Solutions

Types of Solutions

A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting

substances whose composition can be varied within certain limits.

The component that is present in a smaller quantity is known as the solute.

The component that is present in a larger quantity is known as the solvent.

A solution has the same physical state as the solvent.

Ways of Expressing Concentration

The concentration of a solution is defined as the amount of solute dissolved in a given

amount of solvent or solution.

The mole fraction of a component in a solution is defined as the ration of the number of
moles of that component to the total number of moles of all components in the solution. The
mole fraction of the i-th component, Xi, s expressed as:

Xi =
⋯

Molarity is defined as the number of moles of a solute dissolved in one litre of the solution.

M= X
Molarity is defined as the number of moles of a solute dissolved per kilogram of the solvent.

M= X
! "

Mass by mass percentage, parts per million, mole fraction and molality are independent of
temperature, whereas molarity, volume percentage and mass by volume percentage are
functions of temperature.

Solubility of a Solid in Liquid

Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of
solvent at a specific temperature.

Solubility depends on the nature of the solute and the solvent, and on the temperature and
pressure. However, the solubility of solids in liquids is independent of pressure.

Solubility generally follows the rule “like dissolves like.”

For an exothermic dissolution reaction, an increase in temperature produces a decrease in

solubility.

For an endothermic dissolution reaction, an increase in temperature produces an increase in

solubility.

Solubility of a Gas in Liquid, Raoult’s Law and Ideal and Non-ideal

Solutions

The dissolution of gases in liquid is an equilibrium process.

The solubility of a gas is defined as the concentration of the dissolved gas in dynamic
equilibrium with the substance in the gaseous state.

Henry’s law states that the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to
the mole fraction of the gas (χ) in a solution.

Mathematically, Henry’s law can be represented as p = KH, where KH is the Henry’s law
constant.

The solubility of a gas generally decreases with an increase in temperature.

The solubility of a gas generally increases with an increase in pressure.

The partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly proportional to the
mole fraction of it in the solution.

A solution that obeys Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration is said to be an
ideal solution. For an ideal solution the ∆Hmixing = 0 and ∆Vmixing = 0.

Solutions that do not obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration are said to be
non-ideal solutions. Also, ∆Hmixing ≠ 0 and ∆Vmixing ≠ 0 for such solutions.

Azeotrope is defined as a special class of liquid mixtures that boil at a constant temperature
and at a certain composition.

Colligative Properties: Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure and Elevation

of Boiling Point

Colligative Properties are defined as properties of the solution that depend only on the total
number of solute particles in the solution and are independent of the chemical identity of the
solute particles.

The lowering of vapour pressure relative to the vapour pressure of pure solvent is called
relative lowering of vapour pressure.
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the external pressure is
known as its boiling point.

The elevation of the boiling point depends upon the concentration of the solute, and is
directly proportional to molality m of the solute in the solution.

Kb is known as the boiling point elevation constant or molal elevation constant, or

ebullioscopic constant.

Molal elevation constant is defined as the elevation in the boiling point when one mole of a
solute is dissolved in one kilogram of a solvent.

Colligative Properties: Depression of Freezing Point

When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the freezing point of the solution gets
lowered.
#$ % & % '''
The depression in freezing point: ∆ Tf =
% (

Molal depression constant Kf can be defined as the depression in freezing point when one
mole of solute is dissolved in one kg of solvent.

Colligative Properties: Osmotic Pressure

Osmotic Pressure π of a solution is defined as the excess pressure that must be applied to a
solution to prevent osmosis from taking place.

Osmotic pressure π = CRT, where C is the concentration of the solution in moles / litre, T is
the temperature in Kelvin, and R is the gas constant.

Solutions with the same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotonic solutions.
If a pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied on a solution, then reverse osmosis
takes place.

Abnormal Molar Masses

Van’t Hoff’s factor I represents the extent of association or dissociation of a solute.

If the solute undergoes association in a solution, then the value of Van’t Hoff’s factor” is
then i < 1. If the solute undergoes dissociation then i >1.

For substances that undergo neither dissociation nor association, i is unity.

o
C = (oF – 32) or oF = 9/5 (oC) + 32

The modified equations for colligative properties using the Van’t Hoff’s factor are:

Relative lowering of vapour of solvent

Elevation of Boiling point,

Depression of Freezing point,

Osmatic pressure of solution