The 'Reluctant' Organist's Guide To Improvisation

The ‘Reluctant’ Organist’s Guide to Improvisation
The ‘Reluctant’ Organist’s

Guide to Improvisation
Richard Ellis
©atticbooks 2013
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Introduction
Chapter 1 – The Key Motif
1. The Key Motif

2. Adding rhythmic life to the Key Motif
3. Octave leaps
4. Arpeggiations
5. Mordents
6. Passing Notes
Chapter 2 – Adding a Descant
7. The importance of contrary motion

8. The sustained counterpoint
9. Simple counterpoint
10. Varying the melody line
11. Varying the implied chords
12. Scale patterns above the Key Motif
13. Swapping the major/minor character
14. Simple imitative textures
Chapter 3 – Simple Three-part Textures
15. Basic three-part textures

16. Added sevenths
17. Added fourths
18. The added ninth
19. The ‘six-five’ dissonance
20. The ‘six-four’ chord
21. Summary of available melodic notes
Chapter 4 – Minor Variations and Reflections
22. The Key Motif in the minor mode

23. Reharmonising the penultimate note
24. Two useful bass lines
25. The interrupted cadence
26. Joining statements of the Key Motif
27. The Key Motif in Sequence
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Chapter 5 – Sequences and Digressions
28. The Romanesca Bass

29. The Fonte
30. The Monte
31. Sequences
Chapter 6 – Pedal Notes
32. The tonic pedal

33. The dominant pedal preparation
34. Extended dominant chords
35. Closing motifs
Chapter 7 – Chains of Suspensions
36. Chains of suspesions

37. Rising 5 – 6 patterns
38. The circle of fifths
Chapter 8 – Modulations
39. Changes of Key

40. Hymn-tune references
Chapter 9 – Fugues and Canons
41. The mysterious ‘Qugue’

42. Variations of the ‘Qugue’ exposition
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Introduction
Improvisation on the organ – an alternative strategy
Many years ago, I was privileged to witness an organ improvisation by a remarkable

musician performed as a prelude to a festive service. The improvisation was based
on Christmas carols and lasted for about twenty minutes. Well-known tunes sounded
from the top voice, on the pedals, in a middle voice, sometimes in decorated and re-
harmonised versions, and then imitatively and even canonically. The performance
was sufficiently intimidating to put me off the thought of attempting to improvise for
many years.
Eventually, two factors brought me back to the task. First, the purely practical: nearly
all organists have to improvise at some stage, even if it is only a question of rounding
off a piece sooner than expected or prolonging the final cadence when the
procession/collection/event it accompanies draws to a close. Second, the realisation
that even this most spontaneous of skills will improve with dedicated, conscientious
practice.
There are many excellent written introductions to the skill of improvisation, some of
which are referred to below. However, none of the ‘methods’ described in these
guides quite enabled me to succeed in my aim of extemporizing for a few minutes, on
manuals and pedals, without any obvious hiccoughs, unlikely chords or improbable
gaps. So a I developed the system outlined below. Put simply, by starting with the
pedals, the necessary ‘speed of thought’ is transferred to the manuals. You might say
that ‘improvising over a ground bass is not new’ – and, of course, adding upper lines
to a bass indeed forms part of a tradition stretching back over many centuries. But
equally, what I describe below is not quite the same as improvising over a ground-
bass pattern. Also, the method outlined here enables the performer to delve into
chromatic chords, dissonance and counterpoint (the exciting and often more
challenging aspects of performing) at an earlier stage than with many other methods.
I have assumed in the following description that the reader has some grasp of
keyboard technique, probably learned on the piano. Of course, a pedal board is
necessary, but I assume only rudimentary skill here. In fact, the system described
below is quite helpful for developing pedal technique and building confidence in
using the pedals.
I have purposefully written this introduction in non-technical language. Occasionally,

to assist those readers who have a more formal understanding of harmony, I clarify
technical points in squared brackets. These comments can be safely ignored without
affecting the overall drift of the text. The broad aim is to be able to improvise
confidently for a few minutes, in a broadly tonal style (some would say a quaint
Victoriana idiom) which will neither challenge nor distract the congregation.
Musical performance depends mainly on three factors: first, the level of inborn talent,
second, the amount of dedicated structured practice, and third, knowing a few tips and
techniques, which make musical challenges seem just a little easier than they might
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first appear. It is really this third component that I am trying to help along here.
Genuinely spontaneous extemporization – like all musical accomplishment – has a
hint of magic about it. What I hope to be able to offer is a melange of tricks which
might, to the audience (and perhaps even to the performer) seem like magic.
At least one book on the art of organ improvisation is frankly dismissive of the chance
of any but a few particularly talented individuals improvising extended contrapuntal
movements. I hope that the method developed here will enable any keen amateur to
develop, from an original theme, a fugal-style movement (if not quite a proper fugue)
on pedals and manuals, complete with exposition and counter-exposition
incorporating regular countersubjects and episodes built from canonic entries. It
sounds quite a technical challenge, but it is achievable – and fun. Such attempts
occasionally even prove useful during a service or recital.
First, a few general pointers: these notes are not intended for professional musicians
nor for students being directed by a teacher; they are squarely aimed at amateur
performers who want to develop their improvisational skills in a fairly orthodox
direction. These exercises should be worked on at a pace suitable for the individual
player. Don’t rush through them: enjoy the creative process. Make sure each exercise
is thoroughly integrated before moving on to the next stage. Practising for a few
minutes each day is better than a lengthy splurge once a week. If you do feel like
skipping sections, please be thorough with the opening sections, on which the rest is
built. Start each day’s practice in a different key, in order to build up a level of
confidence which will later enable changes of key [modulation] to be accomplished
fluently. To help this process, the examples are given in various keys.
When working on the early exercises, which mostly comprise single-line music,
experiment with different organ registrations, so that when more lines are added, you
can predict with some accuracy what the overall sound will be like.
If you invent something that you particularly like the sound of, notate it for future
reference, but also learn this notated snippet in several keys, so that it doesn’t become
too fixed for use. Away from the keyboard, some ideas can be sketched out more
fully, but do play these ‘from memory’ rather than direct from the music. Remember
to listen reflectively to what you are playing and, before attempting to improvise in
public, invite a series of ‘tame audiences’ – starting with the least critical – to sample
your efforts. Occasionally record your improvisation for subsequent, more self-
critical appraisal.
A brief list of useful books

