Module -IV 4.1 Project management using PERT and CPM A project is defined as a combination of inter related activities that must be executed in a certain order before the entire task can be completed. ‘The act -$ are inter-related in a logical ‘sequence in the way that some activities cai start until others are completed, Constructing houses, factories, shopping malls, developing military weapons systems, aircrafts, and new ships are examples of projects. An activity in a project is usually viewed as a job requiring time and recourses for its completion. It is essential to manage the projects effectively through planning, ‘scheduling and control. Network analysis is the general name given to certain specific techniques which ean be used for the planning, management and control of projects. Network analysis is a system which plans projects both small and large by analyzing the project activities. PI ig by network analysis, probably got recognition in the year 1955 when dramatic reductions in time {about 70%) were experienced ii in connection with the overhaul of generating plant by Central Electricity Generating Board in Great Britain. Network analysis helps to minimize the cost and time involved in the project, helps to utilize resources effectively and minimizes delays i ‘interruption in the project. Network analysis helps designing, planning, coordinating, controllir and in decision making in order to accomplish the project economically in the minimum. available time with limited available resources. Network analysis is widely used in research and development projects, setting up new industries, planning and launching of new products, construction projects, shifting of manufacturing locations, equipment maintenance and overhauling, etc. Objectives of network analysis 1. Minimize total project cost and time. 2. Effective utilization of resources. 3. Minimizing delays and interruption of the project. Steps involved in network analysis: 1. Specify the individual activities — Define the oe and all of its significant activities or tasks. The project (made up of several tasks) s| have only a single start activity and a single finish activity. 2 Determine the sequence of the activities - Develop the relationships among the activities. > which activities must precede and which must follow others. Decide which task or formed simultaneously and which others sequentially. Arrange the 3. Draw the network diagram — A network diagram is constructed which presents the ‘relationships with the activities involved. 4. Estimate activity completion time — The time required to com alba Sa estimated using past experience or the estimates of knowledgeable persons. Time, costs and other resources are allotted to all the activities. 5. Identify the critical path - Compute the longest time path through the network. This i called the critical path. The significance of the critical path is that the activities that lion i delayed without delaying the project. Because of ical path analysis is an important aspect of project planning. 6 Use the network to help plan, schedule, monitor and control the project.4.2 Types of network Networks used in project management are of two types. They are explained below. J. AOA Network (Activity On Arrow Network) AOA network AOA network assumes that all preceding activities must be 100 percentage complete to start the new activity. Above diagram represents a project with three activities A, B, C. Activity “B’ can start after activity “A ‘is completed. Activity °C’ can start after activity “B’ is completed. 2. AON Network (Activity On Node) AOA network assumes that all preceding activities must be completed fully to start a new activity. This results in inefficient project planning. AON network overcomes this limitation. Various types of AON networks are discussed below. a) Finish to Start “Fintsh to Start AON Activity B can start after n days (units) from finish of activity ‘A’. 'n' is called the lag after finish of 'A‘. 4) Start to Start “Sarto Strt 40% Activity 'B’ starts 1 days (units) after start of activity 'A'. Finish to Finish Activity "B' must finish n days (units) after the finish of activity ‘A’. @ Start to Finish ‘Sart to Finish AON Activity ‘B’ must finish 1 days (units) after the start of the activity ‘A’. Network analysis using AOA network is explained in detail in the following section.Terms related to network planning methods (AOA) Network diagram — Network diagram or arrow diagram is the basic feature of network p! It is a diagram which represents all the events and activities in sequence (in which ay are required to be performed to complete the project), along with their inter relationships and with their interdependencies. A network diagram is the result, or output, of the planning function and is ‘not drawn to a time scale. From this diagram, a schedule is developed. Event — An event is a specific instant of time which marks, start or the end of an activity, Event consumes neither time nor resources. It is represented by circle and the event number is written within the circle. Event and node are synonyms. eg. Start of motor, loan approval, ete. Aetivity — Every project consists of a number of tasks which are called activities. An activity is an ‘element of project and may be a process, a material procurement cycle, ete. eg. Install machinery, arranging foreign exchange, ete., are activities. An activity is shown by an arrow and it begins and et n activity consumes time and resources. An activity may be performed by an individual or group of individuals. An activity is normally given a name like AB, ete., which is marked below the arrow and the estimated time to accomplish the activity is marked above the arrow. Activities are classified as critical activities, non-critical activities and dummy activities. Duration — Duration is the time required to complete a task or an activity. Total project time —1t is the time which will be taken to complete a project and is found from the sequence of critical activities. In other words, it is the duration of critical path. re-operation (PRE-OPR) — Pre-operation are the operations which precede the operation under consideration. eg. Machine installation can be done after m: ¢ foundation is completed. Thus ‘machine foundation is the pre-operation of the machine installation. Post —Operation (POST-OPR) — Post-operation are the operations which follow after the operation under consideration is completed. eg. Machine installation can be done after machine foundation is completed. Thus machine installation is the post-opcration of the machine Earliest Start Time (EST) — 1t is the carliest possible time at which an activity can start and is calculated by moving from first to last event in a network diagram. Earliest Finish Time (EFT) —It is the earliest possible time at which an activity can finish. EFT = EST + Duration of that activity Consider three activities A, B and C in which activity C can start only afier the completion of activities A and B. Activities A and B don’t have any PRE-OPR. If activity A takes 15 hours to finish and activity B takes 20 hours to finish, then A’s earliest finish is 15 hours and B’s earliest finish is 20 hours, Latest Finish Time (LFT) — It is the latest time by which the operation must be completed so that scheduled date for the completion of ‘the project may not be delayed. It is calculated by moving backward i i.e, from last event to first event of the network diagram. It is the last event time of the head event, Latest Start Time (LST) It is the latest possible time by which an activity can start. LST = LFT — Duration of that activityFloat or Stack — Slack is with reference to an event and float is with reference to an activity. In other words, slack is used with PERT and float with CPM. But in general practice they