Sex Roles, VoL 13, Nos.

3/4, 1985

Sex Differences on the California Statewide

Assessment of Computer Literacy
Mark Fetler
California Department o f Education

A statewide survey of the knowledge, attitudes, and experiences of

California sixth- and twelfth-grade students in the areas of computer
science and computer literacy was conducted during the 1982-1983 school
year. Boys in both grades displayed consistently higher levels of
achievement in nearly all curriculum objectives surveyed. Boys had more
exposure to computers both at school and at home and tended to have more
positive attitudes toward the role o f computers in the workplace.

The computer can be a means of educating students and an object of study

in itself. Historically, in the public schools there has been more interest in
the former application than in the latter. These two applications are not
mutually exclusive. Using the computer as an instructional tool requires
learning something about the machine and how to operate it. And the study
of computers and p r o g r a m m i n g can be a natural and stimulating way to
learn problem solving skills and various mathematical and scientific
concepts. The growing popularity of the computer in school curricula and
the growing roles of computers in the workplace raise the concern that all
students have the opportunity to benefit from instruction in computer
technology. A California Department of Education (1982) study found that
sixth-grade boys were more likely to report use of a computer at home and
at school than girls. A fall 1983 California census of course enrollments
counted 52,669 boys enrolled in computer-related classes, compared to

~Material from this study was originally presented at the annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, New Orleans, April 1984. Opinions expressed here are not
necessarily those of the California Department of Education.
181

03f~)-OO25/85/O8f~-OI81SO,~..50/O© 1985 Plenum Publishing Corporation

182 Fetler

41,031 girls. To the extent that enrollment trends in the area of computer
studies follow those traditionally found in science and mathematics, girls
are not benefiting from such instruction as much as boys.
The primary goal of this study was to examine the knowledge,
attitudes, and experiences of California sixth- and twelfth-grade boys and
girls in the area of computer technology. Knowledge was assessed with an
achievement test designed to cover diverse educational objectives of many
different district and school programs. Additional items were designed to
survey attitudes towards computer technology in the workplace, commonly
held myths and anxieties about computers, and opportunities for learning
about computers both at school and at home. The major question is, Are
there reliable and consistent differences between boys and girls in
knowledge of computers? In which specific areas are these differences
greatest, or smallest, and what might explain them? Learning depends in
part on opportunity and on motivation. Additional concerns are the extent
to which boys and girls report differences in exposure to computer
technology at home and at school. Given specific computer-related
activities in school, are there differences in participation? Do girls and boys
hold different attitudes toward computer technology, and how might this
affect the learning process? Finally, what might be the significance of such
differences for the individuals concerned and for society at large?
Educators have witnessed in recent years a lively debate about what
students should learn about computers. Statements of educational
objectives have been published by the Committee on Computer Education
(1972); National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics (1978); Johnson,
Anderson, Hanson, and Klassen (1980); Rogers (1982); and the Department
of Defense Dependents Schools (1982), among others. The Department of
Defense Dependents Schools (DoDDS) objectives were selected for use in
California because they were relatively broad in scope and were suited for
writing test questions.

METHOD

Instrumentation

Twelfth-Grade Survey. A committee of specialists in computer

technology was assembled from the public school system, universities, and
industry. This committee designed a survey to assess a wide variety of
Assessment of Computer Literacy 183

instructional objectives in the area of computer studies as well as attitudes

towards computer technology and relevant experiences with computers.
Cognitive test questions were written to conform to the set of objectives
developed and used with the DoDDS curriculum. Attitude questions were
obtained from a set that had been administered by the National Assessment
of Educational Progress in its 1978 mathematics assessment. The committee
wrote the background questions to assess relevant prior knowledge of
computers and experiences with them. The test was designed in a matrix
format with multiple forms, so that each student saw only a small part o f
the entire pool of questions. The test forms were spiraled for distribution,
so that each one would be given about the same number of times within
each school.
Sixth-Grade Survey. The questions selected for use with sixth-grade
students were a subset of those developed for twelfth graders. The selected
questions were included on the California Assessment Program test, Survey
of Basic Skills: Grade 6, which is administered annually to all public schools
sixth-grade students in California. There was space for 40 different
computer test questions on the sixth-grade test. In addition to the four
regular response options originally included in the cognitive questions, sixth
graders were permitted an " I don't know the answer" response.

