result in premature bearing failure due to increased
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 5 of 22
vibration. EDM damage can be seen on the outer race of Figure 3. This mode of bearing
damage is much faster than metal fatigue bearing damage, and significantly reduces op-
erational lifetimecan
EDM damage [31].
be This
seen isonthe
theform of race
outer bearing current
of Figure 3. that
Thiswill
modebe considered in this
of bearing damage
paper.
is much faster than metal fatigue bearing damage, and significantly reduces operational
lifetime [31]. This is the form of bearing current that will be considered in this paper.
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure3.3.(a)
(a)EDM
EDM currents producepits
currents produce pitsand
and pillars
pillars on on
the the
racerace surface
surface as in
as seen seen
thisin this scanning
scanning electron
electron microscope
microscope (SEM)atimage
(SEM) image 1000×at 1000× magnification
magnification (b) thatasappears
(b) that appears frostingasonfrosting on a macro-
a macroscopic level.
scopic level.
Studies on the effect of voltage rise time on dielectric breakdown voltage indicate
thatStudies
a faster onrisethe
timeeffect of voltage
causes rise time
an ionization shock ontodielectric breakdown
the dielectric [32–36],voltage indicate
which allows the
that a faster
voltage rise time
to reach causes
a higher an ionization
value shock to than
before breakdown the dielectric
it otherwise[32–36],
would which
for aallows
slowertherise
voltage
time. Thisto reach
pulsed a higher
dielectricvalue
(PD)before
theorybreakdown
explains, for than it otherwise
example, wouldinfor
the increase a slower
shaft voltage
rise time. This pulsed dielectric (PD) theory explains, for example, the increase in shaft
for Si PWM inverters when compared to the same machine driven by line voltages [7].
voltage for Sibandgap
Since wide PWM invertersdeviceswhenhavecompared
even faster tovoltage
the samerisemachine
times, driven by line voltages
it is expected that shaft
[7]. Since and
voltage wide bandgap
EDM bearing devices
currenthave even faster
amplitudes willvoltage
increase rise times, posing
further, it is expected that
a significant
shaft
threatvoltage and EDM
to bearing health.bearing
In thiscurrent
paper, amplitudes
experimental will increase
data will befurther,
used toposing
explain a signifi-
how the
cant
BVRthreat
theoryto and
bearing
pulsed health. In thistheory
dielectric paper,can
experimental data According
be synthesized. will be usedtotothe explain how
BVR theory,
the BVR theory and pulsed dielectric theory can be synthesized. According to the BVR
the shaft voltage is a function of a capacitive voltage divider. On the other hand, the pulsed
theory, thetheory
dielectric shaft voltage is athe
states that function of a capacitive
breakdown voltage ofvoltage
the shaft divider. On the on
is dependent other
thehand,
device
the pulsed dielectric theory states that the breakdown voltage of the shaft is dependent
slew rate. Therefore, further clarification is required to understand how these theories
on the device
describe the EDMslew phenomenon.
rate. Therefore, further clarification is required to understand how
these theories describe the EDM phenomenon.
3. Materials and Methods
3. Materials
To allow and
forMethods
experimental measurements of EDM bearing currents, an IM was modified
by installing polyoxymethylene insulating sleeves into the frame of the motor for both the
To allow for experimental measurements of EDM bearing currents, an IM was mod-
DE and NDE bearings to sit in, which isolates the bearing outer races from the frame of the
ified by installing polyoxymethylene insulating sleeves into the frame of the motor for
machine. A jumper wire is then attached from the outer race of each bearing to the frame
both the DE and NDE bearings to sit in, which isolates the bearing outer races from the
of the machine, forcing the EDM current path through the wire [23].
frame of the machine. A jumper wire is then attached from the outer race of each bearing
It should be noted that although a measurement is now available, it is impossible to
to the frame of the machine, forcing the EDM current path through the wire [23].
directly measure the actual bearing current [6], and the measurement modification alters
It should be noted that although a measurement is now available, it is impossible to
the discharge phenomenon. As can be seen in Figure 4, the insulating sleeves introduce
directly measure the actual bearing current [6], and the measurement modification alters
an isolation capacitance Ci , while the jumper wire for bearing current measurement in-
the discharge
troduces phenomenon.
a parasitic As can
inductance Lwbe seen in Figure
, parasitics which4,are thenot
insulating
negligiblesleeves
at EDM introduce
bearing
an isolation capacitance C i, while the jumper wire for bearing current measurement intro-
current discharge frequencies. However, even though the modification has altered the true
duces a parasiticthe
measurement, inductance
apparentLbearing
w, parasitics which are not negligible at EDM bearing current
current measurement is still proportional to the actual
discharge frequencies. However, even
value [6]. For this reason, this paper will though
refer the modification has
to experimentally altered the
measured true current
bearing meas-
urement, the apparent bearing current measurement is still proportional
as “apparent bearing current”. The equivalent circuit model for the EDM bearing current to the actual
value [6]. For this
phenomenon is reason,
shown this paper4.
in Figure will refer
The to experimentally
discharge resistancemeasured
is denotedbearing
Rb . The current
actual
asbearing
“apparent bearing current”. The equivalent circuit model for the EDM
current for the modified machine can be computed by obtaining precise values bearing current
phenomenon is shownofinFigure
Figure44.(CThe discharge resistance is denoted Rb. The actual bear-
for the components i , Lw , Cb , Rb ). Discharge modeling considerations will
ing
be current
discussed for in
theSection
modified machine
4. The bearing candischarge
be computed by obtaining
is modeled with aprecise
simple values
RC circuitfor the
and
components
switch [37], of and Figure 4 (Ci, Lcomponents
the parasitic w, Cb, Rb). Discharge
from themodeling considerations
motor modification will be dis-
are included.
cussed in Section 4. The bearing discharge is modeled with a simple RC circuit and switch
[37], and the parasitic components from the motor modification are included.
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 6 of 22
Figure 4. Circuit model of EDM bearing current paths in an electric machine with the effects of
Figure 4.
4. Circuit
Circuit model
Figuremodification
motor model of
of EDM bearing
EDMcurrent
for bearing bearing current
current paths
paths
measurement in
in an
an electric
included.electric
For an machine
machine with
with the
unmodified the effects
machine, of
effectsthe
of
motor
motor modification
components Ci and Lfor
modification bearing
w are
for current
not a part
bearing measurement
of the
current included.
included. For
discharge path.
measurement For anan unmodified
unmodified machine,
machine, thethe
components
components C Cii and
and LLwware
arenot
notaapart
partof
ofthe
thedischarge
dischargepath.
path.
During an EDM discharge, the switch on either the DE or NDE bearing of Figure 4 is
During
closed,
During an
allowingEDM
an EDMdischarge,
the electrostaticthe
discharge, theswitch
switchononeither
energy stored
eitherthe theDE
in the shaft oror
DE
toNDE
NDE bearing of
bearing
be released Figure
of 4the
Figure
through is4
closed, allowing
is closed,
bearing.
allowingthe electrostatic
The parasitic components energy
the electrostatic energystored
of Figure
stored
4 causein the
in themeasured
theshaft to be
shaft to be released
released
shaft through
through
voltages the
the
and bear-
bearing.
bearing.TheTheparasitic components
parasitic components of Figure 4
of Figure cause the
4 cause measured shaft
the measured
ing currents to appear as damped sinusoids, as can be seen in Figure 5. voltages
shaft and
voltages bear-
and
ing currents
bearing to appear
currents as damped
to appear sinusoids,
as damped as can
sinusoids, as be
canseen in Figure
be seen 5. 5.
in Figure
Figure
Figure 5. A 17
5. A 17 V,
V,700
700mA
mA discharge
discharge measured
measured experimentally
experimentally at a at a discharge
discharge frequency
