ED/GEMR/MRT/2020/P1/15

Background paper prepared for the 2020 Global Education Monitoring Report

Inclusion and education

The practice of inclusive education

in Ethiopia
This paper was commissioned by the Global Education Monitoring Report as background information
to assist in drafting the 2020 GEM Report, Inclusion and education. It has not been edited by the team.
The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed
to the Global Education Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following
reference: “Paper commissioned for the 2020 Global Education Monitoring Report, Inclusion and
education”. For further information, please contact gemreport@unesco.org.

AEMIRO TADESSE MERGIA 2020

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................. 3
DEFINITIONS ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
ORGANIZATION .................................................................................................................................................. 4
LAWS, POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES .............................................................................................................. 5
GOVERNANCE AND FINANCE ............................................................................................................................ 8
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT ..............................................................................................................................10
TEACHERS AND OTHER SCHOOL PERSONNEL..............................................................................................12
DATA AND MONITORING .................................................................................................................................13
OVERVIEW OF MAIN STUDIES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICY FRAMEWORKS ....................................14
EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICY IMPLEMENTATION ..........................................16
1. Promoting inclusive education in legal and policy frameworks .......................................................16
2. Preparing special needs educators....................................................................................................17
3. Establishing inclusive education resource centers...........................................................................18
KEY CHALLENGES FOR EFFECTIVE INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICY IMPLEMENTATION ............................19
1. Weak inclusive education structure ...................................................................................................20
2. Limitations in data collection and management system ..................................................................20
3. Inaccessible facility and unsafe school environment .......................................................................21
4. Insufficient educational materials and assistive devices .................................................................21
5. Rigid curriculum...................................................................................................................................21
6. Lack of general education teachers’ adequate preparation ............................................................22
CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................................22
Reference.........................................................................................................................................................23
ABSTRACT
This paper is a report of a study conducted as part of the background studies for the 2020 Global
Education Monitoring Report (Sustainable Development Goals) which focuses on inclusion and education.
The study examines the practice of inclusive education in Ethiopia and aims to contribute its share to the
2020 Global Education Monitoring Report. In this study, data were collected from key stakeholders in the
Ethiopian educational system such as the Ethiopian Ministry of Education, regional educational bureaus,
universities, teacher education institutions, schools, and national and international non-governmental
organizations. Relevant legal and policy framework documents and related studies have also been
reviewed to complement the data. The report of this study shows that even though there are legal and
policy frameworks in Ethiopia which support the provision of quality education of all people, there is still
a huge gap in terms of actualizing into reality.

INTRODUCTION
This study sought to investigate the practice of inclusive education in the Ethiopian education system.
Also, it aims to contribute its share for the realization of the 2020 Global Education Monitoring Report.
The study gives due attention to the Federal Ministry of Education of Ethiopia and three regional states
namely Amhara, Oromia and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region. The report of this study
is structured on different topics. These are definitions; organization; laws, policies and programs;
governance and finance; learning environment; teachers and other school personnel; data and
monitoring; overview of main studies of inclusive education policy frameworks; and examples of effective
inclusive education policy implementation.

DEFINITIONS
The definitions of ‘Inclusive Education’ and ‘Special Educational Needs’ are introduced in the Ethiopian
education system formally on Special Needs Education Program Strategy document published in 2006.
They further appeared on other documents, such as Inclusive Education Strategy and Master Plan
published in 2012 and 2017 respectively, without significant concept variations. These definitions totally
embrace all the concepts of UNESCO’s definition.

Inclusive Education: refers to an education system that is open to all learners, regardless of poverty,
gender, ethnic backgrounds, language, learning difficulties, and impairments. Inclusion emphasizes that
all children and students can learn. It requires identifying barriers that hinder learning and reducing or
removing these barriers in schools, vocational training, higher education, teacher education, and

3
education management. The educational environment must be adjusted to meet the needs of all
learners.1

Special Educational Needs: focuses on learners who, for a variety of reasons, encounter problems in
learning sometimes during their educational career, and are in need of additional support for short or
long periods. Another way of describing this group is learners who experience barriers to learning and
development. Learners’ difficulties can arise from a range of factors leading to disadvantage and
marginalization, especially the following: disabilities, impairments and social-emotional problems; gifted
and talented; socioeconomic deprivation, including malnutrition; HIV/AIDS; ethnic/cultural minority
status; location in isolated rural communities; and experience of war and conflict.2

These definitions are being used at all levels of education (from pre-primary to tertiary) aiming to ensure
the educational rights of all people without discrimination. The definitions are recognized by regions, for
example, Oromia, Amhara, South Nation Nationality and Peoples, as well as others and they are using
them without any relevant difference. In relation to the concepts of ‘Inclusive Education’ and ‘Special
Educational Needs’, there are no other formal definitions being practiced in these regions. However, the
extent of changing the concept of definitions into practice differs from region to region due to various
factors.

