WHAT IS THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM?

(Agustin)

(1 slide)

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs. It uses hormones to control and
coordinate your body's metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth and development, and response to
injury, stress, and mood. It typically secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream using glands. It
interacts with the nervous system to control the activity within all the cells in the body. The endocrine
system consists primarily of glands which are organs that will secrete compounds that will serve as the
messenger, these messengers are called hormones.

Hormones in its usual context is used for sexual context but the hormones they’re taking about are called
“sexual hormones”, because the truth is there are more than 50 chemical hormones at work right now, this
also affects many functions in the body like growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and
mood.

What does the endocrine system do?

(1 slide)

The endocrine system is responsible for regulating a range of bodily functions through the release of
hormones.

Hormones are secreted by the glands of the endocrine system, traveling through the bloodstream to
various organs and tissues in the body. The hormones then tell these organs and tissues what to do or how
to function.

(1 slide)

Some examples of bodily functions that are controlled by the endocrine system include:

● metabolism ● blood pressure

● growth and development ● appetite
● sexual function and reproduction ● sleeping and waking cycles
● heart rate ● body temperature

WHERE ARE HORMONES MADE? (Martinez)

Hormones are produced by special cells. Often, these cells are part of a gland, an organ that produces and
releases substances.
Endocrine glands and endocrine tissues produce and release hormones.

Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

(1 slide)
Endocrine Glands
● Are ductless glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream or into the fluid around cells.
● The primary function of it is to make and release hormones.
Exocrine Glands
● Deliver nonhormonal substances through tube-like structures called ducts.
● Ducts transport substances to specific locations inside and outside the body.
● Ex. of Exocrine Glands: Sweat glands, mucous glands, and salivary glands.

(1 slide)
Some organs are both endocrine and exocrine glands, an example of this is pancreas.
● The pancreas acts as an exocrine gland when it delivers digestive enzymes to the small intestine
through ducts.
● The pancreas acts as an endocrine gland when it releases hormones into the bloodstream.

Endocrine Tissues
(1 slide)
Several organs contain cells that release hormones. These organs include:
● Brain ● Kidneys
● Stomach ● Liver
● Small intestine ● Heart
Fat tissues also produce some hormones. These organs contain tissues that release hormones, but the
organs have primary functions that are not part of the endocrine system.

ORGANS IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (Estrella)

ini na pic, igbutang ha kada slide

Different Glands of the Endocrine System:

(Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Pineal – 1 slide); (Thyroid; Parathyroid; Thymus – 1 slide); (Adrenal, Pancreas,
Ovaries & Testes – 1 slide)

GLAND FUNCTION

● produces multiple hormones that control the pituitary gland

Hypothalamus ● also involved in regulating the function of endocrine glands,
sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, and appetite

● located below the hypothalamus

Pituitary ● hormones produced affect growth and reproduction
● can also control the function of other endocrine glands

● found in the middle of your brain

Pineal
● essential for your sleep-wake cycles

● located in the front part of your neck

Thyroid
essential for metabolism

● also located in the front part of your neck

Parathyroid ● essential for maintaining control of calcium levels in your
bones and blood

● located in the upper torso

● active until puberty and produces hormones that are important
Thymus
for the development of a type of white blood cell called a T
cell.

● one can be found on top of each kidney

Adrenal ● produce hormones that are important for regulating functions
such as blood pressure, heart rate, and stress response

● located in the abdomen behind your stomach

Pancreas
● controls blood sugar levels

● produce hormones
Ovaries & Testes ● have the non-endocrine function of producing eggs and sperm,
respectively

Major Endocrine Glands (Agustin)

(1 slide)
Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is in the lower central part of the brain. It links the endocrine system
and nervous system. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus make chemicals that control the release of
hormones secreted from the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus gathers information sensed by the brain
(such as the surrounding temperature, light exposure, and feelings) and sends it to the pituitary. This
information influences the hormones that the pituitary makes and releases.

(1 slide)

Pituitary. The pituitary gland is at the base of the brain, and is no bigger than a pea. Despite its small size,
the pituitary is often called the "master gland." The hormones it makes control many other endocrine
glands.