Charles Camilleri, Piano Improvisation [Books 1 and 2] Lengnick
Ernst-Otto Göring, Improvisation – Leicht Gemacht, Evanglische Verlaganstalt
Gerre Hancock, Improvising – How to Master the Art, OUP
Reginald Hunt, Extemporization for Music Students, OUP
A. Madeley Richardson, Extempore Playing, Schirmer
Alan Phillips, Modern Improvisation and Harmony, Robbins Music Corporation
Jan Overduin, Improvisation for Organists, OUP
Oscar Peterson, Jazz Exercises and Pieces, Charles Hanson
H. Stubington, Practical Extemporization, The Epworth Press
Arthur Wills, The Organ [Yehudi Menuhin Music Guides] – (relevant chapters)
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Chapter 1 – The Key Motif
1. The Key Motif. Improvisation in common time [4/4] can soon become rather
turgid, so we will start in triple time. Play the following notes as dotted minims on
the pedals, carefully counting three crotchet beats to each note: C, a, F, G (Example
1a). This is the Key Motif.
Example 1a. The Key Motif.
At the moment we are only using the pedals, but later the letter names will indicate
which chords are implied, with capitals denoting major chords and lower-case minor
chords. So C stands for the chord of C major (comprising the notes C – E – G) and a
for A minor (A – C – E) and so on.
For ease of pedalling, it is probably easiest to change from left toe to right on the note
A, as shown. (An arrow above the stave represents the right toe, below represents the
left toe. A half-circle above represents the right heel, half-circle below represents the
left heel.)
We can call the notes outlined in example 1 ‘The Key Motif’ because this is the
starting point for our improvisation, and also because it clearly states the key. The
first note (C), represents C major and is the key note [tonic]. Clearly, the four-note
snippet is not a complete piece by any means, as it finishes on G. If you want to make
the phrase sound more final, simply follow it by a chord of C major.
Exercise 1: Play the Key Motif starting on six different notes. [This is called
transposing into different keys.] Make sure you strictly observe the key signature of
the note you start on – the key note – when you play the Key Motif. For example, if
you start on E flat, the notes will be E flat, c, A flat, B flat. If you start on F sharp, the
notes will be F sharp, d sharp, B, C sharp (Example 1b).
Example 1b. The Key Motif in E flat Major and F sharp Major.
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2. Adding rhythmic life to the Key Motif. Of course, at the moment, although you
are playing (and counting) three beats on each note, this would not be apparent to any
listener (to whom the notes could just as well be minims or semibreves). The easiest
way to give a sense of three-in-a-bar is to divide each note into three crotchets.
In fact, you can invent a wide variety of rhythmic patterns from various combinations
of quavers, crotchets and minims. It is useful to think of a each rhythmic pattern
lasting one bar as a single unit. There is no need for each pitch need take the same
pattern. On the other hand, consistency does impart a sense of shape to the music. It
is important to be quite precise about the rhythm.
Because of the way phrases flow naturally, it is often a good idea to play longer note
values at the beginning and end of the Key Motif. Two useful and perhaps
overlooked rhythmic patterns are crotchet – minim (giving a slightly syncopated feel)
and dotted crotchet – quaver – crotchet (suggesting a flowing, lilting quality).
Remember that rests can be very useful in adding light and shade to the bass line.
Example 2, in D major, suggests some possible rhythmic permutations. The
suggested articulation can also be varied.
Example 2. Examples of rhythmic patterns.
Exercise 2: Play the Key Motif in six different keys, inventing various rhythmic
patterns. Make sure that the sense of rhythm is clearly audible, also vary the touch –
staccato and legato – to make the phrase more lively. If you find this very easy, add
further variety by means of the swell pedal. Change the registration for each key.
Complete some of the examples by adding an extra bar and finishing on the key note
(or even the key chord). [End on the tonic.]
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3. Octave leaps. As well as varying the rhythm of our Key Motif, the pitches can be
varied. The simplest solution here is to play some of the notes an octave higher or
lower than given in the basic pattern. For example, start on a dotted minim C and
then leap up to A instead of down to A. If you start on a relatively low key note (for
example, low F) this type of octave adjustment will be necessary to complete the Key
Motif anyway.
Musical sense suggests that the final two notes of the Key Motif should just move up
by step (F – G), rather than leaping down a seventh. But, by all means try the seventh
leap.
Exercise 3a: Play the Key Motif in various keys. Play the notes only in dotted
minims but change the octave of some of the notes.
The same type of octave leap can be applied to the rhythmic patterns discussed in
section 2. For example, instead of playing three crotchets at the same pitch on C, the
second could be played an octave lower. This is quite a common feature of organ
pedal patterns, but too much leaping can produce a rather unsettled feeling. Some
possible rhythmic patterns, combined with octave leaps are shown in example 3.
Example 3. The Key Motif in B flat, incorporating some octave leaps.
Exercise 3b: Play the Key Motif in six different keys, inventing different rhythms
and incorporating some octave leaps.
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4. Arpeggiations. As well as leaping to notes at the distance of an octave, you can

also leap from each note of the Key Motif to other notes which belong to the same
chord. The basic chord above each note comprises the note itself, the note a third
above and the note a fifth above [this is called the triad]. So, starting from C, you
could leap to an E or a G. Of course, the octave is open to choice. I call this
technique of ‘leaping to another note of the chord’ an arpeggiation. It’s a bit like an
arpeggio, but need not necessarily be between adjacent notes of the chord.
As with the examples in the previous sections, don’t overdo the leaps; for the
moment, keep the final note more-or-less as is - a sort of static resting point.
To help guide your thoughts, it might be helpful to visualise arpeggio patterns on the
stave above and below the main note, to indicate where the leap can land. After
leaping to a note of the chord, you can return to the original note of the Key Motif, or
move on to the next one, depending on the melodic shape implied.
As a general guideline, after a leap up, generally return downwards, and vice versa:
after a leap down, generally move back upwards. Of course, to a certain extent the
range of the pedal board will determine the scope of the melody.
Given all these variables (key, rhythm, octave, arpeggiation) a certain amount of
musical instinct is called for here. If there now seems to be too much choice, limit
yourself to leaping a third upwards or a fourth downwards from the starting notes of
the Key Motif.
Some possible arpeggiated bass lines are shown in example 4.
Example 4. Examples of Arpeggiations of the Key Motif in E flat.
Exercise 4: using the resources of sections 2 (rhythmic patterns), 3 (octave leaps)

and 4 (arpeggiations), produce six variations on the Key Motif, each one in a
different key.
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5. Mordents. We now come to a class of note which could be described as