ORGANIZATION
Looking at the development of inclusive education in Ethiopia in comparison with the global world in terms
of the phases of separation, integration, and inclusion; it has almost followed the same pattern. For
example, there are three types of school organizations in Ethiopia to consider people with disabilities in
education. These are special schools, special units, and regular schools.3 Special schools refer to schools
specialized on one particular disability like schools for the blind and/or schools for the deaf. 4 They are
two types: special day schools (schools where learners with the same type of disability attended during
the day time), and special boarding schools (residential schools where learners with the same type of
disability attended during the day time and stay the night together).5 In special schools, the teachers have
usually received additional skills related to training like Braille reading and writing, and sign language.
The teacher-learner ratio is usually much lower than in regular schools. However, the number of special
schools is very little in the country. Also, they are based in the town and admit a few children with

1 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2006, p.3, also found on similar document published in 2012a, p.37 and 2017a, p.8
2 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2006, pp.3-4, also found on similar document published in 2012a, pp.35-36 and
2017a, pp.8-9
3 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.46
4 Ibid, p.9
5 Teferra, 2005, p.86

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disabilities. These schools serving learners from grade 1 to 8. When learners with disabilities complete
primary education (grade 1 to 8), they are expected to join regular schools for secondary education (grade
9 to 12).

Special units refer to some classrooms or blocks in regular schools reserved for learners with disabilities.
These units arrangement allows learners with disabilities to meet with learners without disabilities during
break time.6 Learners with different types of disabilities which are ranging from mild to severe level attend
education in the majority of special units. Most teachers in these units are general education teachers.
Special units are not found in all regular schools in the country but their number is greater than special
schools. These units are serving learners from grade 1 to 8. Learners with disabilities may be transferred
from special unites to regular classrooms at primary and/or secondary education levels.

Regular schools refer to schools where learners with and without disabilities learn together in the same
classrooms. In these schools some assistance teachers, for example, sign language interpreters may be
available.7 There are 40,063 (36,466 primary8 and 3,597 secondary9) regular schools in the country.
These schools are categorized under 7,532 cluster schools for the sake of sharing resources together. 10
But, all of them are not at the same status in supporting learners with disabilities. Out of these 213 (2.9%)
of them have established inclusive education resource centers in their compound. In these schools,
inclusive education seems better practiced.

Generally, in all three types of school organizations, consideration is given to learners with disabilities.
However, learners from different vulnerable groups are not considered. Nationally, out of the three types
of school organizations, high number of identified learners with disabilities is found in special units. But,
this varies from region to region. For instance, a high number of identified learners with disabilities in
regular schools is found in Oromia and South Nation Nationality and Peoples region while that of special
units are found in Amhara.

LAWS, POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES

In alignment with the rest of the world, the government of Ethiopia has committed to make education
accessible to all citizens. The Ethiopian government has accepted international legal and policy
frameworks related to inclusive education, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948);
the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons (1975); the Convention on the Rights of the Child
(1989); the World Declaration on Education For All (1990); the Standard Rules on the Equalization of

6 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.46

7 Ibid, p.46
8 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2018, p.49
9 Ibid, p.67
10 Ibid, p.50

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Opportunities for Person with Disabilities (1983); the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on
Special Needs Education (1994); the World Education Forum (2000); the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities [CRPD] (2006); the Millennium Development Goals (2000); and the Sustainable
Development Goals (2015).

Acceptation of these international legal and policy frameworks have contributed to a shift and a move
from segregation through integration and integration to inclusion on the education system of the country.
This movement has created motivation among educational stakeholders, policymakers, professionals,
community-based rehabilitation workers, and non-governmental organizations.11 In particular, the
ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with disabilities 2010 necessitated
the revision of the Special Needs Education Program Strategy document which served special needs
education in the country. Also, it influenced the right based approach to be considered at all levels of
education, especially for persons with disabilities.12 In general, the philosophy of inclusive education has
become part and parcel of the national legal and policy frameworks.

In Ethiopia, there is no Education Law or Act. Instead, there are Constitution, Education and Training
Policy, programmes, plans, strategies, proclamations, guidelines, and frameworks. The Constitution
accepted the international legal and policy frameworks; 13 recognized education as a human right;14 and
assured it to be accessed for all citizens in considering assistance for people with disabilities, orphan
children, and the aged.15 Similarly, the Education and Training Policy affirmed provision of quality basic
education and training to all citizens without discrimination;16 recognition of the rights of
nations/nationalities to learn in their language;17 and provision of special support to disadvantaged
groups.18 Hence, the Constitution and Education and Training Policy serve as a cornerstone legal and
policy framework for the educational rights of all citizens.

The Government of Ethiopia embarked in 1997 on a 20-year program of education reform called
‘Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP)’. Due attention was given to the expansion of
educational opportunities for learners with special needs from Education Sector Development
Programme III (2005/06–2010/11).19 Then, Education Sector Development Programme IV (2010/11–

11 Teferra, 2005, p.85

12 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, p.2
13 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1995, p.4
14 Ibid, p.5
15 Ibid, p.15
16 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 1994, p.5
17 Ibid, pp.10-11
18 Ibid, p.17
19 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2005, p.6

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2014/15) focused on enhancing the number of special needs educators; increasing enrolment of
learners with special needs; and improving the institutional capacity of schools in addressing the
academic and social needs of the learners.20 Education Sector Development Programme V (2015/16–
2019/20) ensured fully mainstreaming of special needs and inclusive education under cross-cutting
issues within the education sector priority programs to ensure joint responsibility of all implementing
bodies.21 Besides, General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity (2017–2022) envisaged
supporting the creation of adequate learning conditions for all learners, with due emphasis for learners
with special needs through allocating school grants for the establishment of inclusive education resource
centers at schools level.22 All the above programs direct implementation and development towards
inclusive education.

