Tools for the Literary Commentary

A) Useful vocabulary

1) Major Literary Terms, Literary Devices and Figures of Speech

acrostic (n) /u-KRAW-stik/ : a text where the first letter of each word or line creates a meaningful
message
allegory (n) /AL-u-GOR-i/ : the device of using character and/or a story elements symbolically in order
to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning
alliteration (n) /u-LIT-u-RAY-shun/ : the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds, in
two or more neighboring words (eg "she sells sea shells")
allusion (n) /u-LOO-zhun/ : a direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly
known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art
ambiguity (n) /AM-bi-GYOO-i-ti/ : the possibility of reading multiple meanings in a word, phrase,
sentence, or passage (this may be either intentional or unintentional)
ambiguous (adj.) /um-BIG-yoo-us/ : which can be understood in several ways
analogy (n) /u-NAL-u-ji/ : a similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship
between them
anaphora (n) /u-NAF-u-ru/ : the repetition of the same expression at the start of sentences, lines or
paragraphs (eg Martin Luther King’s "I have a dream...")
aphorism (n) /AF-u-RIZ-um/ : a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truht
or moral principle
apostrophe (n) /u-PAW-struf-ee/ : a figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary
person – or a personified abstraction (/ub-STRAK-shun/), such as liberty or love.
assonance (n) /AS-u-nuns/ : the repetition of similar vowel sounds in a sentence or a line
atmosphere (n) /AT-mus-feer/ : the emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work,
established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described
colloquial (adj.) /ku-LOA-kwi-yul/ : using slang or informalities in speech or writing
conceit (n) /kun-SEET/ : a fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or
surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects
connotation (n) /KAW-nu-TAY-shun/ : the nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied,
suggested meaning
denotation (n) /DEE-noa-TAY-shun/ : the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any
emotion, attitude, or color
diction (n) /DIK-shun/ : referring to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with
regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness
didactic (adj) /digh-DAK-tik/ : related to teaching (from the Greek word meaning "teaching")
euphemism (n) /YOO-fu-MIZ-um/ : from the Greek for "good speech," a more agreeable or less
offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. Related to understatement
figurative language (n) /FIG-yur-u-tiv LANG-gwitsh/ : writing or speech that is not intended to carry
literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid
figure /FIG-yur/ of speech (n) : a device used to produce figurative language

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foreshadowing (n) /for-SHAD-oa-ing/ : the device consisting in showing the reader or viewer minor
elements in a story that look similar to important elements coming later in the story.
genre (n) /ZHAWN ru/ : the major category into which a literary work fits (eg prose, poetry, and drama)
generic /ji-NAIR-ik/ conventions /kun-VEN-shunz/ : ways of writing that are traditionally expected in a
specific genre
homily (n) /HAW-mu-li/ : a sermon (as done by a priest or minister in church), and by extension any
serious talk, speech, or lecture providing moral or spiritual advice
hyperbole (n) /high-PUR-bul-ee/ : a figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement
imagery (n) /IM-ij-ri/ : the sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or
represent abstractions
inference (n) /IN-fu-runs/ : the act of infering
to infer (v) /in-FUR/ : to guess from indirect information, to draw a reasonable conclusion from the
context
invective (n) /in-VEK-tiv/ : an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive
language
irony (n) /IGH-un-i/ : the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant
verbal /VUR-bul/ irony :when words literally state the opposite of speaker's true meaning
situational /SIT-y(oo)-AY-shu-nul/ irony : when events turn out the opposite of what was
expected
dramatic /dru-MAT-ik/ irony : when facts or events are unknown to a character but known to
the reader or audience (or other characters in the work)
metaphor (n) /MET-u-for/ : a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or
the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity
extended metaphor (n) : a metaphor developed at great length, ocurring frequently in or throughout a
work
meter (n) /MEET-ur/ : (in poetry) a minimal set of syllables (2 or 3) with a specific stress-pattern. (see
next section)
metonimy (n) /mu-TAW-nu-mi/ : from the Greek "changed name", the name of one object is
substituted for that of another closely associated with it (eg "the White House" for the President of the
USA)
mood (n) /MOOD/ : literarily, the prevailing atmosphere in a passage or the emotional aura of a word.
Mood is an effect of the writing.
narrative (n) /NA-ru-tiv/ : the telling of a story, or an account of an event or series of events
onomatopoeia (n) /AW-nu-MAT-u-PEE-u/ : words that imitate natural sounds (eg ‘buzz’, ‘hiss’, ...)
oxymoron (n) /AWK-si-MOA-rawn/ : from the Greek for "pointedly foolish," the author groups
apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox
paradox (n) /PA-ru-dawks/ : a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common
sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity
parallelism (n) /PAR-ul-ul-IZ-um/- from the Greek for "beside one another," the grammatical or
rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity
parody (n) /PA-ru-di/ : a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the speific aim
of comic effect and/or ridicule