Sample

Twelfth-Grade Sample. Schools included in this study were sampled

randomly. From the original population o f 784 schools, 98 were selected,
containing an estimated 23,395 students. Eighty-seven schools participated
in the study in December 1982, yielding a school response rate of 89%.
Survey questionnaires were received from 17,861 students, yielding an
estimated student response rate of 88% from participating schools. Given
the matrix format of the test, each of the 430 cognitive test questions was
taken by about 200 students, each of the 13 attitude questions was
responded to by about 1,200 students, and background questions were
responded to by 4,800 students each.
Sixth-Grade Sample. The Survey of Basic Skills: Grade 6 was
administered to 293,717 students between April 25 and May 13, 1983 under
standardized conditions. Test forms were assigned to students by an
effectively random procedure, with approximately equal numbers of each
test form given in each school. As a result, each computer test question was
given to an average of 7,343 students. Rates of nonresponse ranged from
4% to 6%.
i 84 Fetler

RESULTS

Analyses were organized under three headings: performance,

attitudes, and experience. Analyses of performance refer to cognitive test
questions, analyses of attitudes refer to the rating scale questions, and
analyses of experience refer to the background questions. Responses to
individual cognitive test questions were classified according to DoDDS
student objectives and aggregated. Performance of twelfth-grade students
on the cognitive test questions is displayed in Table I. Sixth-grade
performance is summarized in Table II. Student attitudes toward computer
technology are summarized in Table III. Responses to the statements were
coded strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, undecided = 3, agree = 4; and
strongly agree = 5; and average values were computed. Responses to the
background questions, which provided information on student experiences,
are summarized in Tables IV-VI. The percentage of students responding to
each option is shown.

Performance

Twelfth-grade boys outperformed girls in every major area of

computer literacy and computer science achievement, as shown in Table I. 2
In one objective only, knowledge of interactions with computers, did the
difference in achievement fail to reach statistical significance. The test ques-
tions which related to computer interactions were designed to assess general
knowledge of how people interact with computers. In all other objectives,
including overall performance and the general areas of computer science
and literacy, boys attained significantly higher achievement. Girls
approached the achievement levels of boys in the area of computer literacy
problem solving, which involved the application of logical steps, diagrams,
tools, and procedures. Questions relating to this objective related more
directly to the application of systematic problem solving skills than to the
topic of computer literacy, per se. There is little reason to expect sex-related
differences in achievement on an objective such as this one, which does not
assess specific learned skills. Relative strengths of twelfth-grade boys were
in the areas of computer functions and uses, impact on life, hardware, and
computer science problem solving.

2Please note that differencesbetweenboys and girls in access to and experiencewith computer
technology have not been considered. Possible effects of such differences in access and
experience on performance are discussed below.
Assessment of Computer Literacy 185

Table I. Twelfth-Grade Students' Percentage

of Correct Scores by Sex
Objective Boys Girls
Overall 40 37b
1.0 Computer Literacy 48 44b
1.1 Computer Interactions 51 50
1.2 Functions and Uses 44 39b
1.3 Problem Solving 45 43a
1.4 Impact on Life 55 51b
2.0 Computer Science 31 28b
2.1 Software 27 25b
2.2 Hardware 37 33b
2.3 Problom Solving 31 27b
~Boy versus girl contrast significant, p < .05.
bBoy versus girl contrast significant,p < .001.

Sixth-grade s u m m a r y p e r f o r m a n c e o n selected c o m p u t e r literacy

objectives is displayed in T a b l e II. Each objective listed represents from two
to four specific questions posed to sixth graders, a n d the scores are based o n
7,343 to 29,372 responses, d e p e n d i n g o n the n u m b e r o f questions. B o y s '
a c h i e v e m e n t was superior to girls' a c h i e v e m e n t in all objectives except the
one that addressed the use o f systematic procedures, which is a species o f
p r o b l e m solving. This p a t t e r n o f results is similar to that f o u n d for twelfth-
grade students o n c o m p u t e r literacy p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g skills. This objective
does n o t relate directly to specific c o m p u t e r skills a n d abilities, so there is
little reason to expect large differences in the p e r f o r m a n c e o f boys a n d girls
here. Girls' a c h i e v e m e n t a p p r o a c h e d that o f boys in the area o f interactive
versus b a t c h processing, where neither g r o u p appeared to u n d e r s t a n d the
topic very well. Relative strengths o f sixth-grade boys were o n questions
h a v i n g to do with v o c a b u l a r y , system c o m p o n e n t s , history, a n d simple
programs.