Ethiopian Growth and Transformation Plan I (2010/11–2014/15) placed an important priority on the
quality, equity, and efficiency of education at all levels. 23 Growth and Transformation Plan II (2015/16–
2019/20) emphasized special attention and assistance to children with disabilities to help them start
and continue schooling.24 National Plan of Action of Persons with Disabilities (2012–2021) focused on
how to provide the best possible education and vocational skills training available to children and youth
with disabilities.25 Inclusive Education Master Plan (2016–2025) designed to strengthen the structures
and environment enabling inclusive education26 by identifying strategic pillars that form the basis for
inclusive education for 10 years.27 Accordingly, due consideration has been given to the expansion of
educational opportunities for all learners in the education system.

In 2006, Special Needs Education Program Strategy has developed in a belief that all children can learn
and many of them needed some form of support in learning.28 In 2012, Inclusive Education Strategy
designed to build an inclusive education system that would provide quality, relevant and equitable
education and training to all children, youth and adults with special needs and ultimately enable them to
fully participate in the socio-economic development of the country.29 Similarly, in 2012 National School
Health and Nutrition Strategy prepared towards put system in place to provide a conducive, fully
accessible, and inclusive environment for all children; and to ensure safety and security for children with

20 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2010, p.78

21 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2015a, p.43
22 World Bank, 2017, p.44
23 Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2010, p.49
24 National planning Commission, 2016, p.59
25 Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs of Ethiopia, 2012, p.27
26 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.7
27 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.14
28 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2006, p.12
29 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, p.14

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physical and mental problems.30 These strategies, therefore, contributed to improve the enrolment of
learners with disabilities in special schools, special units, and regular schools.

Guidelines, frameworks and proclamations have also prepared to provide accessible, equitable, and
quality educational services for all learners with due emphasis for learners with special needs. For
instance, National Policy Framework prepared for early childhood care and education in 2010; 31 Inclusive
Education Resource Centres Establishing and Managing Guideline prepared for primary and secondary
schools in 2015;32 Special Needs Education Guide prepared for technical and vocational education and
training in 2012;33 and Higher Education Proclamation prepared for higher education institution in
2009.34 Consequently, the principle of education for all has been promoted at each level.

Overall, national legal and policy frameworks have contributed to promote the philosophy of inclusive
education in the country. In regions, for example in Amhara, Oromia, South Nation Nationality and
Peoples, and others, there are no different legal and policy frameworks in relation to inclusive education.
However, the absence of enforcing regulations to oblige regions to provide access to education and
support for learners with special needs and learning barriers has led the provision to be sporadic.35
Moreover, the words “all learners” that stated in the policy documents frequently seem to cover all people
benefiting from education. In reality, this is not true. The 2017 Inclusive Education Mater Plan clearly
indicated that “In practice the Ethiopian inclusive education particularly refers to education for children
and youth with disabilities, omitting learners with temporary learning difficulties and specially gifted and
skilled children”.36 Therefore, the status of learners from different vulnerable groups is not addressed
well, though effort is exerted to include it in the definition part.

GOVERNANCE AND FINANCE

In the Ethiopian education system, there are seven priority issues categorized under cross-cutting
programs. These are gender, special needs and inclusive education, HIV/AIDS, education in emergencies,
school health and nutrition, drug and substance abuse prevention, and water, sanitation and hygiene.
The objective is that to fully-integrate cross-cutting issues within sub-sectoral priority programmes,
because the chosen approach ensures that the cross-cutting issues are ‘mainstreamed’, that they
become the joint responsibility of all implementing bodies. 37 It is also expected that when the national

30 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012b, p.21

31 Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, and Ministry of Women’s Affairs, 2010, p.5
32 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2015b, p.6
33 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012c, p.2
34 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2009a, p.5005
35 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.6
36 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.6
37 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2015a, p.43

8
plan is cascaded to directorates, regions, city administrations, technical and vocational education and
training institutions, and universities plan, each cross-cutting issue will become the concern of multiple
implementing units. For its effectiveness, at the federal, regional, and city administration level a unit as
well as at zone, woreda, technical and vocational education and training, and university level a focal
person anticipated to take responsibility.38 This is who the Education Sector Development Programmes
are designed to address the issue of inclusive education in the country. However, in reality, inclusive
education is not fully-integrated within sub-sectoral priority programmes in planning, budgeting,
implementing, monitoring and evaluating from federal to woreda level.

Also, the 2012 Inclusive Education Strategy indicated that providing an appropriate education for learners
with special needs is a responsibility that is shared among a range of stakeholders. This includes relevant
Ministries such as the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Women, Children and Youth Affairs, and Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs.39 Nevertheless, in practice, there is no collaborated effort between Ministries
to promote inclusive education in the country. And, educating learners with special needs is considered
as a responsibility of the Ministry of Education alone. Although both vertical and horizontal working
relationships are essential in strengthening inclusive education practice, cooperation in this regard is
negligible from federal to woreda level.

Currently, at the federal level, the issue of inclusive education is the responsibility of the Special Support
and Inclusive Education directorate. The directorate is composed of two teams namely: special support
and inclusive education. The special support team is accountable for providing compressive educational
support to the four emerging regions (Somali, Benishangul-Gumuz, Afar, and Gambela). Inclusive
education team, which is a total of four experts, is also accountable for running inclusive education
programs in the country.

At the region and city administration level, the responsibility of inclusive education is organized under
various directorates. Mostly, one expert is in charge of running inclusive education programs at the region
and city administration. For example, in South Nation Nationality and Peoples region, the School
Improvement Program directorate is responsible and two experts are assigned; in Amhara region, the
Curriculum directorate is responsible and one expert is assigned; in Oromia region School Improvement
Program directorate is responsible and one expert is assigned; in Tigray region, the Curriculum directorate
is responsible and three experts are assigned; in Somali region, the Special Support and Inclusive
Education directorate is responsible and one expert is assigned; and in Addis Ababa city administration,
the Cross-cutting unit is responsible and one expert is assigned.

