Chapter 7: UNDERSTANDING THEORY AND

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS
Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
1) Define theory and elements of theory. 4) Describe the purpose of a research
2) Distinguish among the levels of theoretical framework.
thinking. 5) Identify research frameworks developed
3) Describe the use of middle range theories from nursing and other theories.
as frameworks for studies.

UNDERSTANDING THE ELEMENTS OF THEORY

 A theory is defined as a set of concepts and statements that present a view of a phenomenon.
 They are also core ideas that guide practice and research within a scientific discipline.
 Concepts are terms that abstractly describe and name an object, idea, experience, or phenomenon,
thus providing it with a separate identity or meaning.
 They are defined in a particular way to present the ideas relevant to a theory.
 Statements in a theory describe how the concepts are connected to each other.
 A concept, a statement, or a theory may be used to describe phenomenon (the conscious awareness
of an experience that comprises the lives of humans.

Theory
 Abstract, rather than concrete.
 An abstract idea focuses on a general view of a phenomenon.
 Concrete refers to realities or actual instances; focuses on the particular, rather than on the general.

Philosophy
 Philosophies are rational intellectual explorations of truths or principles of being, knowledge, or
conduct.
 Describe viewpoints on what reality is, how knowledge is developed, and which ethical values and
principles should guide our practice.
 Assumptions are statements that are taken for granted or considered true, even though they have not
been scientifically tested.

Concepts
 A concept is the basic element of a theory.
 The definition of a concept might be detailed and complete, or it might be vague and incomplete and
require further development.
 A construct is a broader category or idea that may encompass several concepts. They are general
meanings that may be a label for a complex idea.
 A variable is more specific than a concept. The term implies that it is defined so that it is measurable
and suggests that numerical values of the term are able to vary from one instance to another.
  Concepts from theories have conceptual definitions that are developed by the theorist and differ from
the dictionary definition of a word; includes associated meanings that the word may have.
 A conceptual definition is referred to as connotative because the term bring to mind memories,
mood, or images, subtly or indirectly.
 Terms used in theory or research need connotative meanings based on professional literature.
 Connotative definitions are clear statements of the concepts’ meaning in the particular theory or
study.
 The conceptual definition that a researcher identifies or develops for a concept comes from a theory
and provides a basis for the operational definition.
 The operational definition is how the concept can be manipulated or measured.

Statements
A statement clarifies the type of relationship that exists between or among concepts.
 The statements of relationships are what are tested through research. The researcher obtains data for
the variables that represent the concepts in the study’s framework and analyzes the data for possible
significant relationships among the variables using specific statistical tests.
 In theories, propositions are a label given to statements describing relationships among concepts.
 General propositions - more abstract
 Specific propositions - stating a relationship in a more narrow way (making the statement more
concrete and testable)
 Hypotheses - developed based propositions from a grand or middle range theory that comprise the
study’s framework.

LEVELS OF THEORETICAL THINKING

 Theories can be abstract or broad or they can be more concrete or specific.
 Between abstract and concrete, there are several levels of theoretical thinking.
Grand Nursing Theories
 Early scholars labeled the most abstract
theories as conceptual models or
conceptual frameworks.
 Today, we refer to the more abstract
nursing theories as grand nursing theories
because they encompass nursing actions
and patient responses in multiple settings.

Middle Range and Practice Theories

 Middle Range Theories are less abstract and narrower in scope than grand nursing theories, but are
more abstract than theories that apply to only a specific situation.
 Middle Range Theories are sometimes called substantive theories because they are closer to the
substance of clinical practice.
 Substantive Theories have clearly identified concepts, definitions of concepts, and relational
statements.
 Practice Theories are a type of middle range theories that are more specific. They are designed to
propose specific approaches to particular nursing practice situations. Some scholars call them
situation-specific theories.
 Applying a middle range theory to a specific situation identifies appropriate nursing actions. Practice
theories are sometimes referred to as prescriptive theories.