may be ‘used interchangeably. Float or slack means spare time or extra time over and above duration which a non-critical activity can consume without delaying project. Float is the difference between the time available for completing an activity and time necessary to complete the same. Critical activities — In a network diagram, critical activities are those, if consume more than their estimated time, the project will be delayed. An activity is called as critical activity if its carliest start time taken is equal to the latest start time. A critical activity is marked either by a thick arrow r as shown inthe figure. Critical path in network Non-critical activities — Such activities have provision (float or slack), so that even if they consume time over and above the estimated time, the project will not be delayed. Dummy activity — When two activities start at the same instant of time the head events are joined by a dotted arrow and this is known as dummy activity. Dummy activity does not consume time. A. dummy activity may be critical or non-critical. It becomes critical when its Earliest Start Time(EST) is same as its Latest Finish Time (LFT). As per the above network diagram, Dummy activity is included in the network diagram to show that activity D cannot be started until a Band F are completed. Note~ Start machine installation — An event Machine installation — An activity Completion of machine installation — An event Critical path —It is that sequence of. activities which decide the total project duration. Critical path is formed by critical activities. Critical path consumes maximum resources and takes maximum time. A critical path has zero float. The expected completion dates cannot be met if even one critical activity is delayed. A dummy activity joining two critical activities is also a critical activity. A critical path reveals those activities which must be manipulated by some means if the scheduled completion dates are to be met. Total project duration is the duration of critical path. Numbering of events — Fulkerson’s rule The steps involved in numbering of the events as per the Fulkerson’s rule are :- 1. The initial event, which has all outgoing arrows and no incoming arrow, is numbered as 1. 2. Delete all the arrows coming out from the node just numbered (ie., 1). This step will create some more nodes (at least one) into initial events. Number these events in ascending order (i.e., 2, 3, etc.). 3. Continue the process until the final or terminal node which has all arrows coming in, with no arrow going out, is numbered.4.3 Rules for drawing network diagram The network diagram is a picture showing the chronological relationships among the activities. It shows which activity can run concurrently with another activity and which activity must be performed after other earlier activity. The relationship among activities is called the predecessor and successor relationships. ‘Predecessor’ refers to an activity that must be performed before another activity can be started. ‘Successor’ activity refers to an activity that must be started after a previous one is completed. 1. Rule 1 — Each activity is represented by one and only one arrow in the network. 2. Rule 2— All the arrows must run from left to right. Rule 3 — A circle represents an event. Every activity starts and ends with an event. 4, Rutle 4— Dotted line arrows represent dummy activities. Do not use dummy activity unless required. 5. Rule 5 — Every activity, except the first and the last, must have at least one preceding and one succeeding activity. Isolated activities must be avoided. 6. Rule 6 — No two activities can be identified by the same head and tail events. A situation like this may arise when two or more activities can be performed concurrently. In such situations, a dummy activity can be made use of. Dummy activities have no duration and are usually shown as a dotted line arrow. They are used cither for clarity of drawing or to keep the logic of the diagram consistent with that of the project. B ‘ Wrong Right 7. Rule 7 — Precedence relationships among all activities must always be maintained. 8. Rule 8 — Dummy activities can be used to maintain precedence relationships only when actually required. Their use should be minimized in the network diagram. 9. Rule 9 — Looping among the activities must be avoided Wrong Right 10. Avoid redundancy error — If in a network diagram, dummy activity is the only activity emanating from an event, then it is called redundancy error. This redundant dummy activity can be eliminated and the network is redrawn having no redundancy error. ‘Redundant "Network with redhdancy Network with nor 11. For coding use alphabets for all activities including the dummy activity and numbers for events.Some of the common combination of activity in a project is as follows. Diagrara ivity ‘A’ is preceding activity of B ie, activity ‘A'need to be completed before start of activity 'B' In other words 'B' starts after ‘AV is finished. Activity ‘A and ‘B’ are concurrent. Activity “C” cannot start until both the activities ‘A’ and “B’ are completed. Activity “D’ cannot begin until both A and *C’ is completed. But, ‘B’ can start after ‘A’ is completed. The activity ‘2’, represented by dashed arrow, is a dummy activity. This does not consume any resource i.e., have zero time to complete. Network diagram E’s EST is 8 hours as E has to wait for operations A and D to finish. E’s LST time is 12, as activity F will start only at 15 hours after the completion of E and C. Though activity D was completed after 8" hour, activity E can wait for another 4 hours i.e., activity E can start even at 12 hours as activity E takes only 3 hours to finish and activity F starts only at 15 hours(8+4=12). E’s EET is 11 hours, as E will have to wait for the completion of activities A and D which takes 4 hours each and activity E itself takes 3 hours to finish. E’s LFT is 15 hours, as activity F will start only after the completion of E and C. Though activity E can get over by 11 hours, activity, activity F will start only after the completion of both E and C. So, activity E may delay its activity by another 4 hours so that activities E and C finish simultaneously.Problems : 1. Ina project, Crop = 2is to be raised in same plot of land after harvesting of Crop-1. The activities and there inter relation is given below. Construct the network diagram. Fee Saleof Gop =1 ee Solution : The network diagram of the above part of the project would be as follows. The activity *Z’, represented by dashed arrow in the diagram, is a dummy activity. It does not consume time and cost. It represents the logical relation among the activities. 