frequency of MHz.
of 10.33 10.33
Figure 5. A 17 V, 700 mA discharge measured experimentally at a discharge frequency of 10.33
MHz.
MHz.Although an EDM event occurs at just one bearing, the bearing capacitance of the
Although
opposite bearing anisEDMincludedevent in occurs at just that
the parasitics one cause
bearing, the the
ringing bearing capacitance
discharge of the
phenomenon,
Although
therefore a an
discharge EDM at event
one occurs
bearing can atbejust one
seen in bearing,
opposite bearing is included in the parasitics that cause the ringing discharge phenome-
the the
measurement bearing wirecapacitance
inductance of
of the
the
opposite
other bearing
bearing [22],is included
although in
with the
a parasitics
much that
smaller cause
non, therefore a discharge at one bearing can be seen in the measurement wire inductance
amplitude. the ringing
It is discharge
important to phenome-
distinguish
non,
of thetherefore
these other bearing
EDM a discharge
bearing at from
one bearing
[22], although
currents with acan
circulating muchbe seen
smaller
bearing in the measurement
amplitude.
currents, wire
likeinductance
It is important
even though to dis-
circulating
of the other bearing [22], although with a much smaller
tinguish these EDM bearing currents from circulating bearing currents, even though
bearing currents an EDM discharge can be seen at the amplitude.
opposite It is
bearing important
from to dis-
where likeit
tinguish
circulating these
occurred. For EDM
bearing bearing
circulating
currents currents
bearing
an EDM from
currents,
discharge circulating
the current bearing
can bemagnitude currents,
seen at theisopposite even
equal and though
opposite
bearing like
from at
circulating
each bearing, bearing
as eachcurrents
bearing an EDM
dielectricdischarge
film has can
been be seen
punctured,
where it occurred. For circulating bearing currents, the current magnitude is equal and at the opposite
where only bearing
one from
bearing
where
opposite it occurred.
dielectric atfilm
each For circulating
is punctured
bearing, asfor
eachEDM bearing
bearing
bearing currents,
currents.film
dielectric the current
In this
has beenmagnitude
paper, the breakdown
punctured, iswhere
equal and
voltage
only
opposite
and the at
peak each
of bearing,
the bearing as each
current bearing
are used dielectric
to film
characterize has
one bearing dielectric film is punctured for EDM bearing currents. In this paper, the break- been
each punctured,
discharge that where
occurs. only
For
one bearing
example, thedielectric
EDM film
discharge is punctured
of Figure for
5 is EDM bearing
characterized currents.
down voltage and the peak of the bearing current are used to characterize each dischargeas a 17 V, In
700this
mApaper, the
discharge. break-
down
that voltage
The
occurs. Forand
experimental the peak
example, testbedof EDM
the the bearing
employed
discharge current
to obtain are used
shaft
of Figure istocharacterized
5voltage characterize
and bearing each a discharge
ascurrent
17 V, data
700
that discharge.
is
mA occurs. For example, the EDM discharge of Figure 5 is characterized as a 17
shown in Figure 6. In this testbed, two two-level six-switch inverters, namely V, 700
a Toshiba
mA
VF-S15discharge.
Si-based VFD (2800 V/µs) and a Cree SiC inverter evaluation unit (11,500 V/µs) [26]
The experimental testbed employed to obtain shaft voltage and bearing current data
is shown experimental
The
are used to drive a 460 testbedV, 4 pole, employed
1800 rpm, to 5obtain shaft voltage
hp squirrel cage IM.and To bearing current
enable acquisition dataof
in Figure 6. In this testbed, two two-level six-switch inverters, namely a Toshiba
is shown
high in
resolutionFigure data6. In
forthis
latetestbed,
modelling,two two-level
the data shownsix-switch
VF-S15 Si-based VFD (2800 V/µs) and a Cree SiC inverter evaluation unit (11,500 V/µs)
in Figureinverters,
5 wasnamely
collected a Toshiba
using a
VF-S15 Si-based
scope sampling
[26] are used VFDof
rate
to drive a (2800
460 V,V/µs)
4 pole,and
1.25 GHz (Record
1800 a rpm,
Cree
Length
5SiC
hp inverter
1000, 80 ns/div,
squirrel cage evaluation
IM. To unit
10 div). (11,500 V/µs)
enable acquisition
[26]
of are resolution
high used to drive data a 460
for V,late4 pole, 1800 rpm,
modelling, 5 hp shown
the data squirrelincage Figure IM. 5To enable
was acquisition
collected using
of high resolution data for late modelling, the data
a scope sampling rate of 1.25 GHz (Record Length 1000, 80 ns/div, 10 div). shown in Figure 5 was collected using
a scope sampling rate of 1.25 GHz (Record Length 1000, 80
The design of the SiC motor drive system is detailed in [38]. The IM is coupled to ns/div, 10 div).
anotherTheIM design of the SiC
to provide motorusing
loading, drive an system is detailed
insulated shaft in [38]. The
coupling to IM is coupled
prevent bearing to
another IM to provide loading, using an insulated shaft coupling to prevent bearing
to accurately capture the high frequency oscillations of the shaft voltage and EDM bearing
currents, which discharged at ~10 MHz. We found that increasing the sampling rate didn’t
improve peak amplitude results, and significantly limited the number of discharges that
could be captured, decreasing the quality of the sampling statistics used in the evaluation
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 of the probability density functions describing the discharge frequencies. To provide 7high
of 22
quality counting statistics, 5 replicates of the data were collected at each bearing temper-
ature to yield a complete data set.
Figure 6. Experimental testbed constructed for the acquisition of shaft voltages and EDM bearing
Figure 6. Experimental testbed constructed for the acquisition of shaft voltages and EDM bearing
currents for Si- and SiC-based PWM inverters.
currents for Si- and SiC-based PWM inverters.
4. EDM Bearing Current Modeling
The design of the SiC motor drive system is detailed in [38]. The IM is coupled
to anothersection
This IM to details
providecircuit models
loading, usingdeveloped in PSpice
an insulated that model
shaft coupling the behavior
to prevent of
bearing
the EDM discharges for both modified and unmodified IMs.
currents from discharging in one machine due to shaft voltages produced in the other.
An ABB regenerative VFD is used as a part of the dynamometer system to apply torque
4.1. Modifiedto
commands Induction
the loadMotor
machine. In addition to the motor modifications mentioned in the
The equivalent
previous circuit model
section, a thermistor wasfor analyzing
placed on theEDM discharge
bearings transients
to monitor at the
bearing DE bear-
temperature.
ing is shown in Figure 7. Network analyzer S11 parameters were used to extract the com-
To prevent the circulating bearing current phenomenon from occurring, measurements
ponent valuesout
were carried for only
Crf, Cati, and Lw under
the DE rated speed
wire, leaving and zeroend
the opposite speed conditions using
disconnected. The IMa
has a BVR of 8% (a CM voltage transient of 426 V produced a 33 V shaft voltage) and
employs SKF 6306-2Z/C3GJN bearings. A Tektronix MDO3014 oscilloscope and TCP0030A
current probe was used to measure the apparent bearing current through the DE bearing.
It was found that in order to optimize the ability to accurately measure the magnitude of
the less frequent, but more damaging, of the large current discharges, a lower sensitivity
combination on the current probe was useful. This did result in coarsening of the data and,
indeed, missing many low amplitude discharges. Because these low energy discharges
have negligible impact on the bearing surface, neglecting these discharges does not affect
subsequent statistical evaluation of bearing lifetimes. In addition, a TPP0250 voltage probe
and graphite brush were used to collect shaft voltage waveform data.
For the data collection, a 50 MHz sampling frequency was implemented on the scope
to accurately capture the high frequency oscillations of the shaft voltage and EDM bearing
currents, which discharged at ~10 MHz. We found that increasing the sampling rate didn’t
improve peak amplitude results, and significantly limited the number of discharges that
could be captured, decreasing the quality of the sampling statistics used in the evaluation
of the probability density functions describing the discharge frequencies. To provide
high quality counting statistics, 5 replicates of the data were collected at each bearing
temperature to yield a complete data set.
4. EDM Bearing Current Modeling