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pedantic (adj) /pu-DAN-tik/ : words, phrases, or general tone that are overly scholarly, academic, or
bookish
personification (n) /pur-SAW-nu-fu-KAY-shun/ : a figure of speech in which the author presents or
describes concepts, animasl, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or
emotions
point of view /POYNT uv VYOO/  : the perspective from which a story is told (first person, third
person omniscient, or third person limited omniscient)
prose (n) /PROAZ/ : genre including fiction, nonfiction, written in ordinary language
rhetoric (n) /RET-u-rik/ : from the Greek for "orator," the principles governing the art of writing
effectively, eloquently, and persuasively
rhetorical /ru-TOA-rik-ul/ modes (n) : the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of
writing :
-exposition /EKS-pu-ZISH-un/ explains and analyzes information;
-argumentation /AR-gyu-mun-TAY-shun/ proves validity of an idea;
-description /dus-KRIP-shun /re-creates, invents, or presents a person, place, event or action;
-narration /nu-RAY-shun/ tells a story or recount an event
sarcasm (n) /SAR-KA-zum/ : from the Greek for "to tear flesh," involves bitter, caustic language that is
meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something
sarcastic (adj) /sar-KAS-tik/) : said or written so as to express sarcasm.
satire (n) /SAT-igh-ur/ : a work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and
conventions for reform or ridicule
semantics (n) /si-MAN-tiks/ : the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of words, their
historical and psychological development (etymology), their connotations, and their relation to one
another
style (n) /STIGH-ul/ :
1) an evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative
language, and other literary devices;
2) classification of authors to a group and comparion of an author to similar authors.
syllogism (n) /SIL-u-JIZ-um/ : from the Greek for "examining together," a deductive system of formal
logic that presents two premises /PREM-is-uz/ (first the "major" and second the "minor") that
inevitably lead to a sound conclusion (eg major : All men are mortal ; minor : Socrates is a man ;
conclusion : Socrates is mortal).
syllogistic fallacy /FAL-u-si/ : deriving wrong conclusions from an inadequately formed syllogism
(eg : "All sharks are fish. All salmon are fish. Therefore all salmon are sharks.")
symbol (n) /SIM-bul/ : anything that represents or stands for something else (natural, conventional,
literary)
symbolism (n) /SIM-bul-IZ-um/ : the meaning(s) imbued in something when it is used as a symbol
theme (n) /THEEM/ : the central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life
thesis (n) /THEE-sis/ : in expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of
sentences that directly express the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition
tone (n) /TOAN/ : (often confused with mood) tone describes how the way an author writes gives the
reader clues to his or her attitude towards the content of his speech. The tone of a text can be
straightforward, emphatic, laudatory, sarcastic, ironic, plaintive, proud, cynical, meditative, lyrical, ...
transition (n) /tran-ZISH-un/ : a word or phrase that links different ideas

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understatement /UN-dur-STAYT-munt/ : the ironic minimalizing of fact, presenting something as less
significant than it is
wit (n) /WIT/: intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights

2) Poetic meters
(U : unaccented syllable ; A : accented syllable)

anapest (adjective : ‘anapestic’) - UUA

dactyl (adjective : ‘dactylic’) - AUU

iamb (also known as iambus) (adjective : ‘iambic’) - UA

spondee (also known as pyrrhic) (adjective : ‘spondaic’) - UU

trochee (adjective : ‘trochaic’) – AU

dimeter - a line containing two meters

trimeter - a line containing three meters

tetrameter - a line containing four meters

pentameter - a line containing five meters

alexandrine – a line of six iambs

‘the mighty line’ - a phrase used by the dramatist Christopher Marlowe to refer to iambic
pentameter, the writing arrangement he preferred and that later William Shakespeare would use in all
of his plays.