2. Construct the network diagram for the following set of sequential activities for installation of water supply by digging well and installation of pump given below. a Digng wall | Ba | Laying field ammete_|_—c_[-_B | [Frocuementofpmp |b. a] a Dr _ Installation of pump E r Solution : The network diagram of the above project would be as follows.3. A project consists of 9 jobs with the following precedence relations and time estimates. Draw the project network and identify the critical path Toe Oa) a ee eee Solution The network diagram of the above project would be as follows 4. The owner of a shopping centre is considering expanding the current business shopping complex. The specific activities that make up the project, together with information on immediate predecessor and completion time, are listed in the following table. Construct the network according to the problem specification. ER Db Select contractor Prepare building permits ‘Obiain approval for building penmils Perform conszuchon H [Finalize contracts with tenants df Tenants move inSolution 5, Constmet the network diagram for the set of sequential activities given in the table z| are Solution The network diagram of the above project would be as foll ows 6 A company is in the process of preparing a budget for launching a new product. The following table provides the associated activities and their durations. Construct the project networks,Activity | Description Predecessors | Duration(days) A__| Forecast sale volume = 10 B__| Study competitive market = 7 C__ [Design item and facilities A 3 D__| Prepare production schedule Cc 3 E__| Estimate cost of production D 2 F__| Set sales price B.E I G@__ [Prepare budget EF 4 Solution : The network diagram of the above project would be as follows. A publisher has a contract with an author to publish a textbook. The (simplified) acti associated with the production of the textbook are given below. The author is required to submit to the publisher a hard copy and a computer file of the manuscript. Develop the associated net-work for the project. Adtivity | Description Predecessors | Duration (Weeks) A__| Manuscript proofreading by editor = 3 B___| Sample pages’ preparation = 2 C_| Book cover desi 4 D__| Artwork preparation 3 | Author's “approval — of dited AB z manuscript and sample pages F__ | Book formatting E a G_| Author's review of formatted pages F 2 H__ | Author's review of artwork D T I__| Production of printing plates GH z T__ | Book production and binding GT 4 Solution : The network diagram of the above project would be as follows.4.4 Critical Path Method ‘The E.l.du.Pont de Nemours Company (USA) in the year 1958 while overhauling a ‘chemical plant employed this technique for the first time to schedule and control the project and. ‘experienced a good amount of saving. CPM, or Critical Path Analysis help to plan civilian business and engineering industry were activity timings were relatively well known. CPM is applicable to both large and small projects taking from space programmes to wedding. CPM is a ‘mathematical based algorithm for scheduling a set of project activities. CPM is a technique used for planning and controlling the logical and economic sequence of operations for accomplishing a project. It is an important tool for effective project management. CPM model of the project includes the following. 1. A list of all activities required to complete the project, 2. The time (duration) that each activity will take to completion, and 3. The dependencies between the activities. ‘Using these values, the longest path of planned activities to the end of the project, and the earliest and latest time that each a an start and finish without making the project longer is i letermines a i it (ie., on the longest path) and which have ‘float’ (ic., can be delayed without making the project longer), Identifying the critical path enables to determine the shortest time possible to complete the project. Any delay of an activity on the critical path directly impacts the planned project completion date. These results allow managers to prioritize activities for project completion and to shorten the critical path of a project by adding resources. Steps involved in CPM Break down the project into various activities systematically. Label all activities. Arrange all activities in logical sequence. Construct the arrow diagram. Number all the nodes and activities. Find the time for each activity. : Mark the activity times on the arrow diagram. Calculate early, start and finishing times. ‘Tabulate various times and mark ES’ |. Calculate the total float for each activity. 11. Identify and mark the activities and critical path on the arrow diagram. 12. Calculate the total project duration. 13. Ifitis intended to reduce the total project duration, crash the critical activities. 14, Optimize the cost and update the network, Advantages of CPM 1. CPM offers a visual representation of the project activities. 2. CPM presents the time to complete the tasks and the overall project. 3. CPM helps in tracking of critical activities. Disadvantages of CPM 1. Clear and reliable information should be available. 2. It does not account for resource allocation. geen ava NEProblems : 7 Mark the critical path and find total project duration for the network diagram shown below. Also, calculate EST, LST, EFT, LFT and floats. CPM-Problem-1 Solution : Path taking the longest duration (22) hours is the path A-D-G. Activities in the critical path cannot be delayed, as, delaying the activities in the critical path further delays the project. Latest Start Time for starting activity B is 8 hours, as, activity D gets completed only after 18 hours and time taken for activity E is 6 hours. Latest Start Time for activity E is 12 hours, as, activity D gets completed only after 18 hours. Latest start time for activity C is 8 hours, as, activity G gets completed only after 22 hours. Similarly, Latest Start Time for activity F is 14 hours. Latest Finish Time for activity B is 12, as, activity D gets completed only after 18 hours and activity takes 6 hours for completion. Similarly, Latest Finish Time for activity E is 18 hours. Values LST, EST, EFT and LFT of other activities are calculated and are tabulated in the table below. CPM-Problant-Solaston Activity | Duration (Days) | EST | EFT | EST | LFT | Float = LST-EST A(I-2) e 0 8 0 8 0 COA 6 Oe 8 BU-3) + o{[4{s {np 8 D@-5) 10 s [is [3s [i 0 E@-3) 6 4 [0 |r] is 8 GEO 4 is [2 [18 | 2 0 FEH 8 é[u{[u [2 8 Critical path is the one which consumes maximum time and it is A-D-G. The total project duration, therefore is 8 + 10 + 4 = 22 days.2. Assmall engineering project consists of six activities namely A, B, C, D, E and F with duration of 4,6,5,4.3 and 3 days respectively as shown in the network diagram below. Calculate EST, LST, EFT, LFT and floats. Mark the critieal path and find total project duration. Solution : ‘As per the network diagram given, path A-B-C-F is the critical path as that path takes the longest project duration of 18 hours. Assume activity A, being the first activity, get started at the “0° the hour, Hence, EST and LST for activity A is ‘0’. Activity D which falls in the non- critical path can be started soon after the completion of activity A. Hence, EST for activity D is 4. Activity C gets completed only after 15 hours. Hence, activity D need to be started only at the 8" hour (LST=8), as activity E takes 3 hours and gets completed by 15! hour. Values LST, EST, EFT and LFT of other activities are calculated and are tabulated in the table below. It is only necessary to calculate either EST and LST or LFT and EFT to calculate float. CPM-Probiem-2-Solution Duration Float = LST-EST Activity |" ays) | ESE | LST=LEE-D | EFP=EST+D | LET or v Float = LFT-EFT AGH | 4 0 0 a a 0 B2-3)[__ 6 4 4 10 10 0 O35) g 10 10 15 15 0 Dea | 4 + 8 8 12 4 B45) | 3 12 i 15 4 FS-6) 3 15 15 18 18 0 Critical path is the one which consumes maximum time and it is A-B-C-F. The total project duration, therefore is 4 + 6 +5 +3= 18 days.3. A project has the following list of activities and time estimates. Activity | Time (Days) | Immediate predecessors A 1 - B 4 A c a A D 3 A E 6 B F 2 GD G = EF H 9 D T 4 GH Mark the critical path and find total project duration. Solution : The network diagram indicating the critical path of the above project would be as follows. CenerrodlemsSonuion Activity | Duration | wer) per teT-p | EFT=EST+D | LET care Dash Float = LPT-EFT AGH I 0 o T T 0 B23) | 4 T I 5 5 0 az3) [3 T 6 a 9 5 De | 7 T 2 8 9 T E36) 6 3 3 TI ll 0 FEO | 2 3 9 TO TT T Gent 7 pa 17 18 1s 0 Hae? | 9 3 9 17 18 i 17% [4 | 8 ig 2 2 0 Critical path is the one which consumes maximum time and i project duration, therefore is 4+ 6+ 5 +3 = 22 days. is A-B-E-G-I. The total4.5 Programme Evaluation Review Technique Program (ot Project) Evaluation Review Technique, commonly abbreviated as PERT, is a model for project management designed to analyze and represent the tasks involved in completing a given project’ PERT primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. It was able to incorporate uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the activities. It is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and completion-oriented, and ‘is used more in R&D-type projects where time, rather than cost, is the major factor. PERT is ‘intended for very large-scale, complex, non-routine projects. PERT is a method to analyze the involved tasks in completing a given project, especially the time needed to complete each task, and identifying the minimum time needed to complete the total project. PERT was invented by Booz Allen Hamilton, Inc. under contract to the United States Department of Defense's US Navy Special Projects Office in 1958 as part of the Polaris mobile submarine-launched ballistic missile project. Features of PERT Major features of PERT are mentioned below. 