‘decorative’. Nearly always this type of note introduces a dissonance or at least adds
a little ‘spice’ to the bass line, and they are far more important for adding character to
the piece than perhaps might be thought at first.
Because we will gradually make the Key Motif more complex, the original four notes
of the pattern will be called the ‘main notes’.
The simplest decorative note is probably the mordent. Notated as an ornament, the
mordent is a type of “quick twiddle” (step up and then back down, probably in
demisemiquavers [thirty-second notes]; an inverted mordent goes down then back
up). In our context, however, the mordent will be in the middle of the bar and will
last a crotchet [quarter note] or a quaver [sixteenth note] according to musical taste.
The mordent can be above or below the main note. Example 5 shows the Key Motif
decorated with mordents (indicated with *) and inverted mordents (indicated with +).
Of course, each bar can take its own mordent, but it makes sense to be more selective,
and just put one or two mordents throughout the phrase. Again, it generally makes
musical sense to start on a relatively long note and to finish the four-bar phrase with a
long note, though there will always be the opportunity for exceptions.
Example 5. The Key Motif decorated with some upper (*) and lower (+) mordents.
One general hint (not a “rule” as such, but worth remembering) is to avoid placing an
upper mordent on the sixth step of the scale – the second note of the Key Motif. This
can produce rather ungainly melodic outline. So, in example 5, the F sharp in the
second bar could take a lower mordent (E), but it is best to avoid an upper mordent
here.
Exercise 5: Play the Key Motif decorating the main notes with tasteful upper and
lower mordents, of the type shown in example 5. Perhaps only add one or two
mordents in each four-bar phrase. Incorporate other rhythmic variants and
vary the octave of the main notes. Practise finishing some of the phrases on the
key chord, or tonic.
You can also invent chromatic mordents. In this context the most effective is the
lower chromatic mordent on the sixth step of the scale – an E sharp in bar 6 of
Example 5 – but also experiment with other possibilities.
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6. Passing Notes. We now come to a particularly important group of notes which are
more than decorative, and could even be called directional: passing notes.
The four main notes of the Key Motif (the original pattern of four notes) can be
regarded as the fundamental pitches. Where there is a gap of a third between two of
these notes, it is possible to play a passing note between them. In the context of our
3/4 Key Motif, the passing note will typically be a crotchet (quarter note) on the third
beat of the bar [this is an unaccented passing note]. In bars 1 – 2 of example 6a (in F
major) the notes F followed by D are the main notes, the E in between them is a
passing note. Similarly in bars 2 – 3 there is a C passing note between the D and the
subsequent B flat.
Example 6a. Passing notes between main notes of the Key Motif.
There is an important point to remember about passing notes: a passing note must
form part of a scale (that is, it must be approached and quitted by step in the same
direction), so it will be the middle note of a group of three.
Exercise 6a: Play the Key Motif (without octave leaps or arpeggiations)
incorporating passing notes in the first two bars. Repeat in six different keys.
The last two notes of the Key Motif are only a step apart, so it is not possible to play
an ordinary passing note here. However, where two notes are a whole tone [major
second] apart, it is possible to ‘fill in the gap’ with a chromatic passing note, as shown
in the last two bars of example 6a – the B natural between the B flat and final note C.
Exercise 6b: Repeat Exercise 6a, but include a chromatic passing note leading to
the final note of the phrase.
This particular chromatic note (the B natural) just below the fifth step of the scale
(which is C in F major) is especially useful. In fact, you could change the whole bar
to B natural here, which will later help when changing key (see Example 6b).
Example 6b. The next-to-last note of the Key Motif sharpened a semitone.
Exercise 6c: Play the Key Motif, sharpening the next-to-last note through the
whole bar (which may be rhythmically subdivided, for example, into a minim
and crotchet).
Example 6c suggests ways of combining various techniques described in sections 2 –
5 above with passing notes. In (i) the main notes have been arpeggiated by leaping up
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to the third of the chord and a quaver passing note played between each of the two
chord notes. This pattern is continued in sequence through the Key Motif.
At (ii) the second and fourth bars have been treated in a similar way to (i), with simple
arpeggiations in bars 1 and 3. In addition, the sequence ends on the key note, the
tonic, to produce a five-bar phrase.
(iii) combines an upper mordent in bar 1, and a lower mordent in bar 3, with a passing
note in bar 2. A similar melody (iv) includes the sharpened note in the third bar.
(v) includes an octave leap in bar 1, a lower chromatic mordent in bar 2 (which is
particularly effective below this step of the scale) and an arpeggiation with a passing
note in bar 3.
Passing notes can also be added to form scalic passages in quavers, so long as the start
of the group of quavers and the last note of the group are main notes of the Key Motif,
or belong to arpeggiations from it (Example 6c(vi)).
Example 6c. Passing notes combined with arpeggiations and/or mordents.
From these examples, you will see – and preferably hear – that the Key Motif can be
varied very extensively just using quite simple resources. To the casual listener it is
probably not immediately evident that Example 6c (i) and (vi) are, in fact, essentially
variants of the same underlying motif.
Exercise 6d: Take a few moments to plan this exercise, which is a good test of
musicianship: play a series of six variations on the Key Motif, starting with just
the main notes, and then increasing the rhythmic activity and melodic variety.
Incorporate some rests, and end on the key note [tonic]. Try to move
continuously from one variation to the next without hesitating; remain in the
same key throughout (apart from the optional sharpened note in the third bar of
the Key Motif). Example 6d illustrates a relatively ‘safe’ approach. Of course,
with a little more time to prepare, more interesting possibilities can usually be
discovered.
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Example 6d: Six variations on the Key Motif in G Major.
Notice an interesting variant in the second bar of the third and fifth variations. Here
the main note is E, but, instead of occurring right at the start of the bar, it is
approached via an arppeggiation (G is the third of the chord). Try to incorporate at
least one example of this technique.
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Chapter 2
Adding a descant
7. The importance of contrary motion. By now you will be able to create a

variation of the Key Motif quite easily. We now need to add a melody in the left hand
above the pedals. On the whole it is important to aim for spontaneity and fluency
without being hidebound by ‘rules’, but there are a couple of important principles to
consider.
The first main principle to remember when you have two musical lines at the same
time (for example, a bass and melody) is to aim for contrary motion, where possible.
If the lines go in opposite directions (one upwards and one downwards) this is called
contrary motion. If they go in the same direction (both upwards or both downwards)
this is called similar motion. Where one line remains static while the other moves it is
called oblique motion. Of these three types of relative movement, contrary motion is
by far the strongest, and should be cultivated where possible, although oblique motion
is the ‘safest’.
Secondly, try to avoid landing on a ‘hollow interval’ such as a fifth or an octave in