This section details circuit models developed in PSpice that model the behavior of the
EDM discharges for both modified and unmodified IMs.
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 8 of 22

4.1. Modified Induction Motor
The equivalent circuit model for analyzing EDM discharge transients at the DE bearing
isNanoVNA
shown in Figure vector7.networkNetwork analyzer.
analyzerAt S11rated speed and
parameters low
were usedbearing operational
to extract the componenttemper-
NanoVNA
atures,for vector
theCbearing network
lubricant analyzer.
remains At rated
intact and speed
allowing and low bearing
for a network operational
analyzer temper-
using measurement
values rf , Ci , and Lw under rated speed zero speed conditions a NanoVNA
atures,
of thethe
vector networkbearing
parallel lubricantAt
combination
analyzer. remains
of
rated intact
Crf and
speed allowing
theand twolow for a network
bearing
bearing capacitances analyzer
operational themeasurement
attemperatures,
DE and NDE. the
ofbearing
the rated
The parallel speed
lubricant combination
test of
was performed
remains Crf and
intact the
on an
allowing two bearing
unmodified
for a network capacitances
IM,analyzer atmeasurement
which ensured the DE and
that theNDE.
ofmeas-
the
The ratedcombination
urement
parallel speed
circuitry testdidwas Cperformed
of not alterthe
thetwoon an unmodified
measurement. At zeroIM, speed,
which
at thetheensuredand that
DEbearing the meas-
lubricant film
rf and bearing capacitances NDE. The rated
urement
is thintest
speed circuitry
enough did
to
was performed not alter
conduct the
due
on measurement.
anto direct contact
unmodified IM,Atofwhich
zero
the speed,
bearing
ensured the
ballbearing
andthe
that lubricant
race surfaces,
measurement filmre-
iscircuitry
thin enough
sulting in
did to conduct
a short
not across
alter theC due to direct
b, which
measurement. contact
in turn Atallows
zeroof speed,
the
for bearing
a network ball
the bearing and
analyzer race
lubricant surfaces,
measurement
film is thin re- of
sulting
Lw. For C
enough in a short
toi, conduct across
this parameter C
due towas
b , which in turn
extracted
direct contactby allows
ofremovingfor
the bearing a network
theball
motor analyzer
andend raceand measurement
measuring
surfaces, theofS11
resulting
Lin . For C
wparameters i , this
a short across parameter
between was
the bearing
Cb , which extracted
in turnouter by removing
race and
allows for athe the motor
machine
network end
frame. An
analyzer and measuring the
additional parallel
measurement ofSL11w .
parameters
plate
For Ci ,capacitor between
this parameter the
calculation bearing outer race and
using a polyoxymethylene
was extracted the machine
by removing the dielectric frame.
motor end An
wasand additional
performed
measuring parallel
forthe Ci. SThe
11
plate capacitor
bearing
parameters calculation
capacitance
between Cb was
the using
bearing alsoaouter
polyoxymethylene
characterized
race and on dielectric
theamachine
separate was performed
testbed
frame. Anusing S11 for
additional Cparallel
i. The
parameters.
bearing
plate capacitance
Additionally,
capacitor Cb was also
a function
calculation using characterized
generator with 50 on
a polyoxymethylene Ω asource
separate testbed
resistance
dielectric waswasusing S11 parameters.
utilized
performed to C
for apply
i . Thea
Additionally,
bearing a
voltage step to the machine
capacitance function C b generator
was with 50 Ω source resistance
shaft. Since the equivalent circuit of the voltage
also characterized on a separate was
testbed utilized
using S to apply
11 step is a first
parameters. a
voltage step
order RC circuit
Additionally, to the machine
at rated generator
a function shaft. Since
speed (lubricant the
with 50 equivalent
Ω source
remains circuit
intact), of the
the charging
resistance voltage step is
rate cantobeapply
was utilized a first
used ato
order
voltage RC step
extract circuit
the toat
net rated
capacitance
the speed
machine (lubricant
onshaft.
the shaft,
Since remains
which intact),
then
the equivalent can the charging
becircuit
used to ratevoltage
ofproduce
the cana be used
Crf step
measure- toa
is
extract
ment.
first the
orderIt was net
RCcapacitance
determined
circuit at rated onthatthe shaft,
the
speed which then
grounding
(lubricant wire can beintact),
usedRto
resistance
remains produce
is
w the negligible
charging a Crfcompared
measure-
rate can beto
ment.
the discharge resistance Rb, and that the isolation capacitance has negligible effects ontothe
used It
towas determined
extract the net that the
capacitance grounding
on the wire
shaft, resistance
which thenR w is
cannegligible
be used compared
to produce a
the rfdischarge
Cdischarge
measurement. resistance R , and that the isolation capacitance
transient. Finally, as was available, the measured circuit component values
It was b determined that the grounding wire has negligible
resistance R effects
w is on
negligible the
discharge
were compared
compared transient. with
to the dischargeFinally,
values aspublished
was available,
resistance Rb , in
and the
thethat measured
literature
the as a circuit
isolation final component
check.
capacitance In
has Figure values
negligible 8, the
were
effects compared
equivalenton the withmodels
discharge
circuit valuesfor
transient.published
Finally,
zero speed in the
asandliterature
was available,
rated speed as aconditions
the final check.
measured areInprovided.
Figure 8, the
circuit component
equivalent
values were circuit
comparedmodels for values
with zero speed and rated
published in the speed conditions
literature as a finalare provided.
check. In Figure 8,
the equivalent circuit models for zero speed and rated speed conditions are provided.
Figure7.7.Modified
Figure Modifiedinduction
inductionmotor
motorbearing
bearingdischarge
dischargeequivalent
equivalentcircuit
circuitmodel.
model.
Figure 7. Modified induction motor bearing discharge equivalent circuit model.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure8.8.Equivalent
Figure Equivalentparasitic
parasiticcircuit
circuitmodel
modelfor
for(a)
(a)zero
zerospeed
speedandand(b)
(b)rated
ratedspeed
speedconditions.
conditions.The
The
Figure 8.
bearing Equivalent
is a short parasitic
circuit at circuit
zero model
speed for
due to(a) zero
direct speed
contact and (b)
between rated
the speed
balls conditions.
and races,
bearing is a short circuit at zero speed due to direct contact between the balls and races, while the The
while the
bearing is abehaves
bearing short circuit
as a at zero speed
capacitance at due to
rated direct
speed duecontact
to thebetween
balls the on
riding balls
a andof
film races, while the
lubricant.
bearing behaves as a capacitance at rated speed due to the balls riding on a film of lubricant.
bearing behaves as a capacitance at rated speed due to the balls riding on a film of lubricant.
TheEDM
The EDMdischarge
dischargemodel
modelofofFigure
Figure77waswasimplemented
implementedininPSpice.
PSpice.Parameter
Parametertuning
tuning
The EDM discharge model of Figure 7 was implemented in PSpice.
was performed using the PSpice Optimizer tool. This tool tunes the parameters ofofthe
was performed using the PSpice Optimizer tool. This tool tunes the Parameter
parameters tuning the
was performed
simulation using
model to the
matchPSpice Optimizer
experimental tool.
shaft This
voltage tool
and tunes
bearing the parameters
current
simulation model to match experimental shaft voltage and bearing current measurements. of the
measurements.
simulation modelmeasured
Experimentally
Experimentally to match experimental
measured andliterature
and literatureshaft voltage
values
values and
wereused
were bearing
usedasasseedscurrent
seeds forthe
for measurements.
the refinedparame-
refined param-
Experimentally
eters,
ters, andand the
the measured and
modelrefinement
model literature
refinementwas values
wasapproached were
approachedby used as
byrefining seeds for
refiningparameters the refined
parametersinindifferent param-
differentorder
order
eters, and the model
combinations,
combinations, to refinement
toensure
ensure the was approached
thequality
quality ofofthe by refining
theresults.
results. Table11parameters
Table summarizes
summarizes inthe
different order
themodified
modified IM
IM
combinations, to ensure
circuit modeling the quality
component values,of and
the Figure
results.9Table
shows1 experimental
summarizes the andmodified
simulationIMre-
circuit
sults modeling
for a 20 V,component values, and Figure 9 shows experimental and simulation re-
1150 mA discharge.
sults for a 20 V, 1150 mA discharge.
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 9 of 22
circuit
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW modeling component values, and Figure 9 shows experimental and simulation
9 of 21
results for a 20 V, 1150 mA discharge.
Table 1. Summary of modified IM circuit modeling component values with final values in the “PSpice
Table 1. Summary of modified IM circuit modeling component values with final values in the
Optimizer” row.
“PSpice Optimizer” row.
Component Lw Rb Ci C C
Component Lw Rb Ci Crfrf Cb b
Literature
Literature - - 1–20
1–20 ΩΩ [6][6] - - -- 0.2–1 nFnF[39]
0.2–1 [39]
Calculation - - 141 pF - -
Calculation - - 141 pF - -
Network
Network Analyzer
Analyzer 300
300 nHnH - - 9797pFpF 1826
1826 pFpF 199
199pFpF
Step Response
Step Response - - - - - - 1500
1500 pFpF - -
PSpice Optimizer
PSpice Optimizer 213
213 nHnH 1–20
1–20 ΩΩ 120
120 pFpF 1045 pF
1045 pF 200 pFpF
200
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Experimental
Experimentaland
andPSpice
PSpicesimulation
simulation waveforms
waveforms for
for aa 20
20 V,
V, 1150
1150 mA
mA discharge.
discharge.
From Figure
From Figure 9,9, the
the PSpice
PSpice simulation
simulation model
modelaccurately
accurately describes
describes the
theEDM
EDMdischarge
discharge
phenomenon. For this 20 V, 1150 mA discharge, a bearing resistance of Rb = 3.25= Ω3.25
phenomenon. For this 20 V, 1150 mA discharge, a bearing resistance of R b Ω
opti-
optimized the fit, although while fitting various discharges it was determined
mized the fit, although while fitting various discharges it was determined that the bearing that the
bearing discharge
discharge resistance resistance varies
varies from from
1–20 Ω, 1–20 Ω, as confirmed
as confirmed in [6].
in [6]. This canThis can be explained
be explained by the
by the variable nature of the discharge gap distance within
variable nature of the discharge gap distance within the bearing. the bearing.