1. PERT describes the basic network technique which includes planning, monitoring and control of | 2. PERT finds application in planning and controlling complex set of tasks, functions and relationships. It is avery important technique in the field of project management. PERT is commonly employed for conducting initial review of the project. PERT is very useful device for planning the time and resources. It points out potentially troublesome areas (which may disrupt programme objectives) against which a timely action can be taken to prevent their occurrences. PERT helps in decision making. PERT was actually developed as a research and development tool where activity timings could not be estimated without enough certainty. To some extent a similar situation occurs in design also. 8. PERT can be employed at those places where a project cannot be easily defined in terms of resources required. 9. Because of the uncertainty of activity timings, P.E.R.T. acquired the shape of probabilistic model. It uses linear programming and probability concept. Steps involved in PERT The project is broken down into various activities systematically. Arrange all activities in logical sequence. Construct the network diagram. Events and activities are numbered. Using three time estimate, the expected time for each activit Standard Deviation and variance of each activity are calculated. EST and LFT are calculated. Expected time, earliest starting time and latest finishing times are marked on the network. yew mo SNe 9. 10. t 11. Length of critical path or total project duration is found out. 12. Lastly the probability that the project will finish at due date is calculated.Estimation of activity times in PERT For each activity, three time estimates are taken. The: weights are based on an approximation of the beta distribution. They are mentioned below. 1. £, (optimistic time) — It is the shortest possible time in which an activity can be completed if everything goes exceptionally well. 2. tamost likely time) —Itis the time in which the activity is normally expected to complete under normal contingencies. 3. t{pessimistic time) — |—It is the time which an activity will take to complete in case of difficulty ic., if mostly things go wrong. It is the longest of the three time estimates. 4 testimated time) - is given by t, & Gs 6 -_ + etc of waa faced t S,(standard deviation) = —*—* 5 aaah Vi(variance - [tee The higher the standard deviation, the greater the uncertainty that the project will be. completed on the due date. Length of the critical path or the total project duration Total project duration = Sum of the duration of each critical activity. Variance of the critical path Variance of the critical path += Sum of the variance of the each critical activity. Standard deviation, S,= sf Variance of the critical path The probability that the project will meet the schedule or the due date Given the variance, the opcbesieh that the project will be completed can be calculated by ‘the certain date assuming a normal probability distribution for the critical path. The probability of ‘completing the project within the scheduled time may be obtained by using the standard normal variate, where ‘D” is the expected time of project completion. D_-T. f= where, Z=~ Normal deviation ( Standard normal variate) D = Due or schedule date (time) (desired time) §,= Standard deviation ‘T= Total project duration Probability see lei that corresponds to *Z’ is obtained from the standard ‘normal table (Given in Appendix —I).Problems : 1 ‘The data regarding the activities in a project are given below. It is given that the schedule date of completion of project is 38 days. Draw the network diagram, find the critical path and find the probability that project can be completed at schedule time. [Hathin | t. Optimistic time) | t,, (lost likely time) |_1, (Pessimistic time)_| 7 a 14 16 = 8 23 in 29 24 3-5 45 67 58 78 ao] oofrof of J orto ng} Solution : Welnow,: 6 C4, 48, For activity, 1-2, t, = 2, fa =5, f= 14. 5 2+ (5x 4414 4 . pal l4- 27 ae = 638, es =4 6 6 6 | Similarly, estimated time, standard deviation and variance for the rest of the act computed and tabulated in the table below. Network diagram is drawn as below. Activity | t{Estimated time) |S, (Standard deviation) 12 6 2 16 5 1 23 13 4 24 4 1 3-5 il 2 a5 6 2 67 ll 4 58 3 fi 78 15 4Also values LST, EST, EFT and LFT of other activities are calculated and are tabulated in the table below. Activity EST LST Total slack = LST-EST 412 0 0 0 16 0 2 2 23 6 6 0 24 6 20 1; 3-5 19 19 0 4-5 10 24 14 67 5 7 2 58 30, 30 0 78 16 18 2 Length of the critical path or the total project duration = = Sum of the duration of each critical activity = 6 + 13 + 11+ 3= 33 days. Variance of the critical path Sum of the variance of each critical activity 4+16+4+1=25 Standard deviation, 8, =, Variance of the critical path. =f 25 The probability that the project will meet the schedule or the due date = D= the due or schedule date(time) (Desired Time) = 38 days Total project duration = 7, = 33 Substituting different values in the equation, we get, The corresponding value of probability can be read from the normal distribution table and is 0.841. The data — the activities in a project are given below. Itis given that schedule date of completion of project is 38 days. Draw the PERT network. b) Find the critical path. c)Find the probability that project can be completed at scheduled time.Solution + Weknow,t =& +(te x4)+t 6 g_ eG For activity, 1-2, t, =2, t= 5, f= 14. 24 Gx Meld Similarly, estimated time, standard deviation and variance for the rest of the activities are computed and tabulated in the table below. F iandard devaton SS eee eeE—eeee Ls | ss | 87.66) yi 4 [is Critical path is 1- Critical path is the one which consumes maximum time and it is 1 project duration, therefore is = 6+ 13 + 11 +8 path is drawn as below. 8. The total 38, Network diagram Indicating critical PERT-Problem-2-SolullonVariance of the critical path = Sum of the variance of each critical activity = 4416+441=25 Standard deviation, 5, = Variance of the critical path ‘The Probability that the project will meet the schedule or the due date = D= the due or schedule date(time) (desired time) = 38 days 7. = Total project duration = 38 Substituting different values in the equation, 2-2 = 8 0 The corresponding value of probability can be read from the normal distribution table and is 0.500. Advantages of PERT and CPM 1. Detailed planning — The use of PERT and CPM forces management to plan in detail and to define what must be done to accomplish objectives on time. 2. Efficient monitoring and control — The number of critical activities in a network is only a small portion of the total activities. Identification of the critical activities enables the use of an efficient monitoring system by concentrating only on the critical activities. Proper use of resources ~ Employing PERT or CPM enables management to use resources more wisely. 