similar motion. [This is to avoid consecutive fifths, exposed fifths, consecutive
octaves and exposed octaves.] The actual rules are quite elaborate, but if you keep in
mind the processes described in the following sections, you won’t go far wrong.
8. The sustained counterpoint. To start with consider the three notes of the triad,
available on each main note in the Key Motif: starting on C, for example, you can
select from C – E – G. The next note, a, can take A – C – E (this, incidentally, is a
minor triad). The possible notes are shown arranged as chords in Example 8a; it
might be useful to play this through a few times. When basing a melody on these
notes any of the pitches can be changed by an octave, within reason. Notes belonging
to these chords will be called the ‘chord notes’. You will notice that C is common to
the first three triads, and we will take advantage of this in creating a sustained
counterpoint. This will result in oblique motion; the note C can either be repeated for
each bar, or tied through.
Example 8a: Chords implied by the Key Motif in the Bass.
Example 8b shows a simple theme (based on the Key Motif starting on C) stated on
the pedals and then repeated. Against this theme, C is sustained for three bars; it then
falls to B above the final note, G. For ease of reference we will call the sustained
counterpoint, ‘sust’.
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Example 8b: The sustained counterpoint.
Needless to say, you will not gain many marks in the melody competition with this
particular left-hand line, but it does illustrate three useful points. First, from a
harmonic viewpoint, when a note is common to two or more successive chords, it can
usefully be kept in the same voice part. This type of note is sometimes called a
‘binding tone’ and adds a sense of continuity to the chord progression; it generates
fullness without being fussy. Second, from a tonal point of view, it illustrates the
unique capability of the organ to sustain a sound. Third, it is typically what an inner
part, often in the left hand, might play in contrapuntal music (with a more interesting
melody line above). Notice how the sustained note moves downwards to B, the
seventh step of the scale (of C), which is the leading note.
The exercises are now becoming somewhat longer and, for beginner organists, more
challenging, so if necessary allow a few moments to plan what you are going to play,
before setting foot to pedal; this way the task should flow fluently and musically.
Exercise 8: take a few moments to plan a twelve-bar exercise as follows: play the
Key Motif in dotted minims on the pedals, and then repeat with the sustained
counterpoint (which will start on the key note or tonic) in the left hand, repeat
again, this time varying the Key Motif in the pedals. Practise this exercise in six
different keys. When you feel sufficiently confident leave out the initial four-bar,
‘pedal only’, phrase; after a couple more attempts, go straight on to the variation
of the Key Motif. Next repeat this exercise, but just on the manuals with the Key
Motif in the left hand and the sustained counterpoint in the right.
9. Simple counterpoint. We can now experiment with other melody lines. Here
some caution is needed to avoid successive ‘hollow’ intervals, such as fifths and
octaves. In C major, for example, if you begin on C (as does the Key Motif) and then
leap to A in the next bar (also as does the Key Motif), you will create ‘forbidden’
consecutive octaves between the voices. In general, however, it is a good idea to
incorporate the third of the triad in the melody, and thus solve the particular problem
with consecutives. The melodic note against the Key Motif in bar 4 will often be the
leading note; it is a good idea to approach this note from above (that is step or leap
down to the leading note); in particular avoid the augmented fourth leap up from the
fourth step (F in C major) to the leading note. However, if you play the sustained
counterpoint (which ends on the leading note) the melody line cannot also end on the
leading note. [The technical rule is: “do not double the leading note”.]
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Example 9 suggests some simple melodic lines, which can usefully be learned.
Again, the Key Motif in the pedals can be varied below this type of melodic line.
Example 9: The varied Key Motif in the Pedals, with a simple counterpoint above.
Notice how, in the first instance given in Example 9, apart from the fourth note, the
third of each successive triad has been added in turn. In the next phrase, the right
hand plays the countermelody. Once this has been grasped, it is quite easy to add the
sustained counterpoint in the left hand (shown in smaller notes). There is a general
rule that the third of the triad should never be doubled. In practice, this rule is widely
ignored, however, do avoid doubling the leading note (the third of the final chord of
the Key Motif).
Exercise 9. Play a variation of the Key Motif on the pedals, then add a counter-
melody in dotted minims against it, first in the middle then in the top voice.
Transpose each into three different keys. Repeat this exercise adding the
sustained counterpoint in one of the upper parts.
10. Varying the melody line. We now need to vary the melody line in a similar way
as we did with the Key Motif by adding ‘decoration’. In general, the type of octave
leap illustrated in example 3 is not particularly characteristic of a melody line (though
it can still be tried). The most suitable types of decoration will be arpeggiations,
passing notes and mordents. To begin with it is easiest to revert to the simplest four-
note version of the Key Motif in the pedals, and practise varying the counterpoint
above this, with the type of melody shown in example 10. If you are not sure which
notes to choose, learn example 8a in the appropriate key (remember that the octave of
any of the notes can be changed, within reason) and select the melody notes from
these chords.
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Example 10: Varied melodies above the Key Motif.
In the second phrase of Example 10, our sustained counterpoint has been added,
which again is optional, though is a fairly easy way to produce a three-voice texture.
Of course, it is also possible to vary the Key Motif itself (see, for instance, the
chromatic note in the penultimate bar) but, in fact, this is rather easier to do
effectively when more melodic resources have been considered, as explained in the
following sections. The sort of problem that can crop up would be playing an E flat
above the E natural in the bass (shown briefly in Example 10), though many
composers made use of this dissonance. If there is any doubt, at this stage, aim for
simplicity rather than complexity.
Exercise 10. (Optional: as a preliminary exercise, practise the chord progression

shown in Example 8a in the relevant key before working on the following
exercise.) Play the Key Motif in dotted minims with a counter-melody in the left-
hand. Repeat this exercise in various keys, adding the sustained counterpoint.
Include the chromatic passing note in the bass (penultimate bar) in some
instances.
11. Varying the implied chords. It is also possible to vary the chords implied above
the Key Motif. For the time being we will leave the initial chord (the tonic) and the
last chord (the dominant) as they are, and just vary the chords above the second and
third notes of the Key Motif. [In fact, as we will see, the third chord (with the fourth
step of the scale in the bass – F in C major) will be by far the most extensively
varied.]
For example, thinking in C major, the second chord can be changed from A minor to
F major. The second note of the Key Motif remains the same (A) but the notes now
available are F – A – C [the chord implied is now in first inversion]. In the same way,
the implied notes for the third chord can be changed from F major to D minor. In
practice, this only gives one additional possible note on each chord: F above the A,
and D above the F. The ‘new chords’ are illustrated in Example 11a; compare these
chords with those shown in Example 8a (again the octave can be adjusted within
reason).
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Example 11a: The Key Motif, showing first inversion chords in bars 2 and 3.
Even these two possibilities considerably liberate the player. In fact in ‘real’ music
the D minor chord [supertonic], is more likely in this context than the F major chord,
[subdominant]. The player is free to choose either/or and, indeed, to mix and match
the chords on the second and third notes. One other interesting observation: our
sustained counterpoint still fits: even though there will be a clash in the third bar (for
example, in C major, C against D) this is in fact a very standard dissonance in ‘real’
music. Example 11b illustrates some possibilities.
Example 11b: The Key Motif, with second and third notes re-harmonised.
Using these ‘new notes’ provides still more opportunities when adding arpeggiations
and passing notes, as example 11c illustrates. Here, in F major, the second chord is
treated as B flat major (instead of D minor) and the third as G minor (instead of B flat
major). Notice that the G now forms a biding note between the last two chords, and
this is incorporated into an optional left-hand part. The melodic descent from G to E
in the final two bars is particular effective.
Example 11c: more flowing counter-melodies above the Key Motif.
Exercise 11: (Optional: as a preliminary exercise, practise the chord

progressions shown in Examples 8a and 11a in the relevant key before the
following exercise.) Plan groups of four variations over the Key Motif as follows:
play the Key Motif in dotted minims (pedals), play a countermelody based on the
18
original chords (as in Example 8a) then a countermelody based on the