The PSpice model developed from the previous section can be used to extract the
EDMThe PSpice
bearing model
current developed
profile from thefor
and amplitude previous section can
an unmodified be used
IM where to extract
a bearing the
current
EDM bearing current profile and amplitude for an unmodified IM where a bearing cur-
measurement is not available. In Figure 10, a 23 V shaft voltage discharge that occurs on an
rent measurement
unmodified is not available. In Figure 10, a 23 V shaft voltage discharge that occurs
IM is shown.
on anSince
unmodified IM is shown.
the grounding wire is now no longer included in the discharge circuitry, the
second order oscillatory effects are also removed from the discharge, and the discharge
takes ~17 ns to completely dissipate to 0 V, compared to the discharge of the modified IM
(Figure 9) which takes ~600 ns to completely dissipate to 0 V. The equivalent circuit model
for the unmodified IM is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 10. A 23 V shaft voltage discharge that takes ~17 ns to discharge on the unmodified IM.
Since the grounding wire is now no longer included in the discharge circuitry, the
The PSpice model developed from the previous section can be used to extract the
EDM bearing current profile and amplitude for an unmodified IM where a bearing cur-
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 rent measurement is not available. In Figure 10, a 23 V shaft voltage discharge that occurs
10 of 22
on an unmodified IM is shown.

Figure 10.10.
Figure A 23AV
23shaft voltage
V shaft discharge
voltage thatthat
discharge takes ~17~17
takes ns to
ns discharge on on
to discharge thethe
unmodified IM.IM.
unmodified
Since the grounding wire is now no longer included in the discharge circuitry, the
Figure 11. Unmodified induction motor bearing discharge equivalent circuit model.
With the isolation capacitance and jumper wire removed from the system, the dis-
Figure
Figure 11.
charge 11. Unmodified
behaves induction
as a first
Unmodified ordermotor
induction bearing
RC circuit.
motor bearingThedischarge equivalent
same equivalent
discharge parameters circuit model.in Table 1 are
as shown
circuit model.
utilized, and the resulting EDM bearing current is shown in Figure 12. Here again, a bear-
With
With the
ing resistancethe of
isolation
Rb = 3.5capacitance
isolation capacitance andand jumper
Ω allows the shaft
jumper wire
wire removed
removed from
voltage to completely
from thethe system,
discharge
system, the
within ~17dis-
the dis-
ns.
chargethe
charge
Since behaves
behaves as amodels
as
discharge
a first order
first order RC circuit.
RC circuit.
of Figures 7 and The
11same
The same parameters
parameters
are linear systems,as the
as shown
ratioinbetween
shown in Table 11 the
Table are
are
utilized, and the
utilized, and
peak current the
for aresulting
resulting EDM
modified EDM
andbearing current
bearing current
unmodified IMisare
shown
is shown inin Figure
Figure
the same
12.12. Here
Here
for various again,
again,
shaft a bear-
a bearing
discharge
ing resistance
resistance of Rof = 3.5 Ω
b Rb = 3.5 Ω allows the shaft voltage to completely discharge within ~17
allows the shaft voltage to completely discharge within ~17 ns.
ns.
voltages, which for the measurements in this research is:
Since the
Since the discharge
discharge models
models of of Figures
Figures 77 and
and 1111 are
are linear
linear systems,
systems, thethe ratio
ratio between
between thethe
^
peak current for a modified and unmodified
peak current for a modified and unmodified IM are
IM are the same for various shaft discharge
the same for various shaft discharge
voltages, which
which for 𝜑 =this = 0.2 (3)
for the
the measurements
measurements in in this research
research is:
^
voltages, is:
This ratio is dependent on the inductance^
Î MOD of the jumper wire Lw. As Lw → 0, the
ϕ=𝜑 ^= ^ = 0.2 (3)
(3)
bearing current amplitude approaches 𝐼ÎUN MOD .
This ratio is dependent on the inductance of the jumper wire Lw. As Lw → 0, the
^
bearing current amplitude approaches 𝐼 .
Figure
Figure 12. Simulated EDM
EDM bearing
bearingcurrent
currentfor
fora a2323VVshaft
shaft voltage
voltage discharge
discharge that
that dissipates
dissipates in ~17
in ~17 ns.
ns.
This ratio is dependent on the inductance of the jumper wire Lw . As Lw → 0, the
Figure
5. Shaft12.Voltages
bearing Simulated
current EDM
and bearing
EDM
amplitude current
Bearing
approaches Îfor
UNaMOD
Currents 23 Due
V. shaft
tovoltage
Si and discharge that dissipates in ~17
SiC Inverters
ns.
To investigate
5. Shaft Voltages and theEDMimpact of SiC inverter
Bearing Currentsswitching
Due to Sispeeds
and SiC onInverters
machine bearing EDM
currents relative to Si inverters, an experimental procedure was developed for the testbed
5. Shaft Voltages and
To investigate theEDMimpactBearing Currentsswitching
of SiC inverter Due to Sispeeds
and SiC onInverters
machine bearing EDM
of Figure 6. The bearings operate in a temperature range between ambient (~20 °C) and
To investigate
currents relative
full machine
to
loading the
Si impact
inverters,
(~60 of SiC
°C). At
an inverter
experimental
various switching
procedure
operating speeds
points
was on machine
developed
between bearing
for
30–60 °C, EDM
the testbed
1000 ms of
◦ C)
currents
of Figure relative
6. The to Si inverters,
bearings
shaft voltage and EDM bearing
operatean experimental
in
current
a procedure
temperature
data were
range
recorded was
between
on developed
the
ambient
modifiedfor the
(~20
IM. testbed
Once
and
the
◦ C). At various operating points between 30–60 ◦ C, 1000 ms
of
fullFigure
data
machine6. The bearings
loading
was collected,
(~60operate
an algorithm in adeveloped
was temperature
thatrange between
iterates throughambient (~20 °C) and
each waveform and
full machine
extracts loading
the peak (~60 °C).
apparent At various
bearing operating
current, points
as well as between
the shaft 30–60 °C,voltage
breakdown 1000 ms of
that
shaft voltage and EDM bearing current data were recorded on the modified
produced the bearing discharge. Only discharges with an amplitude greater than 50 mA IM. Once the
data was
were collected,
recorded an algorithm
to prevent currentwas
probedeveloped that
noise due toiterates
bearingthrough each waveform
displacement and
current from
extracts the peak apparent bearing current, as well as the shaft breakdown
affecting the data. Additionally, discharges less than 50 mA most likely do not cause EDM voltage that
an ambient temperature of 20 °C. Each data point of Figure 13 denotes a discharge event,
where the shaft breakdown voltage and peak apparent bearing current are defined as
shown in Figure 5.
As the bearing temperature and machine load increase, the maximum amplitude of
the shaft voltage and bearing current discharges decrease, due to a thinner lubricant film
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 11 of 22
at higher temperatures. A thinner lubricant leads to an increase in the electric field be-
tween the inner and outer race of the bearing for the same shaft voltage, which results in
discharges occurring at lower voltages. In other words, the maximum possible shaft volt-
of shaft voltage and EDM bearing current data were recorded on the modified IM. Once
agethefor
dataeach
wasoperating point
collected, an decreases
algorithm was with an increase
developed in temperature
that iterates through eachand load because
waveform
the lubricant dielectric cannot support an electric field greater than the
and extracts the peak apparent bearing current, as well as the shaft breakdown voltage electric field re-
quired to produce
that produced dielectric
the bearing breakdown
discharge. Only and a discharge.
discharges with anAt a 37 °C greater
amplitude bearingthanoperational
50
temperature, the lubricant
mA were recorded filmcurrent
to prevent is just probe
becoming
noisethin
due enough
to bearingto displacement
produce discharges.
current Since
this
fromis the operational
affecting the data.point with thedischarges
Additionally, thickest lubricant
less than 50film
mAwhere discharges
most likely do not are
causepresent,
it EDM
is also the operating
damage point
to the race withand
surface, thetherefore
largest amplitude
do not affectofbearing
shaft voltages andlifetime.
operational bearing cur-
Therefore,
rents, whichthese small
are the amplitude
most discharges
damaging. Belowcan be disregarded.
37 °C, the lubricantThefilmresults from
is thick this that
enough
experimental procedure are shown in Figure 13, where all the extracted data is displayed.
a discharge event becomes very rare (34 discharge events at 34 °C in 1000 ms vs. 10,961
All data was collected at a motor speed of 1800 rpm, a switching frequency of 10 kHz,
discharge eventstemperature
and an ambient at 39 °C in of
1000
20 ◦ms), anddata
C. Each the point
shaftofvoltage
Figure is
13adenotes
fraction of the machine
a discharge
CM voltage.
event, where the shaft breakdown voltage and peak apparent bearing current are defined
as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 13. Cont.