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B) useful sentences to ...

1) … explain what the writer does :

- The writer tells a story, recounts an incident, gives an account of a situation, narrates an experience.
- He describes, depicts, draws a picture, gives a description of...
- He sketches, portrays, delineates, outlines a character, a situation
- He states, poses a problem, raises a question, an issue, a point
- He takes up a subject, touches upon it, treats it, tackles it
- He concentrates, dwells, harps on it / He reflects, meditates on it, ponders over it
- He places emphasis, lays stress on it, stresses, emphasizes, underlines it
- He examines, considers, discusses a problem, views it as...
- He maintains, asserts, declares that...
- He alludes to the fact that... / He creates, invents / he illustrates, demonstrates
- He expresses, utters, gives vent to his own feelings, ideas, views, opinions
- His purpose is to...
- He considers the arguments, the reasons for and against...
- He analyzes the reasons why...
- He looks at both sides of the question / He considers the questions from all angles.
- He indicates, points out the disadvantages or drawbacks on the one hand, and the advantages on
the other hand.
- He objects to, protests against... / He puts forward an idea, and develops it
- He presents, provides the reader with a wide range of examples, views of...
- He awakens, arouses, excites, compels, stimulates the interest.
- He reports, treats, deals with a large number of cases...
- He manages (fails) to bring his subject, the period alive.
- He succeeds in bringing... in conveying to the reader
- He relies on particular devices to achieve his aim (effects, aims).
- By means of particular devices, he manages to involve the reader and makes him participate in the
events
- He appeals to, he makes appeals to the reader's imagination.

2) … refer to the writer's opinions or words

- The writer claims that... / would have us believe that...

- This is well illustrated by the following statement. I quote: "..."
- As the writer puts it...
- In the writer's words / The author, to quote his own words, says that...
- This last point can be illustrated by the writer's own words...
- The writer relies on repetitions
- The word occurs five times in the passage
- The capitals signify that ... / in italics
- To sum up / to summarize
- These words are suggestive of, they imply...
- This quotation carries biblical echoes
- The impression is conveyed by...

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3) … refer to a particular passage in the text

- At the beginning of our passage

- The opening sentence betrays... (reveals, discloses)
- Midway through the passage / In the middle of the passage
- Towards the end of the passage
- All through the passage / Throughout the passage
- From line... to line ...
- Each of the passage...
- For the whole of the first paragraph...
- Considering the first passage as a whole / let us consider the first passage...
- In the preceding / previous paragraph...
- In the following / next paragraph...

4) … draw attention to a particular point

- It is interesting to note / observe / remark that...

- What is particularly striking in this passage is that...
- We can hardly fail to be struck / impressed by...
- It is significant that the scene should be set in...
- The emphasis falls on...
- The character embodies / symbolizes / exemplifies ...
- It is a fact that ... / It is beyond question that / there is no denying that...
- As we read the text closely / On reading the text 
- As we have just suggested / hinted / pointed out, ...
- If we pay close attention to the text, we see that...

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Major Grammatical Terms

antecedent - the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun

clause - a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb

loose sentence - a type of sentence in which the main idea comes first, followed by dependent
grammatical units

mood - grammatically, the verbal units and a speaker's attitude (indicative, subjunctive, imperative)

periodic sentences - a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end

predicate adjective - one type of subject complement, an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective
clause that follows a linking verb

predicate nominative - another type of subject complement, a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause
that renames the subject

subject complement - the word or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes,
the subject of the sentence by either renaming it or describing it

subordinate clause - contains a subject and verb (like all clauses) but cannot stand alone; does not
express complete thought

syntax - the way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences

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