reharmonised chords (Example 11a), then finally a countermelody mixing
elements from the two progressions. Repeat in various keys gradually
increasing the ‘decorations’ of the Key Motif and countermelody. When fluent,
incorporate some chromatic passing notes and a third voice.
12. Scale patterns above the Key Motif. Most guides to improvisation place great
emphasis on being able to play scales above (and below) a given theme. While this is
not melodically very interesting, it is a useful discipline. Here are some ‘rules’ for
creating scales above the Key Motif: the note on the first beat of the bar must be part
of an ‘available’ chord; the other two notes may be part of such a chord or passing
notes (you can have two passing notes in a row, providing the following first beat
forms part of an available chord). Because the Key Motif is broadly descending, our
scalic patterns should generally be ascending (that is, moving in contrary motion to
the bass).
To clarify ‘available notes’, in Example 12a, the choice of notes is indicated in the left
hand and a melody derived from them in the right. The chords in the left hand are
not to be played as such; also, of course, the octave of any pitch can be varied within
reason. Before creating a scalic counterpoint it is useful to imagine these ‘available
pitches’. It is possible to leap away from an available note, but don’t leap away from
a passing note.
When playing scale patterns remember particularly the rule given in section 7: try to
avoid landing on a ‘hollow interval’ such as a fifth or an octave in similar motion.
This is to avoid consecutives which could be particularly troublesome. For instance,
in Example 12a, the melody in bars 1 – 3 runs as a scale upwards from E to F
(through an octave) but, if it continued another step upwards to G, consecutive
octaves would result (Key Motif also goes from F to G here).
In the second variation of Example 12, the melody runs up to A, but the following
step up, B, is not one of the ‘available notes’ so the melody leaps away at this point.
Example 12a: scalic countermelodies.
While this type of counterpoint is more interesting for its technical than musical
aspects, combining scales with some ties (connecting binding notes) and mordents can
yield useful results, as illustrated in Example 12b. Notice, incidentally, how the
leading note (B in the case of C major) is usually approached from above.
19
Example 12b: countermelodies incorporating scale passages, ties and mordents.
Exercise 12: Play the Key Motif in dotted minims followed by the tonic note in
the pedals; against this, in crotchets, play a continuous upward scale starting on
the fifth step of the scale (G in C major). Repeat in six different keys. (Optional:
refresh your memory of the chord progressions shown in Example 8a and 11a
before continuing.) Improvise passages in scales and mordents over the Key
Motif as illustrated in Examples 12a and 12b. Make sure you only leap away
from one chord note to another chord note (a chord note is a note from the
available chord – see LH of Example 12a for clarification – the octave, of course,
can be varied). Aim, where possible, for contrary motion. Take care to avoid
landing on ‘hollow’ intervals in similar motion. Only tie through chord notes.
Repeat in various keys.
13. Swapping the major/minor character of the available chords. In section 11

the chords on the second and third notes of the Key Motif were changed from root
position to first inversion, allowing a sixth in place of a fifth above the bass note. We
can also alter the major or minor character of these available chords. This process
will introduce some chromatic notes such as the type of chromatic passing note
previously discussed in section 6. These types of alteration produce some pleasing
and often quite poignant affects, but equally they determine more closely what goes
before and after.
In general, chromatic notes should be treated like passing notes, as part of a scale or
chromatic scalic line. Also, sharp notes usually move upwards, and flat notes move
downwards. Again the first and last chords will remain unaltered, while the two
middle chords can be changed (usually one or the other, but sometimes both).
The second chord is originally minor, so this can be made major by sharpening the
third. In C major this will produce a chord of A with a C#. The previous chord is, by
definition, C major, and so will give us the line C – C#. Because the C# usually
resolves upwards, the following chord will probably be D minor. A simple version is
shown in the first half of Example 13a. Notice the very effective passing note in the
bass of bar 2 against the C sharp.
20
Example 13a: The second chord modified from minor to major.
The second phrase of Example 13a (now in G major) builds on this by adding melodic
arpeggiations in the first two bars and a lower mordent in the third bar. Two other
interesting possibilities are shown here: first the F natural chromatic passing note in
the bass, and, secondly, the sharpened note in the next-to- last bar which has already
been considered an available option (see Section 6). The inner voice again is an
optional possibility here.
The third chord of the Key Motif is originally major, so it, in turn can be made into a
minor chord. This ‘minor subdominant affect’ is a standard tear-jerker, much used by
film composers. Logically the chromatic line should move downwards by step as
shown in Example 13b (in A flat major: C – C flat – B flat), but it can also very
effectively move up and down by semitone step. In the second, more elaborate
example the chromatic note forms a type of extended upper mordent over B flat. The
sustained counterpoint in the left hand also takes an upper mordent (bar 7); this upper
mordent can itself be flattened – try this possibility (F flat in place of F natural).
Example 13b: The third chord modified to minor [the minor subdominant chord].
Exercise 13a: Play groups of four phrases, each built over the Key Motif in the
pedals: begin the first phrase (LH) with three chromatically ascending steps,
starting on the tonic (as in Example 13a bars 1–4); in the second phrase repeat
this in the right hand; end the third phrase with three chromatically descending
notes (see Example 13b bars 1–4); for the fourth phrase, repeat this in the right
hand. (Obviously, find suitable notes for the ‘unspecified’ bars.) Transpose to
six keys. Lightly vary the Key Motif when working through this exercise.
There is a related possibility: further adjusting the penultimate chord when in first
inversion [technically, from minor to diminished]. In fact, the pitch is exactly the
21
same as in the previous example – it will be the flattened sixth step of the scale. This
really requires a three-part texture to be effective, as shown in Example 13c. The first
variation shows the underlying chords; the second shows a more elaborate texture,
which establishes the style with a chromatic lower mordent and a chromatic passing
note in the first bar. This type of chromatic chording always sounds most effective in
an appropriate context.
Example 13c: The penultimate chord modified from minor to diminished.
[From a technical point of view, where there is a chromatically altered version of a

note immediately before or after the natural version of that note (for example, A flat
just before or after A) in a different octave, it produces a mistake called a false
relation. There are various ways to avoid this, for example, but placing a passing note
after the A in the bass. In improvisation, however, such ‘slips’ are probably
acceptable.]
Finally, we can link the two chromatic chords together. Thus the second chord
becomes major and the third minor or diminished. This could produce a rash of false
relations, but the overall effect might be worth it. Such combinations are only really
possible in a three-part texture (because the chromatic notes need to be in different
voices) as shown in Example 13d.
Example 13d: the two chromatic variants in succession.
To summarise, Example 13e shows the range of notes available for each bar of the
Key Motif – although intended to be illustrative, it makes quite an interesting phrase
in its own right. (Compare with Examples 8a and 11a.) In addition, of course, there
is the possibility of incorporating chromatic passing notes and mordents. The third
note (in the bass) could be modified to F sharp, though not against F natural in the
melody. A final bar has been added to finish on the tonic.
22
Example 13e: The ‘available notes’ above the Key Motif.
Exercise 13: (Optional: transpose the chords progressions shown in Examples 8a