Energies 2022, 15, 3043 12 of 22
Figure 13. Shaft discharge voltage and peak apparent bearing current data for various bearing oper-
Figure 13. Shaft discharge voltage and peak apparent bearing current data for various bearing op-
ational temperatures: 3D plots for (a) Si and (b) SiC inverters. 2D plots comparing shaft discharge
erational temperatures: 3D plots for (a) Si and (b) SiC inverters. 2D plots comparing shaft discharge
voltages against operational temperature for (c) Si and (d) SiC inverters, and 2D plots displaying the
voltages against operational temperature for (c) Si and (d) SiC inverters, and 2D plots displaying
peak apparent bearing currents for a given shaft breakdown voltage for (e) Si and (f) SiC inverters.
the peak apparent bearing currents for a given shaft breakdown voltage for (e) Si and (f) SiC invert-
ers. As the bearing temperature and machine load increase, the maximum amplitude
of the shaft voltage and bearing current discharges decrease, due to a thinner lubricant
5.1.
filmPeak Apparent
at higher Bearing Current
temperatures. Distribution
A thinner lubricant leads to an increase in the electric field
The the
between peak
innerapparent
and outerbearing current
race of the bearingamplitude
for the same isshaft
linearly dependent
voltage, on the
which results in shaft
discharges occurring at lower voltages. In other words, the maximum possible shaft voltage
breakdown voltage at each motor operational point due to the linearity of the discharge
for each operating point decreases with an increase in temperature and load because the
circuit (Section 3, Figure 13e,d). A line of best fit was calculated using a least squares fit
lubricant dielectric cannot support an electric field greater than the electric field required to
for the data
produce displayed
dielectric in Figure
breakdown and a13e,d.
discharge. At a 37 ◦ C bearing operational temperature,
the lubricant film is just becoming 𝑖 thin
(𝑣) enough
= 0.05𝑣to−produce
0.07, 𝑖 discharges.
>0 Since this is the (4)
operational point with the thickest lubricant film where discharges are present, it is also the
Whilepoint
operating this with
leastthe
squares
largestline fits theofdata
amplitude shaftshown,
voltagesinspection
and bearingofcurrents,
Figure 13e,d
which reveals
◦
that themost
are the apparent bearing
damaging. Belowcurrent
37 C,fortheany amplitude
lubricant film is of shaft
thick voltage
enough that has a distribution
a discharge
◦ C in 1000 ms vs. 10,961 discharge
about the value
event becomes given by Equation (4), as shown in Figure 14. This is due to the variable
very rare (34 discharge events at 34
events at 39 ◦ C in 1000 ms), and the shaft voltage is a fraction of the machine CM voltage.
discharge resistance. To investigate this, three different discharge sets were analyzed for
the
5.1.SiPeak
andApparent
SiC inverter
Bearingshaft voltage
Current and bearing current data: 9.7 V discharges produced
Distribution
by theTheSiCpeak
inverter at 42 °C, 7 V discharges
apparent bearing current amplitude produced by thedependent
is linearly SiC inverter
on at
the37shaft
°C, and 15
Vbreakdown
dischargesvoltage
created at by the
each Si inverter
motor at 38point
operational °C. Itdue
wastodetermined
the linearitythat the
of the peak apparent
discharge
bearing
circuit (Section 3, Figure 13e,d). A line of best fit was calculated using a least squares fitthe
current for any particular shaft voltage follows a normal distribution, for results
ofthewhich can be seen
data displayed graphically
in Figure 13e,d. in Figure 14 for the SiC inverter 9.7 V discharges at 42
°C.
i f it (v) = 0.05v − 0.07, i f it > 0 (4)
While this least squares line fits the data shown, inspection of Figure 13e,d reveals
that the apparent bearing current for any amplitude of shaft voltage has a distribution
about the value given by Equation (4), as shown in Figure 14. This is due to the variable
the Si and SiC inverter shaft voltage and bearing current data: 9.7 V discharges produced
by the SiC inverter at 42 ◦ C, 7 V discharges produced by the SiC inverter at 37 ◦ C, and 15 V
discharges created by the Si inverter at 38 ◦ C. It was determined that the peak apparent
bearing current for any particular shaft voltage follows a normal distribution, the results of
which can be seen graphically in Figure 14 for the SiC inverter 9.7 V discharges at 42 ◦ C.
Figure 14. The resulting peak apparent bearing current follows a normal distribution for any par-
ticular shaft breakdown voltage, in this case for the SiC inverter 9.7 V discharges at 42 °C: (a) histo-
gram of experimental data with fitted theoretical normal distribution, (b) cumulative density plot
the Si and SiC inverter shaft voltage and bearing current data: 9.7 V discharges produced
by the SiC inverter at 42 °C, 7 V discharges produced by the SiC inverter at 37 °C, and 15
V discharges created by the Si inverter at 38 °C. It was determined that the peak apparent
bearing current for any particular shaft voltage follows a normal distribution, the results
Energies 2022, 15, 3043
of which can be seen graphically in Figure 14 for the SiC inverter 9.7 V discharges13atof42
22
°C.
Figure
Figure14.
14. The
The resulting peak apparent
resulting peak apparent bearing
bearingcurrent
currentfollows
followsa anormal
normal distribution
distribution forfor
anyany par-
particu-
ticular shaft
lar shaft breakdown
breakdown voltage,
voltage, in case
in this this case forSiC
for the theinverter
SiC inverter
9.7 V 9.7 V discharges
discharges at 42 ◦at
C:42(a)°C: (a) histo-
histogram of
gram of experimental
experimental data withdata with
fitted fitted theoretical
theoretical normal distribution,
normal distribution, (b) cumulative
(b) cumulative density plot density plot
comparing
data (blue) with theoretical normal distributions (orange), and (c) probability plot demonstrating the
normally distributed data.
comparing data (blue) with theoretical normal distributions (orange), and (c) probability plot
demonstrating the normally distributed data.
From Figure 14, the plots demonstrate the normally distributed peak apparent bearing
current
From data for any
Figure particular
14, the shaft breakdown
plots demonstrate the normally voltage. A fewpeak
distributed modifications
apparent bear-to the data
were
ing current data for any particular shaft breakdown voltage. A few modifications to thestandard
necessary. First, small groups of outliers were identified beyond three
data were necessary.
deviations below the First,
mean small
of groups of outliers were
each distribution. identified
These outliersbeyond
are due threetostandard
algorithm error.
deviations
The algorithmbelow the mean
used of each
to extract distribution.
discharge These outliers
amplitudes are through
iterates due to algorithm
the shaft error.
voltage and
The algorithm
apparent bearingusedcurrent
to extract discharge amplitudes
oscilloscope waveforms, iterates through
searching for the
localshaft voltageinand
maxima the bearing
apparentsignal.
current bearingWhen
currentaoscilloscope
bearing currentwaveforms,
local searching
maximum forislocal maximaitinisthe
detected, bear- along
recorded
ing current
with signal. When
the maximum shafta bearing
voltagecurrent
within local
thatmaximum
local area. is detected,
Although it iseffective,
recorded thealong
algorithm
with
is the maximum
prone to occasionalshaft error
voltagesuch
within
as that
noise local
andarea. Although
larger effective,
amplitude the algorithmcurrents.
displacement
is prone
These to occasional
outliers error such asinvestigated,
were thoroughly noise and larger andamplitude displacementfrom
it was determined currents.
viewing the
These outliers were thoroughly investigated, and it was determined from viewing the
shaft voltage and bearing current waveforms that discharge events recorded below three
shaft voltage and bearing current waveforms that discharge events recorded below three
standard deviations from the peak apparent bearing current mean were false readings
standard deviations from the peak apparent bearing current mean were false readings
from the algorithm, and therefore can be disregarded. Second, the ADC resolution of the
from the algorithm, and therefore can be disregarded. Second, the ADC resolution of the
Tektronix MDO3014oscilloscope
Tektronix MDO3014 oscilloscope used
used in this
in this application
application was 20was mA,20 mA, therefore
therefore each data each data
point
point extracted by the algorithm falls into a bin with 20 mA spacing. In order to test for test for
extracted by the algorithm falls into a bin with 20 mA spacing. In order to
normality of
normality ofthe
thedata,
data, thethe
Shapiro-Wilk
Shapiro-Wilk TestTest
was was
implemented
implemented [40], which
[40], was
which used
wasin used in
tandem with visual evaluations of Figure 14. The Shapiro-Wilk Test is very sensitive to
tandem with visual evaluations of Figure 14. The Shapiro-Wilk Test is very sensitive to
discrete data. By adding a uniformly distributed random noise signal
discrete data. By adding a uniformly distributed random noise signal to the data with to the data with an
amplitude
an amplitude of 0.02, the data
of 0.02, thecan be moved
data can beout of the out
moved discrete
of thebinsdiscrete
into a continuous
bins into distri-
a continuous
bution without altering the mean or standard deviation of the
distribution without altering the mean or standard deviation of the distribution.distribution. To see the ef- To see the
fects ofof
effects thetheinjected noise
injected andand
noise elimination of theofoutliers
elimination that arethat
the outliers a result
are aofresult
algorithm
of algorithm
error, a probability plot of the raw, unmodified data is provided in Figure 15. This plot
error, a probability plot of the raw, unmodified data is provided in Figure 15. This plot does
does not contain the uniformly distributed noise and includes the erroneous outliers.
not contain the uniformly distributed noise and includes the erroneous outliers.
Figure 15.
Figure 15.Probability
Probabilityplot of of
plot thethe
rawraw
SiC SiC
9.7 V,
9.742V,°C42peak apparent
◦ C peak bearingbearing
apparent current current
data. data.
Visual comparison of Figure 15 and Figure 14c demonstrates how the outliers due to
algorithm error do not follow the main body of data that is normally distributed, and
cause the tail of the distribution on the upper end (>0.5 A) to begin departing from the
theoretical normal distribution line. Additionally, the discrete data bins spaced 20 mA
apart are also apparent. Discarding the irrelevant outliers and adding the uniformly dis-
tributed noise allowed for accurate use of the Shapiro-Wilk test and for ease in visually
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 14 of 22
Visual comparison of Figures 15 and 14c demonstrates how the outliers due to algo-
rithm error do not follow the main body of data that is normally distributed, and cause the
tail of the distribution on the upper end (>0.5 A) to begin departing from the theoretical
normal distribution line. Additionally, the discrete data bins spaced 20 mA apart are also
apparent. Discarding the irrelevant outliers and adding the uniformly distributed noise
allowed for accurate use of the Shapiro-Wilk test and for ease in visually evaluating the
cumulative density and probability plots of each distribution. The numerical results of the
data displayed graphically in Figure 14 are shown in Table 2, along with the other two
shaft voltage conditions previously mentioned. A Shapiro-Wilk Test for normality was
conducted for each case at a significance level of α = 0.05. A percent error statistic is also
calculated to compare the mean value µ of the current distribution with the fitted line of
Equation (4). The normal distribution standard deviation is denoted σ.
iµ − i f it
δ= × 100% (5)
i f it
Table 2. Normal distribution statistics for peak apparent bearing current at various shaft discharge
voltages for the Si and SiC inverter.
Inverter SiC SiC Si