The pituitary gland makes many hormones, such as:

● growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a role in the
body's handling of nutrients and minerals
● prolactin which activates milk production in women who are breastfeeding
● thyrotropin which stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones
● corticotropin which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones
● antidiuretic hormone, which helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidneys
● oxytocin which triggers the contractions of the uterus that happen during labor

HORMONES AND RECEPTORS TYPES

(Estrella)

Types of Hormones

( 1 slide)

Amino Acid-Based Hormones - are made of amino acids. Some are simple and some are complex.
Proteins and amino acids cannot pass through a cell membrane because they are not fat-soluble. As a
result, they affect cells by
attaching to proteins on the
surfaces of the cell.
( 1 slide)
Cholesterol-Based Hormones - also called ‘steroid hormones’, are made from cholesterol. They are fat-
soluble, so they pass easily through cell membranes and attach to protein receptors inside the cell.

( 1 slide)
Hormonelike Substances - Some chemical signals are
sent from one cell directly to another and cause
changes in nearby cells. These chemicals are not hormones because they do not circulate in the blood or
affect cells in the other parts of the body.

Hormone Receptors -
only act on target cells
( 1 slide)
Target Cells - are cells to which a hormone is directed to produce an effect. They have receptor proteins.
The exact matching of hormones to receptors allows hormones to affect only certain body cells.

( 1 slide) (pwede man 2 columns nala ini)

EXAMPLES:
Endorphins - work in the brain and affect emotions
and pain perception.

Prostaglandins - usually produced where tissues are

injured.
- cause pain and inflammation.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM HORMONES

(Dela Cruz)

Hormones are the chemicals. The endocrine system is used to send messages to organs and tissue
throughout the body. Once released into the bloodstream, hormones travel to their target organ or tissue,
which has receptors that recognize and react to the hormone.
Below are some examples of hormones that are produced by the endocrine system :

(3 hormones per slide)

SECRETING
HORMONE FUNCTION
GLAND(S)

increases blood pressure, heart rate, and

Adrenaline Adrenal
metabolism in reaction to stress

Aldosterone Adrenal controls the body’s salt and water balance

Cortisol Adrenal plays a role in stress response

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate aids in production of body odor and growth of

Adrenal
(DHEA-S) body hair during puberty

works to regulate the menstrual cycle,

Estrogen Ovary maintain pregnancy, and develop female sex
characteristics; aids in sperm production

Follicle-stimulating hormone
Pituitary controls the production of eggs and sperm
(FSH)
 helps increase levels of blood glucose (blood
Glucagon Pancreas
sugar)

Insulin Pancreas helps reduce your blood glucose levels

controls estrogen and testosterone production

Luteinizing hormone (LH) Pituitary
as well as ovulation

Melatonin Pineal controls sleep-wake cycles

helps with lactation, childbirth, and mother-

Oxytocin Pituitary
child bonding

Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid controls calcium levels in bones and blood

helps prepare the body for pregnancy when an

Progesterone Ovary
egg is fertilized
 Prolactin Pituitary promotes breast-milk production

Ovary, contributes to sex drive and body density in

Testosterone Teste, males and females as well as development of
Adrenal male sex characteristics

helps control several body functions, including

Thyroid hormone Thyroid
the rate of metabolism and energy levels

HORMONE FUNCTION (Dilao)

Hormones are the body's chemical messengers, sending signals into the bloodstream and tissues. For a
function of a hormone to work properly, it needs the help of glands along with trillions of cell receptors.

How Hormones Work

( 1 slide)
Each hormone-producing gland is surrounded by a network of blood arteries from which it draws ingredients
for hormone production. Those hormones are then pumped in tiny amounts, usually into the bloodstream.
From there, each hormone needs to locate a set of target cells to bring about a specific change. Now to be
able to find its targets it’s assisted by receptors which are special proteins located inside or in the cell’s
surface, those receptors are able to recognize specific hormones as they pass by, and bind to them. When
this happens, that hormone to receptor combination triggers a range of effects that either increase or
decrease specific processes inside the cell to change the current behavior of the cell usually with
maintaining your body’s homoeostasis.