4, Easily understood ~ CPM and PERT can be easily understood because they provide a method for visualizing an entire project. Adaptable to computers — PERT and CPM are easily adaptable to computer use. 6. Tools for decision making ~ PERT and CPM allow management to check the effectiveness and efficiency of alternative ways of executing projects. 7. Both PERT and CPM allow the user to manage and balance resources including money and time. Limitation of PERT and CPM 1. Project activities must be clearly defined, independent and stable in theirrelationships. 2. Precedence relationships must be specified and networked together. 3. There is an inherent danger in too much emphasis on critical paths. woDifference between PERT and CPM PERT and CPM are some of the major tools used for attaining more efficient and faster completing of very complex projects. Both PERT and CPM models are used to minimize time, or cost or idle time of resources. Though there are no essential differences between PERT and CPM as both of them share in common the determination of a critical path and are based on the network representation of activities and their scheduling that determines the most critical activities to be controlled so as to meet the completion date of the project. SL.No. CPM ie model, It uses three estimates of the activity time- optimistic, pessimistic and most likely with a view to take into account time uncertainty. PERT was developed in connection with an R & D work; therefore it had to cope with the uncertainties which are associated with Rand D activities. CPM is a deterministic model ic. it does not take into account the uncertainties involved in the estimation of time for execution of a job or an activity. It completely ignores the _ probabilistic clement of the problem. CPM is used when the expected time for completion of each event is known. Estimates of activity duration are uncertain. Estimates of activity duration are based on historical data. ‘Uses three time estimate and so is a probabilistic tool. ‘Uses one time estimate and so is a deterministic tool. PERT terminology uses terms like network diagram, event and slack. ‘CPM terminology uses terms like arrow diagram, nodes and float. PERT finds applications in project where resourees (especially money) are always made available when required. CPM is employed to those projects where there is better utilization of resources. It is an event-oriented network because in the analysis of network emphasis is given important stages of completion of task rather than the activities required to be performed to reach to a particular event or task. CPM is activity oriented ile, CPM network is built on the basis of activities. PERT is a technique that is used to predict project completions when there is a great deal of uncertainty in the estimated durations. The critical path method is a method of managing a project by applying the management effort of the project manager and the efforts of the project team in the most effective way. Especially suitable in defense projects and Research and Development where activity cannot be reliably predicted. Suitable for projects such as plant maintenance, civil construction projects, etc, CPM is based on the assumption that there is some experience with the work. PERT is normally used for projects involving activities of non-repetitive nature. CPM is used for projects involving activities of repetitive nature.4.6 Project crashing In the event of the project's expected time of completion being more than the desired time, an attempt is made to reduce the time involved in some of the activities so that the project is completed on time. This process of reducing the time of the project by reducing the scheduled time of some of the activities is called crashing. Project crashing is accomplished by subcontracting, overtime, extra shifts, increasing the number of workers, additional capacity installation, etc. The key objective is to reduce the project time as much as possible with minimal expenditure, As these approaches have significant cost implications, operations managers analyze the time-cost trade-offs and reduce the project duration with minimal increase in costs. Important terms used in project crashing Normal time —It is the time taken by an activity when it is performed in the normal way. Normal cost — It is the cost for carrying out an activity when it is performed in the normal way. Crash time — The crash time refers to the shortest possible time to complete an activity with additional ‘resources. Crash cost — The crash cost refers to the activity cost ‘under the crashing activity time, Crash cost per period — Asimple representation of the possible relationship between the duration of an activity and its costs is shown in the figure. Shortening the duration on an activity will nommally increase its cost. The slope of the line connecting the normal point (lower point) and the crash point (upper point) is called the cost slope of the activity. The slope of this line can be calculated mathematically by knowing the coordinates of the normal and crash points. Crash cost per period= —_Crash cost Normal cost _ Normal time — Crash time Steps involved in this project crashing Crashing of a network can be done in following steps. 1. Compute crash cost per period for all the activities in the network. 2. Using the current activity times, find the critical path in the projectnetwork. 3. If there is only one critical path, select the activity on this critical path that can still be crashed, and has the smallest crash cost per period. Crash this activity by one period. If there is more than one critical path, select one activity from each critical path such that each selected activity can still be crashed, and total crash cost per period of all selected activities is the smallest. Crash cach activity by one period. Note that a single activity may be common to more than one critical path. 4, Update all activity times. If the desired due date has been reached, stop. If not, return to step 2.Problems : 1. The table given below summarizes the time-cost information for the activities. The owner wants to finish the project in 110 days. Find the minimum possible cost for the project to finish it on 110 days. Activi Preceding Normal Crash Duration | Normal Crash Activity | cctivity | duration (days) (days) cost cost A ~ 120 100 312000 214000, B = 20 15 21800 22800 Cc B 40 30 316000 222000 D c 30 20 21400 22000 E DF 50 40 3600 24800 F B 60, 45 313500 318000 Solution : From the above data, the network diagram is drawn as below (Crashing problent-I-Stage- nD. o Crashing problem-1-Stage-1 We have, Crash costslope = Crash cost— Normal cost Normal time — Crash time ‘The crash cost slope for each activity is determined and is tabulated, Activity Crash cost slope A 100 B 200 é 600 D 60 E 120 F 300 Critical path obtained is B-C-D-E, The normal cost for the project is the sum of a normal cost for each activity, The normal cost for the project is €48300 and the normal duration is the duration of activities in the critical path, which is 140 days. Activity having least-cost slope is activity D. Maximum of 10 days can be cut from this activity by reducing the duration of activity D to the crash duration of 20 days. Modified network diagram is drawn as below (Crashing problem: I-Stage-2).20 Crashing problem-1-Stage-2 Now, the overall duration is 130 days and there are multiple critical paths, viz. B- F-E and B-C-D-E, Total project cost at this stage is the normal cost of £48300 plus the cost of crashing the activity D by 10 days (2000-21400), which gives the value 848900. ‘The next activity to be crashed would be the activity E, since it has the least-cost slope (2120 per day) of any of the activities on the critical path. Activity