Bearing Temperature (◦ C) 42 37 38
Shaft Voltage (V) 9.7 7 15
ifit (A) (Equation (4)) 0.415 0.280 0.680
µ 0.423 0.272 0.701
Peak Apparent Bearing Current (A) δ (Equation (5)) 1.9% −2.9% 3.1%
σ 0.044 0.035 0.059
Shapiro Wilk Test (α = 0.05) accept accept accept
From Table 2, the Shapiro Wilk null hypothesis to determine if a normal distribution
is a reasonable assumption of the peak bearing current distributions for a single shaft
voltage can be accepted with 95% probability (α = 0.05). The primary reason for the current
distribution is the varying bearing discharge resistance between each discharge. This can
be attributed to slight variations in lubricant thickness upon breakdown for each discharge,
asperity differences on the race and ball surfaces, alignment of the bearing and shaft,
and radial and axial bearing loads. Therefore, the potential discharge resistances of each
discharge also follow a normal distribution.
5.2. Discharge Resistance Distribution

To investigate the discharge resistance distributions, the modified IM equivalent circuit
discharge model of Section 3 was employed to explore the bearing discharge resistances
that are associated with the peak apparent bearing current amplitudes measured that form
the distributions of Table 2. A parameter sweep was performed in PSpice on the bearing
discharge resistance, resulting in varying peak apparent bearing current amplitudes. The
results can be seen in Figure 16 for the 9.7 V SiC discharges at 42 ◦ C.
Markers are provided to demonstrate how the mean and standard deviation of the
current distributions align with the mean and standard deviation of the bearing discharge
resistance distributions. A summary of the bearing discharge resistance normal distribu-
tions is provided in Table 3. In the literature, bearing discharge resistances are reported
in the range of 1–20 Ω [6]. The results displayed in Table 3 validate the bearing discharge
resistance value.
To investigate the discharge resistance distributions, the modified IM equivalent cir-
cuit discharge model of Section III was employed to explore the bearing discharge re-
sistances that are associated with the peak apparent bearing current amplitudes measured
that form the distributions of Table 2. A parameter sweep was performed in PSpice on the
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 bearing discharge resistance, resulting in varying peak apparent bearing current
15 of 22 ampli-
tudes. The results can be seen in Figure 16 for the 9.7 V SiC discharges at 42 °C.
Figure 16. The

Figure 16. Thenormally
normallydistributed
distributed peak
peak apparent
apparent bearing
bearing current
current is due is
todue to a normally
a normally distributed
distributed
bearing dischargeresistance.
bearing discharge resistance.
Table 3. Summary of bearing discharge resistance normal distributions produced by the SiC inverter
at 9.7Markers are7 V,
V, 42 ◦ C, and provided
37 ◦ C, andtofordemonstrate how
the Si inverter at 15 V,the
38 ◦mean
C. and standard deviation
of the
current distributions align with the mean and standard deviation of the bearing discharge
resistance distributions.
InverterA summary of the bearing
SiC dischargeSiCresistance normal
Si distribu-
tions is provided in Table 3. In the literature, bearing discharge resistances are reported in
Bearing Temperature ( ◦ C) 42 37 38
the range of 1–20 Ω [6]. The results displayed 9.7
Shaft Voltage (V)
in Table 3 validate
7
the bearing
15
discharge
resistance value. Resistance (Ω)
Bearing Discharge
µ 11.9 16.5 9.0
σ 3.4 4.8 2.3
5.3. Discharge Amplitude

This section analyzes the parameters that affect the amplitudes of the EDM discharges.
To compare the change in maximum discharge amplitude at each operational temperature,
an average of the 100 largest discharges at each temperature point are compared between
Si and SiC inverters, and the shaft voltage for a line-driven machine is also recorded to
provide a reference. The increase in shaft discharge voltage between SiC and Si inverters
was calculated as:
V − VSi
%∆ = SiC × 100% (6)
VSi
The corresponding discharge energies were also calculated using the models of Section 3:
1
Edischarge = Cr f + 2Cb Vsha f t 2 (7)
2
Both the Si and SiC inverter started to experience shaft voltage breakdown and EDM
bearing current shoot through at a bearing temperature of ~37 ◦ C, while the line driven
machine shaft voltage begins to break down at ~51 ◦ C. The results can be seen in Figure 17,
where the result of Equation (6) is also plotted.
On average when comparing Si and SiC devices, the largest shaft voltage discharges
increased by 8.2% across all temperatures, and since the resulting peak bearing current
is linearly proportional to the shaft breakdown voltage, the bearing current amplitude
increases as well. The results show that dielectric breakdown theory due to device rise time
becomes especially relevant above bearing temperatures of 50 ◦ C (machine loads >75% of
rated load), as the SiC shaft voltage showed an average increase of 12.7% in this region
compared to Si.
tion 3:
𝐸 = 𝐶 + 2𝐶 𝑉 (7)
Both the Si and SiC inverter started to experience shaft voltage breakdown and EDM
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 bearing current shoot through at a bearing temperature of ~37 °C, while the line 16
driven
of 22
machine shaft voltage begins to break down at ~51 °C. The results can be seen in Figure
17, where the result of Equation (6) is also plotted.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure17.