DIRECT GENE ACTIVATION (Dela Cruz)

Cholesterol-based hormones, such as steroids, are fat-soluble. They pass through the membranes of cells
that they encounter and
bind to receptors inside
target cells. Cortisol is a
steroid hormone made
in the adrenal gland.
There are 4 steps on how cortisol causes direct changes in gene activity inside a target cell :
(1 slide)
Cortisol passes through the cell membrane and binds to a receptor inside the
STEP 1
cell.

The cortisol-receptor complex enters the nucleus of the cell and binds to
STEP 2
DNA.

The cortisol-receptor complex activates a gene. As a result, the gene is

STEP 3 transcribed into a messenger RNA (mRNA). The resulting mRNA is then
translated into a protein.

STEP 4 The metabolic activities of the target cell are changed.

The receptor for a hormone can be either in the cytosol or inside the nucleus of a cell. If the receptor for a
steroid hormone is in the nucleus, the hormone enters the nucleus and binds to the receptor. When a
hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA, the gene can be either activated or inactivated.

CONTROL OF HORMONE LEVELS (Estrella)

(1 slide)
Feedback mechanism - A system in which one step in a series of events controls an earlier step. Feedback
systems in the body detect the amount of hormone in the blood or the number of substances produced by
the hormone’s actions.

Two Main Types of Feedback Systems

(1 slide, pwede igtable nala)
1. Negative feedback - Most hormones are regulated by this feedback. In this type, the final step in a
series of events inhibits the first step. It works like a home-heating system that is controlled by a
thermostat.
How does it work?
High levels of a hormone stop the production of more hormones. On the contrary, low levels of a
hormone cause the production of more hormones.
 2. Positive feedback - The production of a hormone causes the release of more of the same hormone. It
continues until a specific event triggers hormone production to stop.

Antagonistic Hormones
(1 slide)
Some hormones work in pairs to control the levels of substances. An antagonistic hormone counteracts
the effect of another hormone. The release of each hormone is regulated by negative feedback. Insulin
and glucagon are antagonistic hormones. They maintain blood-glucose levels within a narrow range.

REGULATING METABOLISM (Dela Cruz)

The thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas, and pineal gland regulate the body’s metabolic
processes.

Thyroid Gland
( 1 slide)
● Thyroid hormones are the primary regulators of metabolic rate. They control protein production and
oxygen use by cells. Thyroid hormones are amino acid-based hormones that contain iodine. If a
person’s diet lacks iodine, the thyroid gland cannot function properly and becomes enlarged.
● Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the body has too little thyroid hormone. It can cause stunted
growth and brain damage in children, whereas in adults, it can cause lack of energy, dry skin, and
weight gain. Hyperthyroidism, with too much thyroid hormone, can cause nervousness, irregular
heart rate, and weight loss.

Parathyroid Gland
(1 slide)
● Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a hormone that is produced by the parathyroid gland. Parathyroid
hormone (PTH) is made and released in response to falling levels of calcium in the blood.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) raises calcium levels by causing bone cells to release calcium ino the
blood and by signaling the kidneys to reabsorbs calcuim from urine. Calcium is a very important
mineral. It is required for nerve function and muscle constraction. If there is too little calcium in the
blood, the nervous system will shut down.
Pancreas
( 1 slide)
● The pancreas contains clusters of cells that produce two hormones: insulin and glucagon.
Insulin
● Insulin causes the body’s cells to absorb glucose from the blood. The cells then use the glucose for
energy or store it in the form of glycogen. In this way, insulin lowers blood-glucose levels.

Glucagon
(1 slide)
● Glucagon causes liver cells to release glucose that was stored as glycogen, thus raising blood-
glucose levels.
● Tights regulation of blood glucose is important. High blood-glucose levels can damage blood vessels
and organs. If blood-glucose levels drop too low, the brain cannot function.

Pineal Gland
(1 slide)
- The pineal gland is a pea-sized gland that is located in the brain. It secretes the hormone melatonim.
Melatonism regulates the body’s daily sleep cycle and the circadium rhythm. The release of melatonim is
stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. Abnormal production of melatonim can result in a mood
disorder called seasonal affcetive disorder (SAD).
RESPONDING TO STRESS (Martinez)
The body has two adrenal glands located above each kidney. Each adrenal gland is two glands in one.