38 Ibid, p.44
39 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, pp.30-31
9
Similarly, at zone and woreda level, the responsibility of inclusive education is given to different
directorates. Besides, in the majority of zone and woreda education offices, there are no assigned
professional experts for inclusive education programs.

In order to implement inclusive education in Ethiopia, the education system has no separate budget
policy. Like other educational activities, allocating sufficient budget for inclusive education is left for the
federal, regions, city administrations, zones, and woderas. The 2012 Inclusive Education Strategy clearly
addressed that the Ministry of Education allocates adequate budget for activities to be undertaken at the
federal level for the progressive realization of inclusive education in the country. 40 It further stated that
regions and city administrations should ensure that an adequate budget is allocated and properly
expended for the progressive realization of inclusive education in their specific region and city
administration.41 The existing experience shows that federal, region and city administrations have
allocated budget for the implementation of inclusive education, but its share of the total is not sufficient
at all levels. For instance, for the year 2018/19 at the federal level 2.8% of the total budget is allocated
to raise awareness, prepare documents, and support regions in monitoring and evaluation. It is the same
in regions and city administrations. For example in Amhara region 2.3%, in South Nation Nationality and
Peoples region 5%; in Tigray region 2%; and in Somali region 2.53% of the total budget is allocated to
conduct training, and support schools in monitoring and evaluation. The remaining regions allocation is
not specified even though it is not expected to be significantly different.

Besides, to strengthen inclusive education practice in the country, the Ministry of Education is soliciting
additional funds from donors.42 In this regard, the Ministry of Education is working especially in
cooperation with the government of Finland since the 1980s. Similarly, regions, city administrations,
zones, woredas, and schools are expected to solicit funds from stakeholders in addition to their basic
budget allocation.43 However, this practice remains challenging for them. Generally, in the process of
budgeting and implementing it, learners with disabilities get more focus than learners from different
vulnerable groups. This trend is uniform at all levels of the education system in the country.

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
In Ethiopia, there are 40,063 schools serving learners from pre-primary to secondary level. In these
schools, an enrolment of learners with disabilities at the pre-primary level is 0.6%; at the primary level is

40 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, p.16

41 Ibid, p.17
42 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, p.17
43 Ibid, p.17

10
9.8%;44 and at the secondary level is 2.8%.45 This shows that the majority of school-age children with
disabilities, for instance, 99.4%, 90.2%, and 97.2% at pre-primary, primary and secondary levels
respectively are out of school. Although gender equality is balanced with a value of 0.96 at the pre-primary
level,46 0.90 at the primary level,47 and 0.89 at the secondary level,48 the number of male learners is
greater than female learners. As of May 2018, the number of school-age refugee children in Ethiopia was
401,840 out of which 203,903 were enrolled in 176 schools in or around refugee camps. Also, over
22,000 refugee children are enrolled in over 166 government schools in Addis Ababa and other major
cities.49 Conversely, there is no clear indicator showing the educational status of learners from different
vulnerable groups.

Ethiopian Building Proclamation requires accessibility in the design and construction of any building to
ensure suitability for persons with physical impairment, including toilet facilities.50 The Council of
Ministers Building Regulation has been issued to implement the Proclamation to construct disability-
friendly buildings.51 However, the majority of schools are inaccessible in terms of their infrastructure. They
are poorly designed and not well facilitated and equipped to meet the unique needs of all learners. 52
Overall, schools are characterized by the inconvenient design of buildings, poor classroom arrangements;
unavailability of adapted toilet and adapted seats; inadequate space for wheelchairs; lack of adapted
ramps, signage, water supply; and unsafe playgrounds.53

Furthermore, there are no specific policies used to ensure curriculum, learning materials, and information
communication technologies are used to promote the inclusion of learners with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups. As a result, inclusive education practice has been affected. For example, teachers
have difficulty to modify the curriculum54 because it is rigid, not leaving flexibility for local adaptations for
them to experiment and try out new approaches.55 Besides, schools are not sufficiently equipped with
teaching-learning materials, stationeries, equipment, assistive devices, and teaching aids that suit the
needs of all learners.56 With the exception of a few attempts like a caption for deaf learners on plasma
lessons, there are no information communication technologies based learning materials dedicated to

44 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2018, p.84

45 Ibid, p.86
46 Ibid, p.18
47 Ibid, p.39
48 Ibid, p.63
49 Ibid, p.134
50 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2009b, p.4691
51 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2011, p.5911
52 Zelelew, 2018, p.7
53 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.47
54 Dagnew, 2013, p.65
55 Dano, 2018, p.447
56 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, p.11

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inclusive education. Regions, for example, Amhara, Oromia, South Nation Nationality and Peoples, and
others are similar in these issues. The majority of schools lack an inclusive school environment in all
regions.