Figure 17.Comparison
Comparisonofofmaximum
maximum shaft
shaft discharge
discharge voltages
voltages at various
at various bearing
bearing 16 oftem-
operational
operational tempera-21
peratures
tures for Si for
andSiSiC
andinverters,
SiC inverters, with line-driven
with line-driven operation
operation included.
included.
On average
5.4. Inverse Gaussian when comparing Si and SiC devices, the largest shaft voltage discharges
Analysis
5.4. Inverse Gaussian Analysis
increased by 8.2%inacross
The variation shaft all temperatures,
breakdown voltageand
and since
peakthe resulting
bearing peakatbearing
current current is
each operational
The proportional
linearly variation in shaft
to the breakdown
shaft voltagevoltage,
breakdown and peak the bearing
bearing current
current atamplitude
each opera- in-
temperature can be described with an inverse Gaussian distribution, where the sample
tional
creases
mean temperature
as well.
µ and the shapecan
The resultsbe
parameterdescribed
show that with an
dielectric
λ describe inverse
thebreakdown Gaussian
distribution. theory distribution,
Onlydue to device
the shaft where the
rise will
voltage time
sample
becomes
be mean
considered µinand
especially the shapeabove
thisrelevant
analysis, parameter
since it has λbeen
bearing describe the distribution.
temperatures
demonstrated of 50that theOnly
shaftthe
°C (machine shaft
loads
voltage isvolt-
>75% theof
age will
rated
causal be considered
load),
factor as the
for SiCinshaft
lubricant this analysis,
filmvoltage
breakdown since
showed it an
and has
EDM been
average demonstrated
bearing increase
currents. that peak
of 12.7%
The the shaft
in this volt-
region
apparent
age is thecurrent
compared
bearing causal factor for lubricant
to Si.distributions for a givenfilm breakdown
operationaland EDM bearing
temperature can becurrents. The from
calculated peak
apparent bearing current distributions for a given operational
the modeling of Section 3 by using the shaft voltage initial breakdown conditions, for bothtemperature can be calcu-
lated fromand
modified theunmodified
modeling of Section 3The
machines. by using
genericthe shaft
form of voltage
the inverse initial breakdown
Gaussian condi-
distribution
tions, for both modified
is shown in Equation (8). and unmodified machines. The generic form of the inverse Gauss-
ian distribution is shown in Equation (8).
s λ(Vsha f t −µ)2
λ (− ( 2 ))
( 2µ Vsha f t )
f V 𝑓 𝑉sha f t , µ, λ =
, 𝜇, 𝜆 = 2πV e
3𝑒 (8)
(8)
sha f t
The inverse
The inverseGaussian
Gaussiandistributions
distributionsdescribing
describing the
the Si Si
andand
SiCSiC shaft
shaft breakdown
breakdown volt-
voltages
ages can be seen in Figure 18 for various temperatures, while Figure 19
can be seen in Figure 18 for various temperatures, while Figure 19 visually demonstratesvisually demon-
strates
the the inverse
inverse Gaussian
Gaussian shape shape
of the of
rawthedata
rawfor
data for ms
1000 1000ofms of shaft
shaft breakdown
breakdown voltages
voltages at a
at a bearing
bearing temperature
temperature of 45 ofC.45
◦ °C. Figure
From From Figure
18, the 18, the distributions
distributions are dependent
are dependent on
on bearing
bearing temperature.
temperature. A comparison
A comparison of the mean of and
the mean and scale for
scale parameter parameter
Si and SiC forinverter
Si and inverse
SiC in-
verter inverse
Gaussian Gaussianfunctions
distribution distribution functions
at various at various operational
operational temperatures temperatures
is summarizedis sum-
in
marized
Table in Table
4, and shown 4, visually
and shown visually
in Figure 20.in Figure 20.
Figure 18.
Figure 18. Si
Si and
and SiC
SiC inverter
inverter shaft
shaft breakdown
breakdown voltage
voltage inverse
inverse Gaussian
Gaussian distributions
distributions for
for various
various
bearing operational temperatures.
bearing operational temperatures.
Table 4. Summary of mean (µ) and shape (λ) parameters for shaft discharge voltage inverse Gauss-
ian distributions over various bearing operational temperatures.
Si SiC
Bearing Temperature (°C)
µ λ µ λ
55 4.1232 48.5210 4.5945 43.8452
56 4.0623 51.3341 4.5568 44.0631
57 3.9937 53.5966 4.5423 44.1554
58 3.9755 56.1018 4.3837 43.2468
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 59 3.9337 61.6098 4.3703 47.1179
17 of 22
60 3.9279 60.6665 4.3743 47.8430
Figure19.
Figure 19.Histogram
Histogram with
with inverse
inverse Gaussian
Gaussian distribution
distribution and probability
and probability plot for plot for SiCshaft
SiC inverter inverter shaf
breakdown
breakdown voltage
voltage data
data at aat a bearing
bearing temperature
temperature of 45 ◦of
C. 45 °C. In
In 1000 ms1000
at fs ms
= 10atkHz,
fs = 10 kHz,
8006 8006 discharg
discharge
eventswere
events wererecorded.
recorded.
Table 4. Summary of mean (µ) and shape (λ) parameters for shaft discharge voltage inverse Gaussian
distributions over various bearing operational temperatures.
Bearing Si SiC
Temperature (◦ C) µ λ µ λ
35 12.3527 35.2079 12.8455 32.1061
36 12.4745 34.7524 12.7091 27.1138
37 12.0070 32.8321 11.4103 31.5019
38 10.6137 34.0036 10.3232 35.4892
39 9.4384 32.2878 9.3202 35.5080
40 8.6808 32.2458 8.7105 36.1585
41 7.9537 31.6164 8.0266 33.5604
42 7.6655 30.6267 7.5649 33.5297
43 7.2186 30.3921 7.2825 32.8228
44 6.8500 30.8592 7.0392 32.7083
45 6.3150 30.4267 6.7725 33.4267
46 6.0649 30.9156 6.3739 32.8333
47 5.8453 31.5336 6.1311 34.7440
48 5.4703 31.8667 5.8569 36.0973
49 5.1271 34.7397 5.5887 36.8487
50 4.8606 35.4712 5.3871 36.9513
51 4.5872 39.3704 5.1204 38.7430
52 4.4020 41.6240 4.9985 39.8471
Figure 20. Mean and shape parameters of the shaft breakdown voltage inverse40.2537
53 4.3783 42.5335 4.8522
Gaussian distribu
54 4.1525 47.5079 4.7711 42.4918
tions plotted
55 against temperature.
4.1232 48.5210 4.5945 43.8452
56 4.0623 51.3341 4.5568 44.0631
Difference
57 plots are3.9937
also provided 53.5966
in Figure 20 to see the difference
4.5423 between the S
44.1554
and SiC 58distribution parameters.
3.9755 A slight difference in the
56.1018 distribution 43.2468
4.3837 mean can be seen
59 3.9337 61.6098 4.3703 47.1179
at temperatures
60 greater than
3.927945 °C (greater than 50% of machine
60.6665 4.3743 full load) and a signifi
47.8430
cant difference in the distribution shape parameter develops above 50 °C. Fo
Difference plots are also provided in Figure 20 to see the difference between the Si and
SiC distribution parameters. A slight difference in the distribution mean can be seen at
temperatures greater than 45 ◦ C (greater than 50% of machine full load) and a significant
difference in the distribution shape parameter develops above 50 ◦ C. For temperatures
below 45 ◦ C, the trend of the differences between the distribution parameters are not
as strong, although the plots of Figure 17 still suggest that shaft voltages due to SiC
inverters have slightly larger magnitudes in this region. As the temperature increases, the
decreasing mean shows how the distribution of shaft breakdown voltages are shifted to
lower values, while the increasing shape parameter helps account for the discharge voltages
being concentrated into a narrower value of voltages, becoming less right skewed with an
56 4.0623 51.3341 4.5568 44.0631
57 3.9937 53.5966 4.5423 44.1554
58 3.9755 56.1018 4.3837 43.2468
59 3.9337 61.6098 4.3703 47.1179
60 3.9279 60.6665 4.3743 47.8430
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 18 of 22
increase in temperature. When comparing the devices, the relatively larger mean and lower
shape parameters of the SiC inverter shows that the distributions cluster more narrowly at
a lower shaft breakdown voltage for the Si inverter. The smaller shape parameter exhibited
by the SiC inverter at temperatures greater than 50 ◦ C demonstrates that these distributions
are more skewed to higher energy values than the Si inverter distributions at the same
temperature, which means that the amplitude of shaft breakdown voltages is larger in
this region for the SiC inverter. Therefore, although EDM discharges due to shaft voltages
and bearing currents are most intense at lightly loaded conditions, the greatest difference
between EDM discharges for Si and SiC devices is seen at bearing temperatures greater
Figure
than 5019.◦ C
Histogram
(>75% ofwith
ratedinverse Gaussian
machine load).distribution
These resultsandindicate
probability
thatplot for SiC inverter
substantial shaft
differences
breakdown voltage data at a bearing temperature of 45 °C. In 1000 ms at f s = 10 kHz, 8006 discharge
in bearing lifetime may be seen when driving a machine at rated load with SiC devices,
events were recorded.
compared to Si devices.
Figure 20.
Figure Mean and
20. Mean and shape
shape parameters
parametersofofthe
theshaft
shaftbreakdown voltage
breakdown inverse
voltage Gaussian
inverse distributions
Gaussian distribu-
tions plotted
plotted against
against temperature.
temperature.
5.5. Discussion
Difference plots are also provided in Figure 20 to see the difference between the Si
As previously mentioned, various researchers have demonstrated that the voltage
and SiC distribution parameters. A slight difference in the distribution mean can be seen
slew rate of a voltage pulse applied across a dielectric significantly affects the breakdown
at temperatures greater than 45 °C (greater than 50% of machine full load) and a signifi-
voltage magnitude [32–36]. Wang et al. [32] developed a mathematical model to predict
cant difference in the distribution shape parameter develops above 50 °C. For
an expectation breakdown voltage given an inception voltage, a maximum possible break-
down voltage, an exponentially probabilistic function that describes the electron delay time
of the system, and a slew rate of the applied voltage pulse. Applied to the bearing discharge
phenomena, the expectation voltage is the predicted breakdown voltage, the inception
voltage is the bearing lubricant dielectric breakdown voltage at dc, and the maximum
possible voltage is set by the system’s voltage source, which would be the shaft voltage
due to the BVR. The model effectively demonstrates how voltage pulses with higher slew
rates produce larger expectation voltages at breakdown, given that all other parameters are
fixed. Unfortunately, this mathematical method contains too many degrees of freedom to
apply to the physics considered in this paper. Nevertheless, the concept remains a valid
framework for analyzing electrical discharge behavior in motor bearings for alterations in
the semiconductor device slew rate and contains the underlying principle that connects the
BVR theory with the pulsed dielectric theory. As previously discussed, the BVR is a function
of the machine parasitic capacitances. The changes of these parasitics that set the BVR
are negligible across operational temperature, therefore the voltage that attempts to build
on the shaft as produced by the CM voltage remains constant in amplitude throughout
bearing temperature. However, the threshold for lubricant dielectric breakdown decreases
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 19 of 22
with an increase in temperature, as has been experimentally and statistically demonstrated