Research Frameworks
 A research framework is an abstract and logical structure of meaning. The term refers to concepts
and relationships being addressed in a study.
 One strategy for expressing a theory or research framework is a diagram with the concepts and
relationships graphically displayed. They are sometimes called maps or models.
 A model includes all the major concepts in a research framework. Arrows between the concepts
indicate the proposed linkages between them. Each linkage shown by an arrow is a graphic
illustration of a relational statement (proposition) of a theory.
 Implicit frameworks - basic ideas for the framework expressed in the introduction or literature
review and are described as linkages among variables found in previous studies.
 A careful reader can extract an implicit framework from the text of the research report.
 Tentative theory - framework that is newly proposed. Syntheses of concepts and relationships from
more than one theory or syntheses of research findings are also examples of tentative theories.
 Scientific theory - frameworks for physiological studies usually derived from physiology, genetics,
pathophysiology, and physics. Has extensive research evidence to support its claims.
Statement of the Problem
This study aims to determine the study habits and academic performance of working students taking up
Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN). Specifically it seeks to answer the following:
1) What is the profile of the working students 3) What is the academic performance of the
in terms of: working students?
1.1 age; 4) Is there a significant relationship between
1.2 gender; the following:
1.3 civil status; 4.1 profile and study habits of the working
1.4 economic status; and students;
1.5 year level? 4.2 profile and academic performance of
2) What are the study habits of the workings the working students; and
students in terms of: 4.3 study habits and academic performance
2.1 division of time; and of the working students?
2.2 physical status?
Statement Of The Null Hypothesis:
Ho1. There is no significant relationship between the following:
1.1 profile and study habits of the working students;
1.2 profile and academic performance of the working students; and
1.3 study habits and academic performance of the working students.

THERE IS A SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DIVISION OF TIME AND

PHYSICAL STATUS AMONG BSN STUDENTS WITH PART-TIME JOBS AND THEIR
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Statement of the Problem

This study will determine the knowledge and practices on infection control among hospital auxiliary
workers in a government hospital in Leyte.
Specifically, it seeks to answer the following:
1) What is the profile of the respondents in 2) What is the knowledge on infection control
terms of: practices among hospital auxiliary workers?
1.1 age; 3) What are the practices on infection control
1.2 gender; among the hospital auxiliary workers?
1.3 highest educational attainment; 4) Is there a significant relationship among
1.4 years in service; and the following:
1.5 relevant trainings and seminars 4.1 profile and knowledge;
attended? 4.2 profile and practices; and
4.3 knowledge and practices?
Statement of the Null Hypothesis
Ho1. There is no significant relationship among the following:
1.1 profile of the hospital auxiliary workers and their knowledge
on infection control;
1.2 profile of the hospital auxiliary workers and their and practices
on infection control; and
1.3 knowledge and practices on infection control among hospital
auxiliary workers.
 Chapter 8: CLARIFYING QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Introduction
 Research design - the blueprint for conducting a study.
 Descriptive and correlational designs are focused on describing and examining relationships of
variables in natural settings.
 Quasi-experimental and experimental designs have been developed to examine causality, or the
cause and effect relationships between interventions and outcomes.

IDENTIFYING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

IN NURSING STUDIES
 Descriptive and correlational designs are referred to noninterventional or nonexperimental designs -
examining variables in their natural setting and not focused on intervention(s) implemented by the
researcher.
 Cross-sectional design - data collection on variables at one point in time.
 Longitudinal design - data collection from the same study participants at multiple points in time.
 Quasi-experimental and experimental studies - sometimes referred to as interventional or
experimental; are designed to examine causality; focus is on examining the differences in dependent
variables thought to be caused by independent variables or interventions.

Algorithm for determining the type of quantitative study design.

IDENTIFYING CONCEPTS RELEVANT TO

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
CAUSALITY
- Means that things have causes and causes lead to effects
- Can be determined by examining the purpose statement and the propositions within the framework
MULTICAUSALITY
- The presence of multiple causes for an effect
- Studies from multicausal perspectives will have more variables
PROBABILITY
- Addresses relative than absolute causality
- In cognizance that a particular cause will probably result in a specific effect
 - Researchers design studies that will determine the probability that a given effect will occur under a
defined set of circumstances
BIAS
- Slant or deviation from the true or expected
- Distorts the findings from what the results would have been without the bias
- Quantitative researchers place great value on identifying and removing sources of bias in their study
and controlling their effects on the study findings
- Critical appraisal: identifying the possible sources of bias
PROSPECTIVE VS RETROSPECTIVE
 Prospective - a term that means looking forward
 Retrospective - looking backward
 In research, used to to refer to the timing of data collection.
 Are the data obtained in real time or obtained from information collected at a prior time?
 Noninterventional research can either be prospective or retrospective as it lacks researcher
intervention.
 Prospective data collection is usually more accurate than retrospective data collection.
 Interventional research must be prospective.
CONTROL
- A method to reduce bias to increase the amount of control
- Control - having the power to direct or manipulate factors to achieve a desired outcome
MANIPULATION
- A form of control generally used in quasi-experimental and experimental studies
- Controlling intervention is the most common manipulation
- In descriptive and correlational studies, little or no effort is made to manipulate factors regarding the
circumstances of the study

EXAMINING THE DESIGN VALIDITY OF

QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
 Study validity - a measure of the truth or accuracy of the findings obtained from a study; central to
obtaining accurate trustworthy results and findings from a study
 Design validity - encompasses the strengths and threats to the quality of a study design
 Threats to validity - possible weaknesses in study’s design

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
 Examines the fit between the conceptual and operational definitions of variables.
 The extent of the congruence or consistency between the conceptual definitions and operational
definitions.