TEACHERS AND OTHER SCHOOL PERSONNEL

The Ethiopian Education and Training Policy stated that teachers will be prepared with ability, diligence,
and professional interest. To realize this, teacher education and training components will emphasize the
basic knowledge professional code of ethics, methodology and practical training.57 It further indicated
that teachers’ preparation for special needs education will be provided.58 All of the Education Sector
Development Programmes of the country also listed the issue of teachers’ preparation under their priority
activities; and made clear that the teachers’ preparation system should be increased to provide adequate
numbers of qualified teachers to address the needs of the learners. The 2012 Inclusive Education
Strategy confirmed that all teachers will be equipped with appropriate attitudes, values, and skills to
teach diverse populations including learners with special needs.59

In actual fact, Teacher Training Institutions give the course ‘Introduction to Special Needs and Inclusive
Education’ for general education teacher trainees in the pre-service and in-service modalities. This course
is given only in three credits out of 113 and 147 credits for diploma and degree programs respectively.
Due to this, the current pedagogical skills of general education teachers in Ethiopia are broadly
insufficient for effective teaching to all children.60 It is because they are not adequately prepared on how
to identify and support the needs of learners with disabilities and other vulnerable groups. It is expected
that general education teachers need to know all learners and accordingly provide appropriate support.
However, in Ethiopia, they do not perceive themselves as having adequate preparation and skills to meet
the instructional needs of all learners.

Conversely, special needs educators are being prepared in 18 colleges of teachers educations at diploma
level; 12 universities at degree level; 8 universities at master’s level; and 1 university at doctoral level.
Unlike the progression in special needs educators’ preparation program in the country, there are no
structures in the education system to hire them at the school level. The existing education structure does
not specify special needs educators’ presence at school. But, cluster schools that established inclusive
education resource centers are mandated to hire special needs educators. So, from a total of 7,532

57 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 1994, p.20

58 Ibid, p.22
59 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, pp.21-22
60 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.39

12
cluster schools in the country,61 213 of them which established inclusive education resource centers
have assigned special needs educators in alignment with the general education structure. In regions, for
example, from the total of the 1,712 cluster schools in South Nation Nationality People region 62 of them;
from the total of the 1,679 cluster schools in Amhara region 66 of them; and from the total of 2,975
cluster schools in Oromia region 31 of them have established inclusive education resource centers and
assigned special needs educators.

Furthermore, the Ministry of Education affirmed that specialist support is needed to cater to learner’s
individual needs and interests. Such support should possibly include the following personnel who would
serve in different capacities at each school. The personnel are educational psychologists, speech
therapists, occupational and physiotherapists, school nurses, sign language interpreters, orientation and
mobility trainers, and Braille trainers.62 Nevertheless, in reality, such support personnel are not available
at schools to promote the delivery of inclusive education except educational psychologist at the secondary
schools. This issue is similar in all regions of the country.

DATA AND MONITORING

In order to make clear the status of education and training in Ethiopia in terms of access, equity, quality,
efficiency, relevance and learning outcomes; the Ministry of Education publishes a yearly reporting
document called ‘Education Statistics Annual Abstract’ since 1999. Its overall objective is to provide
performance data and statistics measuring Ethiopia’s progress against educational priorities set out in
the Education Sector Development Programmes. The publication reports on all education sectors. These
are general education (pre-primary, primary, secondary, integrated functional adult literacy, and special
needs and inclusive education), colleges of teachers’ education, technical and vocational education and
training, higher education institutions. The nine regions and two city administrations data also include. 63
Likewise, regions including Amhara, Oromia, and South Nation Nationality and Peoples and others have
their own yearly educational status reporting documents.

Nevertheless, all the federal, regions, city administrations, zones, woredas, and schools reporting system
do not have a monitoring framework to follow progress towards inclusive education. There are no clear
targets and indicators which show the implementation status of inclusive education in the country from
pre-primary to tertiary education level. Sufficient and comprehensible data are not easily available from
federal to schools level on learners with disabilities and particularly learners from different vulnerable

61 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2018, p.50

62 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2015b, p.17
63 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2018, p.7

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groups. Even the existing data are very limited, fragmentary and not well organized. The data reporting
flow from schools to the federal level lacks clarity, consistency, uniformity, and reliability.

OVERVIEW OF MAIN STUDIES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICY

FRAMEWORKS
There is a dearth of studies done on inclusive education in Ethiopia. The results of some studies reveal
that there are both inclusive education policy and implementation gaps in the country. But other study
results show that there are legal and policy frameworks in Ethiopia which support the provision of
inclusive education. However, socio-cultural, economic, and practical barriers appear to limit the
implementation of policy frameworks into practice.

In order to examine the rhetoric of ‘Education For All’ and the reality on the ground in Ethiopia; Tefera,
Admas and Mulatie64 reviewed different Ethiopian legal documents and publications such as Constitution,
Education and Training Policy, Education Sector Development Programmes, Special Needs/Inclusive
Education Strategies, National Growth and Transformation Plan, Statistical Publications of Ministry of
Education mainly from 2008/9-2012/13, and local empirical investigations and student dissertations till
2014/15. The result of the study showed that the enrolment of children with special needs is alarmingly
low in Ethiopia. It affirmed that 97% of school-age children with disabilities are out of school. Even, the
quality of educational services provided to those enrolled is worrisome; possibly making them rather
vulnerable to lots of problems. Weighed against this experience, ‘education of children for all’ is only
policy rhetoric in sharp contrast to the reality on the ground that seems to portray nearly an ‘education
for nil’ because of negligible level of enrolment and the invisibility of those enrolled. Therefore, this study
argued that inclusive education may not even happen in the time ahead unless inclusive practices are
envisaged within the framework of the Ethiopian reality.