Adrenal Gland
(1 slide)
● Adrenal medulla (inner core) - regulates short-term responses to stress.
● Adrenal cortex (outer core) - regulates long-term responses to stress.
Each part plays a role in the body’s response to stress.

Short -Term Response

(1 slide)
The adrenal medulla releases the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones are
responsible for the fight-or-flight response.
● Epinephrine (adrenaline)
- increases heart rate and blood flow to the muscle and brain.
- It also stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose, which makes more energy available to
the muscles.
● Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
- Increases blood pressure, ensuring efficient nutrient and oxygen delivery to muscle tissues.

Long-Term Response
(1 slide)
The adrenal cortex makes several hormones called corticosteroids that are released in response to
prolonged or severe stress. This stress can be emotional or physical.
● Aldosterone
- regulates salt concentrations in the blood and raises blood pressure.
● Cortisol (hydrocortisone)
- Causes the body to make glucose from fats and proteins.
- High levels of cortisol inhibit inflammation and suppress the immune system.
- Long-term stress can cause cortisol levels to remain high for long periods of time.
* People who are under long-term stress can face a higher risk for illness.
* Other effects of long-term stress on health are being studied.
- Is often used to treat inflammatory disorders, such as arthritis.
* However, long-term use of cortisol can result in chronic high blood sugar called steroid
diabetes. (hatag explanation about steroid diabetes pero di ig-aapil ha visual aid)
- It causes muscle and bone loss as protein is converted to glucose for use by the body.

HORMONAL REGULATION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (Dilao)

(1 slide)
Regulation of the reproductive system is a process that requires the action of hormones from the pituitary
gland, the adrenal cortex, and the gonads. During puberty in both males and females, the hypothalamus
produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the production and release of
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland.

(1 slide)
These hormones regulate the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) and therefore are called
gonadotropins. In both males and females, FSH stimulates gamete production and LH stimulates
production of hormones by the gonads. An increase in gonad hormone levels inhibits GnRH production
through a negative feedback loop.

(it na pic, 1 slide la tun)

Regulation of the Male Reproductive System
(1 slide)
In males, FSH stimulates the maturation of sperm cells. FSH production is inhibited by the hormone
inhibin, which is released by the testes. LH stimulates production of the sex hormones (androgens) by the
interstitial cells of the testes and therefore is also called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone. (pptx)
The most widely known androgen in males is testosterone. Testosterone promotes the production of
sperm and masculine characteristics. The adrenal cortex also produces small amounts of testosterone
precursor, although the role of this additional hormone production is not fully understood.

Regulation of the Female Reproductive System

(1 slide)
FSH stimulates egg maturation in females, while LH stimulates the production of estrogens and
progesterone. Estrogens are a group of steroid hormones produced by the ovaries that trigger the
development of secondary sex characteristics in females as well as control the maturation of the ova. In
females, the pituitary also produces prolactin, which stimulates milk production after childbirth, and
oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contraction during childbirth and milk let-down during suckling.

DIABETES (Martinez)
Two Types of Diabetes
(1 slide)
1. Type 1 diabetes
● The immune system destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.
● This type of diabetes tends to run in families and often begins in childhood.

2. Type 2 diabetes
● Begins as insulin resistance, a disorder in which the cells of the body do not respond properly to
insulin.
● The pancreas produces more insulin but eventually cannot produce enough to regulate blood
glucose.

(1 slide)
Symptoms of Diabetes
● Excessive thirst ● Sudden vision changes
● Increased urination ● Sores that are slow to heal
● Unexplained weight loss

(1 slide)
Dangers of Diabetes
● If diabetes goes untreated, chronic high blood glucose can damage many parts of the body.
● Diabetes can lead to:
- blindness - kidney damage
- amputation of the feet - heart disease
- respiratory problems - stroke
- and other problems related to blood vessels and nerve damage.

(1 slide)
Living with Diabetes
● It is extremely important for people with diabetes to closely monitor their blood glucose.
● Type 1 diabetes - can be treated with insulin injections.
● Type 2 diabetes - can be managed to help prevent it by having a healthy diet and exercising.