E can be crashed by a total of 10 days. Crashing the activity E by 10 days will cost an additional 2120 per day or is 1200. Modified network diagram is drawn as below (Crashing problem-1-Stage- 3. Crashing problem-1-Stage-3 The project duration is now 120 days and the total project cost is %50100. There are now three critical paths (A, B-C-D-E, and B-F-E). The next stage of crashing requires a more thorough analysis since it is impossible to crash one activity alone and achieve a reduction in the overall project duration. Activity A is paired with each of the other activities to determine which has the least overall cost slope for those activities which have remaining days to be crashed, In that, when activity A and activity B are combined and crashed we get the least-cost slope, ic., Activity A (2100/day) + Activity B (@200/day) = 3300/day. The least-cost slope will be activity A plus activity B for a cost increase of 300 per day. Reducing the project duration by 5 days will add 5 « 300 = 21500 crashing cost and the total project cost would be 31600. Activity B cannot be crashed any more. Modified network diagram is drawn as below (Crashing problem-1-Stage-4). oo Crashing problem-I-Stage-4 Final step in crashing the project to 110 days would be accomplished by reducing the duration of activity A by 5 days to 110 days, reducing activity C by 5 days to 35 days, and reducing activity F by 5 days to 55 days. The combined cost slope for the simultaneous reduction of activity A, activity C, and activity F would be 21000 per day. For 5 days of reduction this would be an additional 5000 in total project cost. ‘The total project cost for the crashed schedule to 110 days of duration would be %56600. Modified network diagram is drawn as below (Crashing problem-1-Stage-5).Management for Engineers Module-1¥-166- ra Crashing problem-1-Stage-5 2. The following table gives data on normal time and cost and crash time and cost for a project. 7 Normal | Normal | Crash Duration Activity | aration (days) | cost (deys) Crash cost 12 6 60 4 100 13 4 60) 2 200 24 3 330 3 2150 25 3 a5 1 X65 za 6 390 4 200 46 8 380) 4 300 56 4 40) 2s &100 67 3 a5, a 380 a) Draw thenetwork for the project. b) Find the total time of project of the crash and corresponding cost, taking into consideration the minimum erash cost. Solution : From the above data, the network diagram is drawn as below. Path having the highest project duration of 22 days is the path 1-2-4-6-7. The normal cost for the project is 470. Siatog mamas Webhave, Crash cost slope= Crash cost — Normal cost Normal time — Crash time ‘The crash cost slope for each activity is determined and is tabulated. Activity | Crash cost slope 1-2 220 1-3 270 2-4 350 25 R10 34 335, 4-6 R55 5-6 30 6-7 $25,Management for Engineers ‘Module-IV- Activity having the smallest crash cost in the critical path is activity 1-2; which can be crashed to two days. Modified network diagram is shown below. Total project cost, at this stage is the normal cost of 2470 plus the cost of crashing the activity 1-2 by 2 days (3100 — 260), which gives the value 2510. At this stage, the path having the highest project duration of 21 days is 1-3-4-6-7. z Crashing problem-2-St ‘The next activity to be crashed would be the activity 6-7, since it has the least-cost slope (835 per day) of any of the activities on the critical path. Activity 6-7 can be crashed to 2 days from 3 days. Modified network diagram is shown below. Total project cost at this stage is the normal cost of 2510 plus the cost of crashing the activity 6-7 by 1 day (280 — 245), which gives the value 3545. Crashing problem-2-Stage-3 ‘The next activities to be crashed are activities 3-4 and 4-6, Modified network diagram is shown below. Total project cost at this stage is the normal cost of 2510 plus the cost of crashing the activities, 3-4, (55 « 2 days = 7110) and 4-6 (55 x 4 days = 2220), which gives the value °875. Crashing problem-2-Stage-4 At this stage, the critical path is (of project duration 15 days) 1-2-4-6-7. Nest activity to be crashed is activity 2-4. Modified network diagram is shown below. Total project cost at this stage is the normal cost of 2875 plus the cost of crashing the activity 2- 4(50 « 2 days = 2100), which gives the value 2975. Crashing problem-2-Stage-SManagement for Engineers Module-VAG- At this stage, the critical path is (oftproject duration 14 days) 1-3-4-6-7, Next activity to be crashed is activity 1-3. Total project cost at this stage is the normal cost of 2075 plus the cost of crashing the activity 1-3 (70 x 2 days = 2140)), which gives the value 21115. Modified network diagram is shawn below. Crashing moblers2Saze-6 Finally, there are 2 critical paths viz, 1-2-4-6-7 and 1-2-5-6-7, each having project duration of 13 days. Activity, 1-3 having crash cost per day of 270 need to be crashed only 1 day so that the total project cost can be reduced to %1045(21115 - 270). Crashing the activities 2-5 and 5-6 will make the path 1-2-5-6-7 non critical and hence, will not result in decrease of project duration and increase of project cost. Hence, the total project duration i913 days and total project costs ZLO45 3. The following table shows the precedence requirernents, normal and crash times, and normal and crash costs for a construction project. | twmnciiate | Required Time (Weeks) Cost Activity | sredecessors | Normal | Crash |Normal| Crash A = q z Toooa | 11000 B z 3 7 6000 | 5000 i A @ 1 4000_| 6000 D B 3 3 T4000 | 18000 E Ec 7 7 S000 | 5000 F e 3 Z 7oo0_|_ 8000 C EF q 7 T3000 75000 i DE 4 1 Tio | 18000 T HG i 5 avd [29000 (a)Draw the network, (b) Determine the critical path. (c) Determine the optimal duration and the associated cost, Solution From the above data, the network diagram is drawn as below. a ashing problem-3-Stage-1 Path having the highest project duration of 22 weeks is the path A-B-D-H-1. The normal cost for the project is 294000.Management for Enginears Modulo-I¥-169- We have, Chask cast siape _ Crash cost - Normal cost Normal time — Crash tine The crash cost slope for each activity is determined and is tabulated Activity | Crash cost slape oo 7000 z2000 2000 w S000 36000 @aa5.3 SON Aciivity having the smallest crash cost in the critical path is activity 1-2, which can be crashed to two weeks Modified network diagram is shown below. Total project cost af this stage is the normal cost of $9400 plus the cost of crashing the activity 1-2 by 2 weeks (211000 — 210000), which gives the value 295000. Total project duration is now reduced to 20 weeks ] a] 5] cl al a] oo) oe The next activity to be crashed would be the activity D, since it has the least-cost slope (22000 per day) of any of the activities on the critical path. Activity 6-7 can be crathed to 3 weeks from 5 weeks. Modified network diagram is shown below. Tota project cost at this stage is the normal cost of 295000 plus the cost of crashing the activity D by 2weeks (218000 — 214000), which gives the value 299000. Total project duration is now reduced to 18 weeks. Cravhing proble Novy, the overall duration is 18 weeks and there are multiple critical paths, wiz, A- B-D-HA and A-C-F-G-L each having project duration of 18 days, Crashing of any more activity will not result in decrease of project duration and will increase the project cost Hence, the total project duration is 18 days and total project cost is 99000Management for Engineers Modkile-1V-170- 4.7 Scheduling Scheduling is the allocation of resources over time to accomplish specific tasks. A ‘schedule is described by the starting and finishing times of each operation related to the particular order. Scheduling can bring productivity in shop floor by providing a calendar for processing a set ‘of jobs. The scheduling problem is classified into three viz., single machine-scheduling, flow shop-scheduling and job shop scheduling. Single machine-scheduling The single machine-scheculing problem consists of n jobs with the same single operation. on each of the jobs. The basic single machine scheduling problem is characterized by the following conditions. 