Paper commissioned for the 2010 Education for All Global Monitoring Report has summarized the scale
and causes of the educational marginalization of people with disabilities in Ethiopia and Rwanda, and
reviewed selected educational policies and plans in relation to disability. In the case of Ethiopia, the
review of education sector policies related to documentation reveals that the country is moving forward
with a mixture of segregated and inclusive education for learners with disabilities. The policies are weak
in relation to disability, special needs education, and inclusive education. The policies often do not reflect
what is happening on the ground; influenced by Northern approaches to special needs and inclusive
education; and draw only limited inspiration from the country’s own culture and context. 65 This is evident

64 Tefera, Admas, and Mulatie, 2015

65 Lewis, 2009
14
that there is a huge gap between policies and implementation status so far. Also, there are still gaps in
the provision of access to children with disabilities and vulnerable groups, and actualizing inclusive
education in the country.

Malle, Pirttimaa and Saloviita66 explored the extent to which the issue of special education and training
needs for persons with disabilities is addressed in the Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia, with a
specific focus on Technical and Vocational Education and Training. A pair of focus group discussions
involved 22 members of the management and governance of four networks and eight indigenous
disability-focused non-governmental organizations. In addition, 14 high-profile experts from the federal
were interviewed. The result of the study revealed that the Education and Training Policy did not address
the issue of disability appropriately in issues of strategy and prioritization. There was a lack of awareness
about the issue of disability among the policy experts and policymakers involved in the process of
preparing and developing the policy. As the results of the study showed, a genuine disability-inclusive
policy that recognizes the special educational needs of persons with disabilities is required by the
Ethiopian education sector.

Mitiku, Alemu and Mengsitu67 also conducted a total of 71 interviews, namely: 4 school's principals, 16
professional teachers in special needs educators, and 51 learners with disabilities from some selected
primary schools at North Gondar, Amhara region, to assess the challenges and opportunities to
implement inclusive education. The finding roughly shows that even though the government of Ethiopia
has accepted international policy frameworks in relation to inclusive education and has prepared national
policy frameworks; it cannot be taken as a guaranty for its implementation. Because there are real
challenges that hinder the full implementation of inclusive education policy frameworks into practice. The
challenges include negative attitude, large class size, lack of attention from education offices, scarcity of
educational materials, and shortage of skilled professionals.

Dano68 also investigated a sample of 5 school principals, 15 teachers, 10 members of the parent-teacher
association, 10 students without disability, and 10 students with disabilities from 5 primary schools found
in southern Ethiopia, to understand the implementation gaps hindering the transition towards inclusive
education in the country. The result of the study revealed that though the government policies that are
prerequisites for inclusive education exist in Ethiopia, there is a large gap between policy and practice. In
particular, the implementation of the policies is hindered by a lack of special needs professionals, a

66 Malle, Pirttimaa, and Saloviita, 2015b

67 Mitiku, Alemu, and Mengsitu, 2014
68 Dano, 2018

15
shortage of relevant teaching resources and accessible basic amenities, and a low level of collaboration
among stakeholders.

Similarly, the result of other studies confirms that the availability of inclusive education-related legal and
policy frameworks in Ethiopia could not maintain significant achievements at schools. For instance,
Debele69 surveyed a total of 1052 participants (592 teachers and 460 students) in 70 primary schools
in Addis Ababa, to find out the accessibility of the physical environment of the primary schools to
implement inclusive education including students with disabilities. The result of the study showed that
schools’ physical environment was not found accessible to implement inclusive education.

Hankebo70 also examined a case study about the accessibility of instructional provision for children with
disabilities on one of the best performances awarded primary school in the country found at Harar town,
Harari region. The study revealed that the number of students with disabilities enrolled in the school was
not significant; the schooling and instructional activities were not accessible for the children; and the
school was not implementing inclusive education properly.

Besides, Dagnew71 studied a sample of 4 principals, 60 classroom teachers, 4 special needs educators,
31 students with learning barriers, and 269 peers in four primary schools at Bahir Dar, Amhara region, to
identify the factors that affect the implementation of inclusive education. The study revealed that lack of
special educators, inaccessible school environment, inflexible curriculum, shortage of materials and
equipment, and large class size which are found potential problems of the study and consistently affecting
the implementation of inclusive education.

EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICY

IMPLEMENTATION
As countries worldwide continued to implement emerging trends in educational policies and approaches
in the area of inclusive education, similar changes took place in Ethiopia. The following are examples of
effective inclusive education policy implementation in the country.

1. Promoting inclusive education in legal and policy frameworks

In the global world, there are legal and policy frameworks related to inclusive education that underpin all
countries’ national policies and provide a frame of reference for their work.72 Such legal and policy

69 Debele, 2016
70 Hankebo, 2018
71 Dagnew, 2013
72 European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2009, p.11

16
frameworks provide that all children ought to get the right to education on an equal basis with others in
the communities.73 The Ethiopian Constitution accepts the international conventions, declarations,
framework of actions, forums, statements and resolutions; and states education as a human right. The
Education and Training Policy and the Education Sector Development Programmes direct
implementation and development towards education for all. National plans give special attention and
assistance to children with special needs to be benefited from education.

Furthermore, in order to implement and realize inclusive education in Ethiopia, various strategies and
guidelines have been prepared, published and distributed to regions and city administrations. These
includes: Special Needs Education Program Strategy (2006); National Policy Framework for Early
Childhood Care and Education (2010); Basic Numerical and Calculation Abilities Screening and
Assessment Tool (2010); National School Health and Nutrition Strategy (2012); Special Needs/Inclusive
Education Strategy (2012); Special Needs/Inclusive Education Strategy Implementation Guideline
(2012); Guideline for Curriculum Differentiation and Individual Educational Programme (2012); Technical
and Vocational Education and Trainings–Special Needs Education Guide (2012); Guideline for
Establishing and Managing Inclusive Education Resource Centers (2015); Assessment and Support for
Students with Special Needs in Pre-primary Schools (2017); Assessment and Support for Students with
Special Needs in Primary Schools (2017); and Master Plan for Special Needs Education/Inclusive
Education in Ethiopia 2016-2025 (2017).