Table 11. Sixth-Grade Students' Percentage of

Correct Scores by Sex
Objective Boys Girls
Overall 29 25b
1.2.1 Vocabulary 50 42b
1.2.2 Interactive and Batch 10 8~
1.2.3 System Components 33 27b
1.2.5 History 22 15b
1.3.4 Systematic Procedures 35 35
1.3.5 Simple Programs 24 20b
1.4.1 Specific Uses 38 36a
1.4.2 Careers 25 22b
aBoy versus girl contrast significant, p < .05.
bBoy versus girl contrast significant,p < .001.
186 Fetler

Table I!!. Student Attitudes Toward Computer Technology

Twelfth grade Sixth grade
Statement Boys Girls Boys Girls
Computers treat everyone as a
number 2.87 2.93 3.13 3.10
The more computers are used the
less privacy there is 2.97 2.94 2.93 2.98
Computers create as many jobs
as they eliminate 3.07 3.21 3.30 3.28
Computers slow down and com-
plicate business operations 1.83 2.08b 2 . 5 7 2.72b
A knowledge of computers will
help to get a better job 3.97 3.91 3.86 3.67b
Someday most things will be
run by computers 4.03 4.04 3.83 3.67b
Computers can help make
mathematics more interesting 3.92 3.77a 3 . 9 6 3.81b
To work with a computer a
person must be mathematician 2.68 2.74 2.84 2.79
aBoyversus girl contrast significant, p < .05.
bBoy versus girl contrast significant, p < .001.

T h e results in T a b l e s I a n d II d o c u m e n t significant d i f f e r e n c e s in the

a c h i e v e m e n t o f C a l i f o r n i a b o y s a n d girls. T h e d i f f e r e n c e s in a c h i e v e m e n t
have been precisely e s t i m a t e d as a result o f the large s a m p l e size used in this
study. A l t h o u g h the m e a n d i f f e r e n c e s in a c h i e v e m e n t r a n g e in size up to
only 6 percent correct points, they are consistent across most o f the objectives
a n d r e p r e s e n t a g e n u i n e l y lower level o f a c h i e v e m e n t f o r girls. I n b o t h
g r a d e s p e r f o r m a n c e o f girls a n d b o y s was m o s t n e a r l y e q u a l o n o b j e c t i v e s
which were the least t e c h n i c a l a n d specialized, t h a t is, on g e n e r a l p r o b l e m
solving skills. Specific k n o w l e d g e o f c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y w o u l d v e r y likely
have little effect on general p r o b l e m solving a c h i e v e m e n t . S c h o o l
a c h i e v e m e n t is a n e x c e e d i n g l y c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n o n , d e p e n d i n g in p a r t o n
s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e s a n d m o t i v a t i o n as well as o n b a c k g r o u n d a n d o p p o r t u n i t y
to learn, I n d i c a t o r s o f sixth- a n d t w e l f t h - g r a d e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d c o m p u t e r
t e c h n o l o g y are s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e I I I , where values h i g h e r t h a n 3.00
r e p r e s e n t a g r e e m e n t with a s t a t e m e n t (e.g., " C o m p u t e r s t r e a t e v e r y o n e as a
n u m b e r " ) a n d lesser values represent d i s a g r e e m e n t .