 INADEQUATE DEFINITIONS OF CONSTRUCTS

Constructs or concepts examined in a study lack adequate conceptual or operational definitions, so
the measurement method is not accurately capturing what it is supposed to in a study.

 MONO-OPERATION BIAS
- Occurs when only one method of measurement is used to assess a construct
- Construct validity greatly improves if the researcher uses more than one instrument

 EXPERIMENTER EXPECTANCIES
- “Rosenthal Effect”
- The expectancies of the researcher can bias the data
- Occurs if a researcher expects a particular intervention have a specific effect; the data may become
biased to reflect the researcher’s expectation
INTERNAL VALIDITY
- The extent to which the effects detected in the study are a true reflection of reality, rather than the
result of extraneous variables
- It is a concern in all studies, but a major focus in studies examining causality
- The researcher must determine whether the dependent variables may have been influenced by
extraneous variables
- The possibility of of an alternative explanation of cause is sometimes referred to as rival hypothesis

 PARTICIPANT SELECTION & ASSIGNMENT TO GROUPS

- Selection addresses the process whereby participants are chosen to take part in a study and how they
are grouped within a study
- A selection threat is more likely to occur in studies in which randomization is not possible
- The random assignment of participants to groups decreases the possibility of their selection being a
threat to internal validity

 PARTICIPANT ATTRITION
- Attrition involves participants dropping out of a study before it is completed
- It becomes a threat 1) when those who drop out of a study are a different type of person from those
who remain in the study or 2) there is a difference in the number and types of people who drop out of
the intervention group and the people who drop out of the control or comparison group

 HISTORY
- Is an event that is not related to the planned study but that occurs during the time of the study.
- History could influence a participant’s response to the intervention or to the variables being
measured and alter the outcome of the study.

 MATURATION
- In research, is defined as growing older, wiser, stronger, hungrier, more tired, or more experienced
during the study.
- It a threat to the study’s internal validity and can influence the findings of the study.
- More likely to occur in longitudinal studies with repeated measures of study variables.

EXTERNAL VALIDITY
- Is concerned to the extent to which study findings can be generalized beyond the sample used in the
study (the ability to generalize findings).
- To some extent, the significance of the study depends on the number or types of people and
situations to which the findings can be applied.
- Generalization is usually narrower for a single study than for multiple replications of a study using
different samples, perhaps from different populations in different settings.

 INTERACTION OF SELECTION AND INTERVENTION

- Researchers must report the number of persons who were approached and refused to participate in
the study (refusal rate) so those examining the study can identify any threat to external validity.
- Studies should be planned to limit the demands on people and increase their interest in participation.
- Study intervention must be skillfully developed and clearly communicated to individuals to increase
their participation in the study.

 INTERACTION OF SETTING AND INTERVENTION

- Bias exists in regard to the types of settings and organization that agree to participate in studies.
- Researchers must consider the characteristics of the settings and patients they serve when making
statements about the population to which their findings can be generalized.
 - Some settings are supportive and encourage participation; others are not.

 INTERACTION OF HISTORY AND INTERVENTION

- The circumstances occurring when a study is conducted might influence the intervention
implemented or the outcomes measured, which could affect the generalization of the findings.
- Replicating the study during various time periods strengthens the usefulness of findings over time.

STATISTICAL CONCLUSION VALIDITY

- Step 1: Determining whether the independent and dependent variables are related; which can be
determined through statistical analysis.
- Statistical conclusion validity is concerned with whether the conclusions about relationships or
differences drawn from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world.
- Step 2: Identify differences between and among groups.

 LOW STATISTICAL POWER

- Increases the probability of concluding that there is no significant relationship between variables or
significant difference between groups when actually there is one (Type II error).
- Type II error occurs when the sample size is small or when the power of the statistical test to
determine differences is low.
- Ensure that the study has an adequate sample size and power to detect relationships and differences.

 RELIABILITY OR PRECISION OF MEASUREMENT METHODS

- A measure is reliable if it give the same result each time that the same situation or variable is
measured.
- Physiological measures that consistently measure physiological variables are considered precise.

 FIDELITY OF THE INTERVENTION IMPLEMENTATION

- Intervention fidelity ensures that the research intervention is standardized by a protocol and is
applied consistently each time it is implemented in a study.
- Data collectors must be trained to ensure consistent or reliable implementation of a study
intervention to prevent threats to the statistical conclusion validity.

 EXTRANEOUS VARIANCES IN THE STUDY SETTING

- Extraneous variables in complex settings can influence scores on the dependent variable. These
variables increase the difficulty of detecting differences between the experimental and control
groups.