It is evident that the above legal and policy frameworks are guarantee to create equal access for the
education of all children; expand education equitably; teach and support all children based on their
educational needs; and build an inclusive education system in general. Hence, this is one of a remarkable
step of Ethiopia for inclusive education, though putting into practice of the legal and policy frameworks is
a question.

2. Preparing special needs educators

Since the country introduced the first Education and Training Policy in 1994 and accepted international
legal and policy frameworks, a number of learners with diverse unique needs are served in special
schools, separate classes and unites in mainstream schools, and regular schools.74 Similar to the global
world, this places new demands on special needs educators who are used to serving homogeneous
groups of learners at schools in the Ethiopian education system. Because of the increasing diversity of

73 Ozel, Zhagan, Nor, Daud, and Ali, 2017, p.236

74 Teferra, 2005, pp.85-60
17
the learners and their learning needs, the extent to which special needs educators’ preparation program
has been a concern in the educational policies, programs, planes, and strategies of the country.

Even though special needs educators’ preparation program as an independent field of specialization is a
very recent phenomenon in the history of the education system of Ethiopia, 75 it is currently being provided
in 18 colleges of teachers educations at diploma level; 12 universities at degree level; 8 universities at
master’s level; and 1 university at doctoral level. This program is included in both the pre-service and in-
service teachers’ preparation modalities aiming to strengthen and accelerate the implementation and
realization of inclusive education in the country. Besides, sign language unit is established under the
Linguistic Department of Addis Ababa University and it is running an undergraduate programme since
2011. As special needs educators’ preparation is of critical importance for inclusive education, thus
Ethiopian has been progressing in this regard.

3. Establishing inclusive education resource centers

In order to teach children with special needs together with other learners in regular school settings and
benefit them from education, the 2006 Special Needs Education Program Strategy of Ethiopia has
introduced the establishment of inclusive education resource centers as a mechanism. Its approach was
that cluster schools will be organized as resource centers for special needs education as well as for
t h e regular teaching-learning process.76 Consequently, inclusive education resource centers have been
recognized in the education system of the country as pedagogical centers that are established in cluster
schools and give educational support for learners with special needs, other learners, teachers, and
neighboring schools. Each center has equipped with specific educational materials and assistive devices,
as well as staffed with special needs educators to enhance the capacity of the schools in addressing the
needs of learners with special needs. Also, a workforce called ‘Core Team’ has established in each center.
This core team which is composed of the school community is responsible for the process of creating an
accessible inclusive school environment. Accordingly, the schools have been benefiting from the centers
in supporting learners with special needs.

Initially, the Ministry of Education in collaboration with the government of Finland has established sixteen
model resource centers in two regions and one city administration, namely: Oromia, South Nation
Nationality and Peoples, and Addis Ababa. Then, regions and city administrations expanded this
experience by considering the model resource centers as a benchmark. Now, there are 213 resource
centers across the country with the following distribution: 62 in South Nation Nationality and Peoples, 66

75 Teklemariam and Fereja, 2011, p.127

76 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2006, p.26
18
in Amhara, 22 in Tigray, 31 in Oromia, 7 in Harari, 2 in Somali, 5 in Benishangul-Gumuz, 2 in Gambela, 2
in Afar, 11 in Addis Ababa, and 3 in Dire Dawa.

Moreover, the General Education Quality Improvement Programme for Equity has currently working for
the establishment of 687 resource centers with an annual rate of 171 in the period 2017 to 2022 in the
country. This will be realized through the provision of supplementary school grants ($15,000 for each
resource center). The supplementary grants have planned to be used to organize awareness-raising and
training events; purchase reference materials on special needs, equipment for assessing needs, and
educational resources for children with special needs; ensure accessible learning environment. 77

A study result has shown that the establishment of the inclusive education resource centers has improved
the movement on the development of inclusive education in the country. Particularly, achievements have
been observed in those cluster schools which established resource centers. These achievements can be
enumerated as follows. Welcoming school environment has created; parental involvement and
community participation have increased; collaborative learning has practiced; networks with educational
stakeholders and governmental and non-governmental organizations have created; children’s with
disabilities enrolment increased, dropout and reputation rates decreased, and education results
progressed.78 However, the achievements of learners from different vulnerable groups are not addressed.

KEY CHALLENGES FOR EFFECTIVE INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICY

IMPLEMENTATION
The Government of Ethiopia has displayed its commitment to make education accessible to all citizens
in the legal, policy, strategy, programme, and plan documents. In addition, various international policy
documents, Conventions, Declarations, Framework of Actions, and Forums on inclusive education have
been accepted and also ratified by the country. Nevertheless, the realization of its implementation is far
from reality yet.

Responses of participants at a different level and results of different studies show that implementation
of successful inclusive education has been deterred by several variables in the country. Key challenges
are presented as follows.