1. A set of independent, single-operation jobs is available for processing. 2. Job descriptors are known in advance. 3. One machine is continuously available and is never kept idle. 4. Each job is processed till its completion without break. The total number of sequences in the basic single machine problem is n!, which is the number of different permutation of 1 elements. The following basic data are necessary to describe jobs in a deterministic single machine-scheduling problem. Processing time (t;) —It is the time required to process job j. The processing time, f, will normally include both actual processing time and set-up t time. Ready time (ry) ~It is the time at which job j is available for processing. The ready time of a job is the difference between the arrival time of that job and the time at which that job is taken for processing. Due date (d;) — It is the time at which the job j is to be completed. Completion time (G) — Its the time at which the job j is completed in a sequence. Flow time (F; )—It is the amount of time job / spends in the system. It is the difference between diceompleneasaas and the ready time of the job j. ic. 7=G—ry Makespan — It is the total duration of the schedule when all the jobs have finished processing. Minimizing makespan is the main objective of scheduling. In the case of single machine scheduling, makespan remains the same, irrespective ( of the ordering. Lateness (Lj) — It is the amount of time by which the completion time of job / differs from the due date ie., Ly= G—Dy Lateness is a measure which gives an idea about conformity of the jobs in a schedule to a given set of due dates of the jobs. Lateness can be either positive lateness or negative lateness. Positive lateness of a job means that the job is completed after its duc date, Negative lateness of a job means that the job is completed before its due date. The positive lateness is a measure of poor service. The negative lateness is a measure of better service. In many situations, distinct penalties and other costs are associated with positive lateness, but generally, no benefits are associated with negative lateness. Therefore, it is often desirable to optimize only positive lateness.Management for Engineers Modwle-V-A7\— Tardiness (T;) — If the lateness is negative, the job is completed ahead of its due date and it is early; while early delivery does not add to value, late delivery involves loss of goodwill and contractual penalty. Therefore, we consider only the positive value of lateness and ignore the negative values. This is called tardiness, T,= max(L,,0) Measures of performance in single machine scheduling ‘The different measures of performance which are used in the single machine scheduling are listed below. Mean flow time — The mean flow time represents the epee which jobs leaves the system after they have entered i.c., Mean flow time, Fil'y _ & Mean tardiness,T = S11 Maximum flow time, F.,,. =max( F,) Maximum tardiness, Tyg. = max(T,) Flow shop-scheduling In flow shop, we have the machines arranged in series. This shop is called flow shop since the flow of jobs is unidirectional. Here, machines are arranged in the order of Processing “operations. In flow shop scheduling problem, there are n jobs; each require processing on m different machines. The order in which the machines are required to process a job is called process sequence of that job. The process sequences of all the jobs are the same. But the processing times for various jobs on a machine may differ. If there’ are ‘n’ jobs available, then ‘n!” possible of n, it would be difficult to solve the problem. Under such heuristic (experience-based techniques for problem solving). But, for a problem with 2 machines and n jobs, Donald Bruce Johnson developed an algorithm to get optimal solution, ie., in a definite time, one can get the optimal solution. In flow shop scheduling problem, there are n job; each job requires processing on different machines. The order in which the machines are required to process a job is called process sequence of that job. The process sequence of all the jobs is same. The following different cases are possible in ‘low shop scheduling. 1, _‘n’ jobs in 2 machines i.c., a system containing 2 machines M, and M; and there are ‘n” jobs to be carried out in the order M, and M2. 2. ‘n’ jobs to be processed on 3 machines in the order M; , Mz and Ms. 3. ‘n’ jobs to be assigned to ‘m’ machines. Job shop scheduling Job shop scheduling problem contains n jobs with m operations on each of the jobs. In this scheduling problem, the process sequences of the jobs are not the same. Unlike the flow shop model, there is no initial machine that performs only the first operation of a job, nor there a terminal machine that performs only the last operation of the job. In job shop scheduling, different jobs will have different operation sequence, So we cannot consider a straight flow for the job shop problem or flow of each job in job scheduling is not unidirectional. na, !Management for Engineers Module-VA72— 4.8 Sequencing Sequencing is the process of arranging the operations (jobs) on machines such that there is less idle time for machines. Purpose of sequencing is to achieve maximum profit by optimum utilization of machines. Sequencing deals only with the specific ordering of products, while scheduling gives a more complete description as to when to start a particular production. Once the sequence is determined, we can compute its corresponding schedule. 4.9 Methods of sequencing for one machine problem There are several priority rules which can be applied to job sequencing for one machine problem, The most widely used priority rules are discussed below. 491 SPY (Shortest Processing Time) In single machine scheduling problem, sequencing the jobs in increasing order of processing time is known as the Shortest Processing Time (SPT) sequencing. Sometimes we may be interested in minimizing the time spent by jobs in the system. This, in tum, will minimize the in- process inventory. Also, we may be interested in rapid tumaround/throughput times of the jobs. Jobs with the shortest processing time are scheduled first. Shortest processing time rule minimizes the mean flow time. Problem : 1. Consider the following single machine-scheduling problem. Job @ i 2 3 4 5 Processing time (t) (hrs) 15 4 5 14 8 Find the optimal sequence, which will minimize the mean flow time and also obtain the minimum mean flow time. Solution : No. of jobs = 5 Arrange the jobs as per the SPT ordering. Job @ 2 3 Ei 4 i Processing time (t) (hrs) | 4 5 8 14 15 ‘Therefore, the job sequence, which will minimize the mean flow time, is 23-541. Computation of F~ Job @) 2 3 5 4 i Processing time (t) (hrs) 4 5 8 4 15 Completion time (Cy (Fy | 4 9 v7 [31 46 Me} [4s 9417431446] = 214 hours 3 ‘Mean flow time,Management for Engineers Module-IV-173— 49.2 Weighted mean flow time Sometimes, the jobs in a single machine-scheduling problem will not have equal importance. Under such situation, each job is assigned a weight, w, . The mean flow time, considering s, is called, weighted mean flow time, is given as follows. 