Attitudes

T w e l f t h - g r a d e b o y s a n d girls d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y o n t w o state-
ments. Girls were m o r e likely t h a n b o y s to agree t h a t c o m p u t e r s slow d o w n
a n d c o m p l i c a t e business o p e r a t i o n s . O n e r e a s o n for this d i f f e r e n c e m a y be
Assessment of Computer Literacy 187

found in the different types of exposure to computer technology

experienced by boys and girls. Word processing and key entry training may
be the main sources of exposure for girls; boys are more likely to experience
computers through mathematics and science classes. The automation of
clerical tasks may be perceived as uninteresting by women, and this could
translate into less positive attitudes. A second area of difference between
twelfth-grade boys and girls had to do with the perception that computers
can help to make mathematics more interesting. Differences here may be
related to boys' traditionally greater involvement and higher achievement in
mathematics.
Sixth-grade boys and girls differed significantly on more issues than
did twelfth-grade students. Sixth-grade girls were more likely to agree that
computers complicate business operations. Girls were less likely to agree
that knowledge of computers will help to get a better job, that someday
most things will be run by computer, and that computers can help to make
mathematics more interesting. Sixth-grade girls appear to have a much less
positive attitude toward computers in the workplace than do the boys. One
possible reason for this may be related to role expectations and stereotyping
experienced by the girls. Peers, teachers, and parents may not consider
experience or interest in computer technology consistent with the image of a
typical sixth-grade girl. To the extent that this happens, attitude and
behavior patterns are being shaped which may have long-term effects on
achievement and selection into occupations.

Experience

Having access to computer equipment is not a guarantee that students

will learn about the computer's appropriate use. Although such access is not

Table IV. W h e r e S t u d e n t s L e a r n e d A b o u t C o m p u t e r s
Twelfth grade Sixth g r a d e
Boys Girls Boys Girls
Home 17 11 n 25 20 =
Friends 13 7= - -
Summer 4 4 4 3
Museums 2 2 4 3
School (day) 29 28 26 29
School (evening) 3 2 3 2
Stores 9 4 13 7b
Video g a m e s 25 17 b 46 39 b
K n o w little 39 51 b 13 22 b

~Boy versus girl c o n t r a s t significant, p < .05.

bBoy versus girl c o n t r a s t significant, p < .001,
188 Fetler

Table V. Types of Inschool Microcomputer Learning

Twelfth grade Sixthgrade
Question Boys Girls Boys Girls
Write programs 18 13 16 13
General information 17 17 16 14
Drill and practice 12 11 13 13
Demonstrations 9 8 16 14
Tutorial 5 5 - -
Computer games 14 11 35 31"
No experience 50 57b 29 35b
°Boy versus girl contrast significant, p < .05.
bBoy versus girl contrast significant, p < .001.

a sufficient condition for learning to use computers, it is a necessary

condition. If girls exhibit lower levels of achievement than boys, one reason
may be less opportunity to interact with the technology. Familiarity with
computers also might have an effect on attitudes. One valid affective goal
of computer education is to impart a positive regard for the personal and
social benefits conferred by computers. Less positive attitudes m a y result,
in part, f r o m ignorance and lack of experience.
Student responses to the question where they learned about computers
are summarized in Table IV. The " F r i e n d s " options was not available to
sixth-grade students. Significantly more twelfth-grade boys than girls
reported learning about microcomputers at home, with friends, and f r o m
video games. Similar results were found for the sixth-grade students. In
both grades significantly m o r e girls than boys reported knowing little about
computers. Specific inschool microcomputer learning experiences are
summarized in Table V. O f the 25% and 30% of students who reported
learning about computers in school, there were roughly equal proportions
of boys and girls, Boys and girls also enjoyed roughly equal rates o f
participation in the various school computer learning experiences listed.
One exception was the significantly greater proportion of sixth-grade boys
who reported learning f r o m computer games. However, a significantly
greater proportion o f girls in both grades reported no school
microcomputer learning experiences. Although there was no specific
category of school learning experience where girls were significantly at a
disadvantage, there was an overall pattern of lesser participation for girls.
The results in Table VI reinforce the notion that girls receive less exposure
to computers in school than do boys. In both the sixth and the twelfth
grades, significantly fewer girls reported having access to a microcomputer
at school. Again, in both grades, fewer girls reported having access to a
video game at home. Results in Tables IV-VI consistently support the
Assessment of Computer Literacy 189

Table VI. Students' Access to Computer Technology

Twelfth grade Sixthgrade
Access Boys Girls Boys Girls
To a microcomputer at school 61 54a 60 52°
To a video games at home 50 44a 73 57a
~Boy versus girl contrast significant, p < .001.

hypothesis that girls either have or take advantage of fewer opportunities to

work with and learn about computers, both at h o m e and in school. To the
extent that experience with computer technology correlates with learning,
lesser amounts of experience could account for the generally lower levels of
achievement attained by girls.