and 11a and the pitches shown in Example 13e to clarify the range of notes
available.)
Play groups of four four-bar phrases and conclude with the tonic chord (17 bars
total) built over the Key Motif; improvise a melodic line using the ‘available
notes’ shown in Example 13e. Make sure sharp notes resolve upwards and flat
notes downwards. Repeat in a three part texture and transpose to various keys.
(Note: the variety available here will actually be quite limited, because the
chromatic notes – the sharpened tonic in bar 2 and the flat submediant in bar 3 –
and their resolutions are so specific.)
14. Simple imitative textures. We can now develop imitative textures involving
both the varied Key Motif and an improvised counterpoint above. Start with the Key
Motif in dotted minims and the type of simple counterpoint for the left hand (also in
dotted minims) shown in section 9. Next repeat this, adding ‘decorations’ such as
mordents or arpeggiations in alternate bars (left hand then pedals or the reverse). To
begin with, keep the decorative patterns very simple. Imitation does not have to be
exact in order to be effective, just the broad outline of the phrase has to be sufficiently
recognisable for the listener to grasp the connection. It is important to realise here
that the player still only has to ‘think’ one bar at a time, armed with the knowledge
that most of the dotted minims from the unadorned phrases can take an arpeggiation
(such as a third up then down) while it is even easier to add mordents.
Example 14 shows some possibilities worked out over two versions of the Key Motif
in A flat major; the second statement has been extended to a six-bar phrase which
ends on the tonic. In bar one, an arpeggiation has been added to the left-hand part and
this is then imitated in the pedal part. Next, in the same way, a group of passing notes
joins the chords together. In bar three of the first phrase, the bass and melody form an
octave (*), this is technically acceptable, but sounds a little bare at this point, so an
‘alto’ F has been suggested, adding a third to the chord. In improvised passages this
type of momentary adjustment can help solve small-scale problems.
The next variation has been characterised throughout with lower chromatic mordents.
A third part has also been added, though either of the upper two voices sounds
satisfactorily with the bass. Chromatic lower mordents often work effectively in
thirds or sixths as shown. To reinforce the chromatic quality, the two easily available
chromatic passing notes (+) have been included. When developing this type of
imitative variation, it makes musical sense to invent and maintain a distinctive
23
character for each phrase where possible. On the other hand, it is important not to
force imitation where it is simply not going to work.
Example 14: a simple imitative texture.
Exercise 14: follow the guidance given in the first paragraph of section 14 to
build two four-bar phrases (plus a cadence on the tonic, 9 bars total); the first
phrase will just be in dotted minims (Key Motif in pedals with countermelody in
LH) the second phrase will be a repeat of the first but with light imitation using
simple arpeggiations, mordents and passing notes, alternating between pedals
and LH. Repeat this on pedals with RH, and then with Key Motif in LH and
countermelody in RH. Repeat through various keys. Develop a three-part
texture if possible. The voices need not be continuous; the countermelody can
start with a one-bar rest, which will help to emphasise the imitative quality.
Consolidation exercise: Take a few moments to plan the following improvisation.

The bass line will be the Key Motif, repeated eight times and then cadencing on
the tonic (33 bars total); it will be treated as a type of ground bass, but the Key
Motif itself can also be varied. Above this, mixing LH/RH or a three-part
texture, the variations will explore:
Variation 1: unaccompanied Key Motif in Pedals.

Variation 2: sustained counterpoint in LH.
Variation 3: countermelody in LH.
Variation 4: countermelody in RH (optional: add sustained countermelody in
LH; the following variations can be in two or three parts; if in two parts
alternate LH/RH).
Variation 5: scalic countermelody.
Variation 6: chromatic passing notes.
Variation 7: imitation based on arpeggiations.
Variation 8: imitation based on mordents.
End on tonic chord.
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Chapter 3
Three-part Textures
15. Basic three-part textures. At various stages we have already introduced a third
voice, often a sustained note in the left hand. Initially, this is the easiest way to create
a fuller texture. However, even though a sustained note is relatively restrictive, there
are several ways of adding variety, and Example 15 (in E Major) illustrates some of
the possibilities.
In the first phrase, the Key Motif is stated in dotted minims; there is a simple melody
in the right hand, incorporating two lower chromatic mordents.
In the second phrase, the Key Motif is decorated with some passing notes, and, in the
next-to-last bar an arpeggiation to the root of the chord (low F sharp). The right hand
plays a melody which is also filled out with arpeggiations, while the left hand sustains
binding notes joining the first two and last two chords. Notice the general tendency
for these melodies to go upwards (two bars) and then downwards (two bars), this is
because the Key Motif, broadly speaking, does the opposite.
In the third phrase, the Key Motif has been decorated with simple arpeggiations, the
LH plays a straightforward melody (also with some arpeggiations) while the right
hand plays the sustained counterpoint.
The fourth phrase is extended by one bar to finish on the home [tonic] chord of E
major. The right hand plays a the melody (somewhat simplified from the previous
two melodies). While this may not be immediately obvious, the left hand in effect
plays the binding notes (E and F#), broken up with rests, and alternating with other
notes from the available chords.
25
When practising this type of texture, it is often useful to build the texture from the
bass, working on the melody and then on an inner voice. However, if adopting this
procedure, try to work through it as a series of three variations (just pedals, pedals
with melody, three-voice texture). Remember to practise with the melody in either
left or right hand.
Exercise 15: Improvise two parts over variations of the Key Motif in the pedals.
One of the upper voices should be distinctively melodic, the other can be either a
sustained line, or a more motivic accompanimental texture. Repeat through
various keys.
16. Added sevenths. So far, the chords used have been based on the three notes of
the triad, sometimes chromatically altered. In the following sections, dissonant notes
will be added. The first general principle is that dissonances generally occur on the
strong beat (here the first beat of the bar) and then resolve downwards. Although it is
quite possible to incorporate sevenths into a two-part texture, they generally sound
more effective in a three-part texture, when sounded together with a third.
As in the previous sections, we will leave the first chord as a straightforward triad at
the moment. So, starting with the second bar of the Key Motif we can add a seventh,
as shown in Example 16. [For the purpose of this section the seventh can be a
‘compound seventh’, ie. a seventh plus an octave.] In (i) the melody leaps up to the
seventh above the bass note (indicated with 7) and then, on the third beat, resolves
down to a sixth above the bass note. [The numerals 7 and 6 define the interval above
the bass note, rather in the style of a figured bass line; though each interval can be
compound (ie. that interval plus an octave).] Incidentally, the seventh could resolve
down either on the second or third beats. The remainder of the melody is quite
straightforward, with the descending chromatic passing note in the third bar, and the
sustained counterpoint in the middle voice.
Example 16: sevenths added above the Key Motif.
26
In Example 16 (ii) sevenths have been added above both the second and third bass
notes. Notice the difference sound qualities here: the first (F above G) is a minor
seventh, while the second, D above E flat is a major seventh, which is more poignant.
In both cases the seventh is approached by leap from below, and then resolves down
by step. This type of ‘decoration’ is called an appoggiatura, which is one of the most
expressive devices available in the tonal spectrum. The middle voice supplies the
third of the chord in each case, which is not essential, but generally makes for a more
complete sound.
In place of leaping up to the seventh, the seventh can be tied through from the
previous bar. Technically this is called a suspension. Like the appoggiatura, the
suspension must still resolve down by step as shown in Example 16 (iii). In terms of
performance, the appoggiatura is probably easier to include because it involves less
forward planning. In terms of sound, the appoggiatura probably has a more romantic,
perhaps even Victoriana sound, whereas the suspension evokes the sound of church
music from an earlier era. Both types of dissonance can soon become tiresome with
overuse.
We now come to a particularly important dissonance: the dominant seventh. This is