2% a Weighted mean flow time, F= 2 Sequencing the jobs in increasing order of weighted processing time is known as Weighted Shortest Processing Time (WSPT) sequencing. The weighted processing time of a job is obtained by dividing its processing time by its weight. Problem : 1. Consider the following single machine-scheduling problem with weights. Job @ z 2 3 4 6 Processing time () 15, 4 3 4 8 Weight (w) % zi T 2 3 Determine the sequence, which will minimize the weighted mean flow time of the above problem. Also find the weighted mean flow time. Solution : Tob @ 7 2 a 4 5 Processing time () (hrs) | _15 4 3 a 8 Weight (wv) I 2 I 2 3 1 I 15 2 5 7 2.67 ¥, Arrange the jobs in the increasing order of! (j¢,, WSPT ordeting). w; ‘Therefore optimal sequence, which will minimize the weighted mean flow time, is, 0-9-8 4-1, F calculation Job @ z S z 4 7 Processing time () (hrs) 4 8 5 1 15 Gor Fy 4 12 17 3l 46. Wy 2 1 2 1 Ex, € 36 17 62 46 e mB [8+36+17+62+46] _169_ 16 rehours Sw, [ea+2y] 9Management for Engineers Module I 2. The processing time (¢) in hours for the five jobs of single machine scheduling is given. Job 7]213]/4[5 Processing time (Dhrs__| 30 | 8 | 10 | 28 | 16 Weight W) 1121/21] 3 a) Find the optimal sequence which will minimize the mean flow time and find the mean flow time. Solution : Job @ Z z 3 4 5 Processing time () (hrs) _|__30 8 10 28 16 Weight 6) i 2 i 2 3 t, : 30 4 10 a | 533 i Arrange the jobs in the increasing order of (i¢,, WSPT ordering). Therefore optimal sequence, which will minimize the weighted mean flow time, is, 25 —3—4—1. F, calculation Jo @ 2 5 3 4 Z Processing time (9 (hrs) |_ 8 16 10 28 30 Gar Fy 8 24 34 62 % yy 2 3 I 2 I Fjxw, 16 2 34 124 Fi) [16+72+34+124+92] 338 Sw, [+3424] = 37.55 hours 493 DDATE (Due Date) or EDD (Earliest Due Date) The lateness of a job (/,) is defined as the difference between the completion time and the due date of that job. Z, can be cither positive or negative values. The maximum job lateness (Lipa) and the maximum job tardiness (7,:.) are minimized by Earliest Due Date sequencing. Problem : 1. Consider the following single machining scheduling problem. Jobo 7[2]73][¢4[51[6 Processing time) | 10 | 8 8 7 | 2 | 15 Due date (d) i | wm, 2) mi] i | 2 Determine the sequence which will minimize the maximum lateness (Lx). Also, determine Z.,.; with respect to the optimal sequence. Solution :Management for Engineers Module-1V-175— Arrange the jobs as per EDD rule (ice, in the order of their due dates), The EDD sequence is 2-4-3-1-5-6. This sequence gives a minimum value for Emax Job G) (EDD sequence) | 2 4 2 1 5 6 Processing time (f) 8 7 8 10 12 | 15 Completion time (G) 8 6b | 2 | 3 | 45 [| 60 Due Date (d) 10 i 12 15 18 | 25 Lateness (L) a 4 1 1s [ 27 | 35 From the table, the maximum is 35. This is the optimal value for Lynas. The Zax Of any other non- EDD sequence will not be less than 35. 494 FCES (First Come First Served) In First Come First Served method, the job arriving at the workstation first has the highest priority. In this method, each job is treated equally. 495 LPT (Longest Processing Time) In Longest Processing Time method, the jobs having the longest processing time have the highest priority. 49.6 CR (Critical Ratio) The critical ratio gives the highest priority to jobs that must be done to maintain a predetermined shipping schedule. Jobs that are falling behind a shipping schedule receive a ratio of less than 1, while a job receiving a critical ratio greater than 1 is ahead of schedule and is less critical. A job receiving a critical ratio score of 1.0 is precisely on schedule. Critical Ratio is computed using the following expression. Due date~ Today's date Critical Ratio Total shop timing remaining 410 Procedure for sequencing of two machines and ‘n’ jobs ‘The procedure to sequence the jobs so as to minimize the total elapsed time developed by Donald Bruce Johnson known as Johnson's algorithm is given below. 1. Find out the job having smallest processing time. If the job corresponds to machine M,, assign the job as the first job. If the job corresponds to machine Mz, assign the job as the last job. Repeat the step 1 to the rema ing jobs. 3. If there are equal smallest processing times for each machine, place the job on machine 1, first in the sequence and one in machine 2 last in the sequence. 4. If the equal smallest times are both on for machine 1, select the job with lower processing time in machine 2, for placing first in the sequence. 5. If the equal smallest times are both on for machine 2, select the job with lower processing time in machine 1, for placing last in the sequence.Management for Engineers Module-1¥-176— Assumptions in sequencing of two machines and ‘n’ jobs 1. Nomachine can operate more than one operation at atime. 2. Each operation once started must be performed till the completion. 3. No parts should be processed separately by more than one machine at a time. 4, Each operation must be completed before other proceeding operation can beperformed. 5. The time for processing an operation is independent of the order in which operations are performed. 6. There is only one of each type of machine. 7. All the jobs are known and ready for processing. 8. The time for transferring the jobs between the machines is negligible. Problems : 1. _ Five jobs are performed on machine M, and then on Machine Mp. The hours taken by each job on each machine is given below. Determine the optimum sequence of jobs and minimum time to complete all the jobs. Machine My q Solution : The order of the machines is M-Mb. Operation taking minimum processing time(1) is for Job B on Machine M,. Hence by rule, assign B as the first job on Machine My. The next job taking the smallest processing time (2) is A on Machine Mz. Hence by rule, assign Aas the last job on Machine My. The next job taking the smallest processing time (3) is D on Machine My. Hence by rule, assign D as the second job on Machine M;. The next job taking the smallest processing time (4) is E on Machine M;. Hence by rule, assign E as the second last job on Machine Mz. The next job taking the processing time (7) is C on Machine Mz. Hence, assign C as the job on Machine Mz. A OZ od _—" The order of sequencing so obtained is B>D+C+ESA Calculation of minimum elapsed time is dne as follove. Sequence Machine M; Machine Mz - ‘iii of jobs ime | time of je a B 7 a D. 15 0 c 22 v E 27 T A 30 TManagement for Engineers 178 Machine-I starts working at the 0" hour, Machine -I does the processing for 1 hour and then only work can be transferred to Machine-I for processing. Machine-II will do the processing for 6 hours and so time out is 7" hour. Job to be worked on Machine-II is ready for working after 4 four, But Machine-I is engaged till 7* hour. So work on Machine-I can be started only after 7" hour. Following the similar rules, time out on both the machines is found. Idle time is the difference of time in of the job under consideration and time out of the last job on Machine-II. Total elapsed time is 30 hours. Total idle time of Machine-I is 2 hours (30-28) and that for Machine-II is 2 hours, 2. Six jobs are to be processed on 2 MIC’s. A then on M/C B. Time in hours taken by each job on each MIC is given below. Determine the optimum sequence of jobs that minimizes the total time to complete the jobs. Machine 1 2 BR ol 6 a 3 3 z TO a o B 3 2 5 i 10 T Solution : a) The order of the machines is A-B. b) A tic breaking situation exists as job ‘2’ and job ‘3” takes 2 hours cach on Machine A and Machine B. Hence, by Rule No.3, job “2° is placed last in the sequence and job “3” is placed first in the sequence. c) The next job taking the smallest processing time (3) is “1” on Machine B. Hence by rule, assign ‘1’ as the second last job on Machine B. 4) The next job taking the smallest processing time (6) is “6” on Machine A. Hence by rule, assign “6” as the second job on Machine A. ©) The next job taking the processing time (10) is “4” on Machine A. Hence, assign ‘4’ as the job on Machine A. Assign ‘5’ as the job on Machine B. 3 6 4 5 a 2 a +s ‘The order of sequencing so obtained is as follows. 3645192 Calculation of minimum eee time is done as follows. Total elapsed time is 45 hours. Total idle time of Machine-A is 7 hours (45-38) and that for Machine-B is 7 hours.