77 World Bank, 2017, p.44

78 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017b, p.21
19
1. Weak inclusive education structure
At the federal level, there are 26 directorate offices, and Special Support and Inclusive Education is one
of them. The directorate is responsible for two major tasks providing compressive educational support to
the four emerging regions namely: Somali, Benishangul-Gumuz, Afar, and Gambela; and running inclusive
education programs in the country. The first task seems more sensitive to the government and highly
politicized than inclusive education. Even though implementing inclusive education in the country is a
big task, it is not designed to be executed in a separate directorate office. Besides, there are only four
experts who are supposed to perform this task.79

At the region, city administration, zone, and woreda education office level inclusive education is organized
and being implemented under various offices. There is only one expert assigned at the majority of region
and city administration education bureaus; and there are no assignees at most of zone and woreda
education offices.

At the school level, there is no carrier structure totally to hire special need educators. However, special
needs educators are graduating from Ethiopian higher education institutions in diploma, degree, masters,
and doctoral programs. In general, inclusive education, in reality, is overlooked in the country because of
weak structure, and lack of commitment and awareness on the part of the implementers in planning,
budgeting, monitoring, evaluating and reporting it properly.

2. Limitations in data collection and management system

In Ethiopian education, there is no strong system for collecting comprehensive data about learners’
enrolment, dropout, repetition, and needs. Particularly, sufficient data regarding learners with special
educational needs are not easily available and even the existing ones are fragmentary and not well
organized.80 At all education levels, the data collection system has focused on recording disability-related
data which is a medical model approach. It is likely that some learners with invisible needs and vulnerable
groups may not have been recorded in the data and not considered for educational support.81 Of course,
identifying learners with invisible needs (like learning difficulties) is a big challenge. Hence, the data
reporting flow from schools to regions/city administrations and subsequently from regions/city
administrations to federal lacks consistency and reliability. This is mainly attributed to the absence of an
appropriate database system.

79 Side, 2018, p.149

80 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, p.11
81 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.11

20
3. Inaccessible facility and unsafe school environment
The majority of primary, secondary and tertiary schools in Ethiopia are poorly designed and not well
equipped to meet the needs of all learners. Lack of accessible facility and lack of good climate in schools
such as the inconvenient design of buildings, poor classroom arrangements; unavailability of adapted
toilet, adapted seats; inadequate space for wheelchairs; and lack of adapted ramps, signage, water
supply, and playgrounds affect successful inclusive education practice.82 In addition, most schools are
not staffed with professionals like special educators, sign language interpreters, and psychologists.
Conversely, large class size is also one of the factors especially on the majority of primary schools.

4. Insufficient educational materials and assistive devices

Unavailability of adequate and variety of educational materials and assistive devices is among the
frontiers of challenge to implement successful inclusive education in Ethiopia. Teaching-learning
materials (Braille textbooks, sign language books, large prints, abacus, tactile graphics, etc.); assistive
devices (crutch, wheelchair, cane, hearing aids, etc.); equipment (for making Braille books, computer
software such as Job Access With Speech [JAWS], etc.); and stationeries (Braille paper, slate, styles,
talking calculator, etc.) are not available in the national market of Ethiopia because of very low market
demand.83 The simplest teaching-learning materials that could even be produced locally such as maps,
charts, and other illustrative devices are not available in many schools. Consequently, the majority of
schools are under-resourced. One of the major factors contributing to schools to be under-resourced is
the inadequacy of education financing.

5. Rigid curriculum

In Ethiopia, the teaching-learning process is characterized by a highly rigid curriculum. The curriculum is
not leaving flexibility for local adaptations for teachers to experiment and try out new approaches. 84
Accordingly, it has become very challenging for schools and teachers to welcome and to accommodate
all learners in accordance with their learning potential and pace of learning. In particular, learners with
special educational needs are mainly left without sufficient educational support which has led to the big
amount of repeaters and drop-outs.85

82 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, p.11

83 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2012a, p.11
84 Dano, 2018, p.447
85 Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2017a, p.48

21
6. Lack of general education teachers’ adequate preparation
In Ethiopia, general education teachers teaching in the regular schools found it difficult to accommodate
and support all learners because of their inadequate preparation in the pre-service and/or in-service
programs. The majority of them lack competence, improvisation, and disability-related specific skills like
sign language and Braille reading and writing skills. Hence, they do not perceive themselves as having
adequate preparation and skills to meet the instructional needs of all learners.

Inclusive education demands that the general education teachers become innovative, creative, flexible,
ready to accept diversified learners, learn from the learners, and capable of initiating active learning.
However, these are some of the pedagogical challenges facing general education teachers.86 So, they
usually used rigid lesson plans and teaching methods; rigid curricula and inappropriate teaching
strategies; and teacher-centered classroom methods.87 Consequently, most of the time children with
special needs have requested to go back to segregated schools and programs. 88

CONCLUSION
The goal of this study is to examine the practice of inclusive education in the Ethiopian education system
and to contribute its share for the realization of the 2020 Global Education Monitoring Report.
Accordingly, the report of this study has provided information on primary, secondary and tertiary
education levels including a description of the definitions; organization; laws, policies and programs;
governance and finance, learning environment; teachers and other school personnel; and data and
monitoring. Also, an overview of main studies of inclusive education policy frameworks, and examples of
effective inclusive education policy implementation have been addressed. In general, the report of this
study showed that even though there are legal and policy frameworks in Ethiopia which support the
provision of quality education of all people, there is still a huge gap in terms of actualizing into reality.

86 Keski-Mäenpää, 2018, p.24

87 Tefera, Admas, and Mulatie, 2015, pp.57-58
88 USAID/Ethiopia, 2015, p.3

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