DISCUSSION

Perhaps the m o s t striking overall result was the superior performance

of boys compared to girls. Although the differences are not enormous, they
appear consistently for most of the objectives assessed. Achievement of
both boys and girls was relatively low, and this is probably the result of the
novelty of computer studies in school curricula, the lack o f fully qualified
teaching staff, and initial confusion about what should be taught. One
concern is what will happen to achievement of girls compared to boys as
improvements are made in curriculum and instruction. A possibility is that
such improvements will magnify present differences. The factors which are
responsible for girls' lower achievement now, possibly including less
encouragement to learn about the technology, also will operate in an
improved educational environment. This could result in a widening
achievement gap. W h a t might be the consequences of such a gap? There is
as much conviction in the important role of computers in our society as
there is controversy over the need to know about them. Those who are
opposed to a role for computer studies in the schools will argue that the
knowledge imparted in such courses is not of much practical importance.
By analogy, a person need not be a bridge engineer to drive a car over a
bridge. In reply it can be said that there are m a n y more computers than
bridges, and computer technology is becoming a part o f everyday life.
There will be a continuing need for highly skilled people to build the
computer hardware and to construct the applications that will benefit us all.
C o m p u t e r technology offers satisfying professional opportunities to
appropriately trained individuals. Girls' more pessimistic attitudes towards
computers in the workplace will have a tendency to foreclose prematurely
190 Fetler

these opportunities. If girls are ilearning less about computer technology

than boys and have less opportunity to learn, neither society's needs nor
individuals' needs are being adequately served.
Goodlad (1984) has argued for a common core of learning for all
students. He has recommended that computer studies be a part of this core.
This position is motivated by the consideration that a body of knowledge
underlies our culture, which makes possible effective communication and
cooperation. Without this knowledge a person is at a disadvantage. The
result may be imperfect realization of personal and professional
aspirations. Computer studies may not comprise a large part of this
essential common core of knowledge, and the rhore esoteric technological
developments may not be included at all. However, girls attained
significantly lower levels of achievement than boys on such basic objectives
as the impact on life o f computers, functions and uses, and even simple
vocabularly. These types o f knowledge can be considered a part o f the
essential common core, and the gap between boys and girls is a matter of
concern.
Given enrollment trends in science and mathematics which have consistently
favored boys, it is not surprising to find a similar trend in the area of
computer studies. Not only are fewer girls exposed to computers in the
classroom, but girls also have less positive attitudes towards computers and
know less about the technology than do boys. Computer technology is
closely associated with science and mathematics in the minds of many, and
the attitudes that have discouraged the participation of women in technical
studies are probably operating in the area of computer studies. One irony of
this situation is that the effective professional use of computers need have
very little to do with science and mathematics. For example, contemporary
data base programs and spread sheets can be useful to anyone with a need to
process financial or other types of information. These are not particularly
"scientific" or " m a t h e m a t i c a l " applications. Beyond this is the fact that
computers have permeated our culture. Driving a car, shopping, banking,
and many other daily activities are now affected by data processing
technology. Our involvement with computers can only increase. To be less
knowledgeable about the basic aspects of computer technology is to be less
able to participate in our culture.
What should be the role o f the public school in educating boys and
girls in computer technology? Whether schools are to provide students with
entry level skills in cooperation with industry or to provide a solid
underpinning in the basic concepts of computer literacy, the issue of sex
equity is an important one. State governments, professional associations,
and governing bodies of schools need to be concerned with the relevant
policies, and there must be more public discussion of the needs in this area
as well as of the costs and benefits associated with the choices made.
Assessment of Computer Literacy 191

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Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Educational computing: Support functions and
student objectives. Alexandria, Va.: Department of Defense, Office of Dependents
Schools, 1982.
Goodlad, J. A place called school. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.
Johnson, D., Anderson, R., Hanson, T., & Klassen, D. Computer literacy-What is it?
Mathematics Teacher, 1980, 73, 91-96.
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