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
in thischapter. The temperature Td at which the threshold for bearing lubricant 19 of 21
dielec-
tric breakdown becomes equal to the maximum shaft voltage is where the first bearing
discharges appear, as seen in Figure 21.
Figure 21.
Figure 21. Comparison
Comparisonofofthe thelubricant dielectric
lubricant threshold
dielectric thresholdat dc
at (yellow), andand
dc (yellow), shaftshaft
discharge volt-
discharge
voltages produced by Si (red) and SiC (green) inverters. The shaft voltage amplitude as set byBVR
ages produced by Si (red) and SiC (green) inverters. The shaft voltage amplitude as set by the the
is shown
BVR in blue.
is shown The temperature
in blue. at which
The temperature discharges
at which are first
discharges observed
are first is denoted
observed Td. T .
is denoted d
InFigure
In Figure21, 21,the
theblue
blueline
line represents
represents thethe shaft
shaft voltage
voltage as by
as set setthe
by BVR.
the BVR. The yellow
The yellow line
line represents
represents the dcthe dc threshold
threshold for bearing
for bearing lubricantlubricant dielectric
dielectric breakdown.
breakdown. AboveAboveTd the Tshaft
d the
shaft voltage
voltage set by set
the byBVR theexceeds
BVR exceeds the lubricant
the lubricant dielectricdielectric threshold,
threshold, resulting resulting in dis-
in discharges.
charges. Therefore,
Therefore, BVR theory BVR theorythe
explains explains the shaft
shaft voltage voltage amplitude
amplitude belowpulse
below Td , while Td, while pulse
dielectric
dielectric
theory theoryshaft
explains explains shaft
voltage voltage amplitude
amplitude above Td. Connecting
above Td . Connecting to the work to performed
the work per- by
formed
Wang etby
al.,Wang et al., thedielectric
the lubricant lubricantthreshold
dielectric threshold (orange) represents
(orange) represents the inceptionthe inception
voltage,
voltage,
while thewhile the shaft
shaft voltage asvoltage
set by BVR as set by BVR
theory theory the
represents represents
maximum thepossible
maximum possible
breakdown
breakdown voltage. Since the inception voltage of the lubricant is greater than the maxi-
voltage. Since the inception voltage of the lubricant is greater than the maximum possible
mum possible
voltage voltage
on the shaft in on
thethe
BVR shaft in the
region BVR region
(Bearing (Bearing<Temperature
Temperature < Td), no
Td ), no discharges dis-
occur,
charges
the occur,
lubricant the lubricant
remains remains
intact, and intact,
the shaft and the
voltage is ashaft voltage
fraction of theis CM
a fraction
voltageofasthe setCMby
voltage
the BVR.as set by
Above Tdthe
, theBVR. Above
inception Td, thedrops
voltage inception
belowvoltage drops below
the maximum possiblethebreakdown
maximum
possibleallowing
voltage, breakdown voltage,toallowing
discharges occur. Asdischarges to occur.
the temperature As the temperature
increases, the differenceincreases,
between
the difference between the maximum possible shaft voltage as set by the BVR and the
the maximum possible shaft voltage as set by the BVR and the inception voltage increases,
inception
and voltage
therefore increases,
the slew rate ofandthetherefore
semiconductor the slew rate of the
switching semiconductor
devices switching
begins to affect the
devices begins to affect the expectation voltage for shaft breakdown. The increasing dif-
expectation voltage for shaft breakdown. The increasing difference between the maximum
ference between
possible shaft voltagethe maximum possible dielectric
and the lubricant shaft voltage and theaslubricant
threshold the bearingdielectric thresh-
temperature
old as theisbearing
increases the reason temperature increases is
that the difference in the reason that
expectation the difference
breakdown voltagein between
expectation Si
and SiC switching devices becomes more apparent with
breakdown voltage between Si and SiC switching devices becomes more apparent with an increase in temperature. This
explains
an increasewhy inonly a small difference
temperature. between
This explains whySionlyandaSiC shaft
small breakdown
difference voltages
between canSiC
Si and be
seen below 50 ◦ C, and the difference between the devices becomes larger and much more
shaft breakdown voltages can be seen below 50 °C, and the difference between the devices
significant
becomes largeraboveand 50 ◦much
C. more significant above 50 °C.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
This paper presented discharge modeling and a statistical analysis of shaft voltages
This paper presented discharge modeling and a statistical analysis of shaft voltages
and EDM bearing currents in a 5 hp IM driven by both Si- and SiC-based PWM inverters.
and EDM bearing currents in a 5 hp IM driven by both Si- and SiC-based PWM inverters.
Through circuit modeling in PSpice, it was shown that the measurement methods
Through circuit modeling in PSpice, it was shown that the measurement methods
researchers use to obtain experimental data of EDM bearing currents alters the discharge
researchers use to obtain experimental
profile. The measurement wire introduces data of EDMinto
a parasitic bearing currents alters
the discharge the discharge
path that dampens
profile. The measurement wire introduces a parasitic into the discharge
the peak value of the discharge. By finding the discharge parasitic component values, path that damp-
a cal-
ens the peak
culation value
can be madeoftothe discharge.
deduce By finding
the EDM bearingthe discharge
current profileparasitic component
in an unmodified values,
machine.
a calculation
The EDMcan be madeintoandeduce
discharges electricthe EDM bearing
machine are oftencurrent profile by
characterized in an
theunmodified
worst-case
machine.
scenario discharge, but in fact follow a distribution, as has been shown. Considering the
The EDM
correlation discharges
between in an electric
EDM discharge machine
energy arerate
and the often
ofcharacterized
bearing damage by the
andworst-case
vibration
scenario discharge, but in fact follow a distribution, as has been shown. Considering
accumulation, and given that the EDM rate is linearly proportional to the PWM switching the
correlation between EDM discharge energy and the rate of bearing damage and vibration
accumulation, and given that the EDM rate is linearly proportional to the PWM switching
frequency [14], it becomes necessary to characterize the amplitudes of the EDM discharges
over various operating conditions and know the number of discharges that have occurred
to enable a bearing lifetime prediction. Therefore, the work presented here is a key step in
Energies 2022, 15, 3043 20 of 22
frequency [14], it becomes necessary to characterize the amplitudes of the EDM discharges
over various operating conditions and know the number of discharges that have occurred
to enable a bearing lifetime prediction. Therefore, the work presented here is a key step
in the development of model predictive research for bearing lifetime. Additionally, the
methods developed in this paper can be applied to any motor drive system that produces
CM voltages from PWM inverters, including multi-level and multi-phase systems. The
advantage of the techniques presented here is that precise discharge energies can be
computed from the acquired motor parasitic capacitances, which will vary greatly across
hp range and machine type.
The results presented showed that the worst shaft voltages and bearing currents
occurred at lightly loaded conditions where the bearing lubricant film is thick, and as the
film becomes thinner at higher temperatures, the magnitude of the shaft voltages and EDM
bearing currents decreased. Overall, SiC devices cause higher shaft voltages and EDM
bearing currents when compared to Si devices, and this phenomenon becomes significant at
machine loads greater than 75% of rated load. Therefore, a significant difference in bearing
lifetime may be observed between Si- and SiC-driven machines, given that a machine is
typically operated above 75% of rated load to maximize its economic investment.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.C., A.Y. and A.v.J.; methodology, R.C., A.Y. and A.v.J.;
software, R.C.; validation, R.C.; formal analysis, R.C. and A.Y.; investigation, R.C.; resources, A.Y.
and A.v.J.; data curation, R.C.; writing—original draft preparation, R.C.; writing—review and editing,
A.Y. and A.v.J.; visualization, R.C.; supervision, A.Y. and A.v.J.; project administration, A.Y. and A.v.J.;
funding acquisition, A.v.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR), grant number N00014-
20-1-2193.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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energies

Academic Editor: Nicu Bizon 1. Introduction

Energies 2022, 15, 3043. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093043 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

2. Background and Review

Energies 2022, 15, 3043 5 of 22

4. EDM Bearing Current Modeling

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

4.2. Modified Induction Motor

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

Figure 13. Cont.

Inverter SiC SiC Si

5.2. Discharge Resistance Distribution

Figure 16. The

5.3. Discharge Amplitude

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure17.

with an increase in temperature, as has been experimentally and statistically demonstrated

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