the seventh above the dominant note (the fifth step of the scale). Thus in B flat, F is
the dominant and E flat the dominant seventh note. The dominant seventh is so
common in tonal music that it almost has its own set of conventions. It frequently
occurs as a passing note in an inner voice (usually the tenor in four-part harmony).
From our point of view, it will become very important for the way in which the last
two bars of the Key Motif are treated.
Example 16 (iv) shows a five-bar phrase; the final two bars [the cadence] comprise
the dominant seventh chord resolving on the tonic. Notice how the dominant seventh
does resolve downward by step, but not until the final bar. The dominant seventh
nearly always resolves like this, to provide the third of the following tonic chord.
Whereas the sevenths illustrated in Example 16 (i – iii) resolve down in the same
chord (and, in this context, the same bar) in which they occur, the dominant seventh
resolves in the following bar and in the next chord.
Sevenths, and their downward resolution can be practised in two parts if preferred. It
is important to internalise the idea of sevenths before proceeding with the next
section. From the point of view of integrating these sevenths into performance, it is
useful to remember that, in this context, there are only three: one above each of notes
2-4 of the Key Motif. Also, all three can be treated as suspensions, by tying a note
through from the previous bar (in other contexts this will not always be possible).
Remember that the remaining voice usually provides the third of the chord, or –
though this is less effective – doubles the bass note. Never double the seventh itself,
and avoid a sixth at the same time as the seventh.
Exercise 16: (Optional: select a key, and ‘calculate’ what pitches the sevenths
above the second and third notes of the Key Motif would be. For instance, in C
major, the second note of the KM is A, so the seventh above this is G.) Above the
Key Motif in the pedals with sustained counterpoint in the LH, improvise a
melody, incorporating 7 – 6 appoggiaturas above the second and/or third notes.
27
Repeat through all keys reversing the roles of the LH/RH. Next, practise
‘preparing’ the seventh in the previous bar – where possible – and tying through
as a suspension. The suspension should resolve downwards by step. When the 7
– 6 pattern (whether as appoggiatura or suspension) is fluent, gradually vary the
Key Motif, and accompanying line.
Practise five-bar phrases, comprising the KM in the pedals extended to end on

the tonic, with the dominant seventh in an upper voice in the penultimate bar,
resolving down by step in the final bar. (See Example 16(iv)). Continue through
various keys, adding 7 – 6 patterns in bars 2 and 3, with a dominant seventh in
bar 4, resolving in bar 5.
17. Added fourths. The fourth above the bass can also be treated as an appoggiatura,
and, where possible, as a suspension. As it happens, because of the specific bass line
we are dealing with (the Key Motif) the fourth can only occur as an appoggiatura in
the second and third bars (it cannot be prepared as a suspension). These are shown in
bars 2 and 7 of Example 17. Notice that the 4th occurs instead of the 3rd (don’t play
the 4th and 3rd at the same time). The remaining voice usually plays a 5th above the
bass, which, of course, will clash with the 4th.
Example 17. Added fourths (the 4 – 3 dissonance).
In bar 1 the melody line plays an upper mordent, and the bass line a passing note. In
bar 2, the melody plays a fourth, approached as an appoggiatura, which then resolves
down to the third of the chord. Note that these intervals are measured from the bass
note upwards and may be an octave higher still [compound intervals]: the E in bar 2 is
actually a fourth plus an octave above the B in the bass. In this case the middle voice
supplies the fifth of the chord, which emphasises the dissonance of the fourth. Avoid
playing the third and the fourth at the same time (that is E plus D in bar 2). A seventh
has been added at the beginning of bar 3 and also at the end of bar 4.
Exercise 17. Play the KM with a fifth bar ending on the tonic in the pedals;
above this, improvise a melody and accompaniment which include some 4 – 3
appoggiaturas. Work through different keys, and, when fluent, alternate with 7
– 6 patterns.
18. The added ninth. In the same way as sevenths and fourths, ninths (and
compound ninths) can be added above the bass note. As with the other dissonances,
they resolve down by step, usually in the same bar, where, obviously, they form an
28
octave (or compound octave) above the bass part. As with sevenths, the other voice
usually plays the third of the chord.
Although ninths can be introduced against the Key Motif, they are not very easily
incorporated with this particular line: more idiomatic (or, at least, easier-to-play)
examples will be introduced in subsequent chapters. Against the second and third
notes of the Key Motif, ninths can only be introduced as appoggiaturas, as shown in
Example 18.
Example 18. Added ninths (the 9 – 8 dissonance).
In bar 2, the left hand part plays a 9–8 appoggiatura; the right hand plays a tenth
above the bass (thus supplying the third of the chord). The anguished sound of the
ninth mainly results from the semitone clash, B against C. In this particular case, the
G sharp in bar 1 is a type of chromatic passing note, leading (though not directly) to
the A in the next bar.
In bar 4 the ninth (also in the left-hand part) is treated as a suspension. This is
perhaps the most idiomatic context for a ninth, with the bass moving up by step, and
the third of the previous chord sustained over the bar line as a suspension.
In bar seven the ninth is introduced as an appoggiatura, now in the top voice. A
straightforward 4–3 is sounded in bar 8, the top voice, of course, supplies the fifth of
the chord.
Bar 9 illustrates how effectively the 9–8 and 4–3 suspensions can be combined.
Exercise 18. In the pedals, play the KM adding a fifth bar to end on the tonic;
above this, improvise lines which include some 9 – 8 appoggiaturas in the second
and third bars, and a 9 – 8 suspension in the fourth bas. Work through different
keys, and, when fluent, mix and match with 4 – 3 and 7 – 6 patterns.
19. The ‘six-five’ dissonance. It may seem slightly paradoxical that, although both
the fifth and the sixth are consonant, the two together should form one of the most
standard dissonances. However, this is in fact the case, as shown in bar 3 of Example
19 (at *). [The figures below the bass line represent the intervals – which might be
compound intervals – above the bass note.] Here, there is both a sixth (in the right
hand) and fifth (in the left hand). Technically, the D is the dissonant note here, and,
like a dominant seventh, it resolves downwards in the next bar, onto the leading note
29
within the dominant chord. This type of ‘six-five’ chord in preparation for the
dominant is almost a harmonic cliché. It is usually treated as a suspension.
Example 19. The ‘six-five dissonance’.
It is also possible to place this type of six-five chord above the second note of the key
motif, where, making a semitone clash, it is even more expressive. Incidentally, the
leaps in similar motion down to the start of bars 2 and 3 work satisfactorily here
because the interval formed between the outer voices is a sixth. The second phrase –
extended to finish on the tonic – is a variation of the first. The placing of the upper
voices has been swapped in bar 6. In bar 7, the sharpened form of the bass has been
incorporated and the texture enriched to four voices. In place of the G sharp, the
‘alto’ could take B flat in this bar (and the next). Compare these two different
chromatic alternatives. Notice the decorated resolution of the 4–3 suspension in bar
9.
[Technically, the dissonance in bars 3 and 7 are supertonic sevenths, which nearly
always precede the dominant, and should be learned thoroughly. The supertonic
seventh is a frequently chromaticised chord, as demonstrated by the G sharp / B flat
alternatives discussed above.]
Exercise 19: Starting just with dotted minims, play the KM in the pedals, adding
a fifth bar to end on the tonic, and combine with the sustained counterpoint in
the LH. The pitch above the third note of the KM will be the Key note itself
[tonic] which, of course, falls by step in the next bar. Repeat this phrase,
inventing a melody line which adds a sixth above the third note (see bar 3 in
Example 19). Make sure this supertonic seventh is thoroughly learned by
repeating through all keys.
Next, still focussing just on the third bar of the KM, ring the changes, either by
sharpening the third note of the KM, or by adding a fourth voice, which includes
the third above this bass note (which will be B in D Major) or by flattening this
note (to B flat).
Only when the above has been completely integrated, start experimenting with
the 6/5 chord on the second note of the KM; finally, combine the two 6/5 chords
in sequence.
30
20. The ‘six-four’ chord. This very common dissonance is best thought of as a type
of ‘double appoggiatura’ – combining a sixth above the bass and a fourth above the
bass (either interval or both may be compound intervals above the bass). The six-four
can occur on any note of the Key Motif, except the third (which is the fourth step of
the scale). It is probably best to practise this dissonance as a type of lilting ‘double
mordent’ in the middle of the bar, as shown in Example 20a bars 1–2. Here, the two
upper notes of the basic triad step up and then back down in similar motion; they will
move in thirds (shown in bar 1) or sixths (bar 2). Next, practise placing the six-four
on the first beat of the bar, as in bars 5, 6, 8 and 9 (in reality this density of six-four
chords would probably be regarded as excessive). As with the mordent, the sixth
above the bass steps down to the fifth above the bass, and the fourth above the bass
steps down to the third above the bass. [This is sometimes referred to as a six-four –
five-three progression.]
Because the six-four cannot occur (or at least is very rare) above the fourth step of the
scale, this would be a good place to practise the various chromatically altered versions
of the six-five chord – either a sharpened bass note or a flattened fifth – illustrated at *
in bars 3 and 7.
Example 20a. The ‘six-four’ chord.
The six-four chord is particularly important above the dominant, as in bar 8, where it
is known as a cadential six-four [it forms part of an imperfect cadence or, as here,
leads to a perfect cadence]. The two standard melody lines are illustrated in example
20b. Here, the two statements of the Key Motif have been ‘elided’ to produce just
eight bars: in effect, the first bar of the second statement of the Key Motif has been
omitted and a final tonic chord added. The spacing of the six-four chords (bar 4, right
hand, and bar 7 both voices) should be learned carefully. Notice again, how both
notes step downwards, though various ‘decorations’ with chromatic passing notes and
dominant sevenths are possible. Where a fourth voice is added, this invariably
reinforces the bass note, which is dominant (see ‘alto’ voice of bar 7). The cadential
six-four is particularly important for confirming the key, and for establishing the
conclusion of a phrase. The chord before the six-four chord is usually the supertonic,
but without a seventh.
31
Example 20b. The ‘six-four – five-three’ progression.
Exercise 20: (Optional preliminary: play C on the pedals and complete a simple
triad, with E and G above. Next, move the upper two notes up and down by step
in crotchets, like ‘double mordents’. Repeat, but with E as the higher note.
Vary by selecting other bass notes and by varying the rhythm.)
Play the KM in the pedals, decorating the first, second and fourth notes with
‘double mordents’ to produce 6/4 chords. Vary the rhythm, with the mordent
motif in crotchets then quavers. Repeat with the 6/4 chord on the first beat of
the bar, resolving on the second or third.
Practise the 6/4 – 5/3 progression above the dominant note, leading to a tonic
chord in the following bar. In this instance, always put the 6/4 chord on the
strong beat.
21. Summary of available melodic notes.
To summarise this chapter, Example 21 shows the range of melodic notes available
over each of the Key Notes. In addition to the possibilities already listed in Example
13e and the dissonances introduced in sections 16–20, two ‘new’ chromatic passing
notes have been introduced: a G sharp in bar 1, and a D sharp in bar four; both these
should rise by step in the next chord. The two chromatic passing notes marked * in
bars 2 and 3 have already been introduced, and usually resolve up and down
respectively. The dissonances marked 4, 7 and 9 above the bass can be incorporated
as appoggiaturas, or, if possible, tied through from the previous bar as suspensions; in
all cases they should then resolve downwards by step. Remember that the fourth
above the third main note (B above F) is augmented, and so needs to be treated with a
little care.
Example 21. Possible melody notes over the Key Motif.
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The final tonic chord can be decorated with a fourth or a ninth (or, indeed, both
simultaneously in three or more parts) but the seventh is less likely here as it would
imply an unlikely change of key.
When adding a third voice with seventh, ninth and six-five chords, the third is usually
added. With a fourth, the fifth is usually added (avoid fourth as well as a third).
Double the bass note in a six-four chord.
The main insight to be drawn from Example 21 is that, over the second, third and
fourth bars of the Key Motif, almost any note of the scale is possible, so the performer
can proceed with some confidence that they will, almost inevitably, strike the right
key.
Exercise 21: Over the KM in the pedals, which can itself be varied, improvise a
33 bar piece (ie. 8 four-bar statements of KM, followed by the tonic chord). The
suggested variation technique can apply to one or more bars in the phrase.
Variation 1: melody in RH, with sustained counterpoint in LH.

Variation 2: 7 – 6 appoggiatura(s) above the KM.
Variation 3: 7 – 6 suspension(s) above the KM.
Variation 4: 4 – 3 appoggiatura(s).
Variation 5: 9 – 8 appoggiatura(s).
Variation 6: 6/5 dissonance(s) above the second and/or third main notes of the
KM.
Variation 7: 6/4 dissonance(s) above the first, second or fourth notes.
Variation 8: combine some of the above dissonances in a final variation.
End on tonic chord.
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Chapter 4
Minor Variations and Reflections
22. The Key Motif in the minor mode. So far all the versions of the Key Motif
have been in major keys. We now come to the fairly simple task of producing a
minor variant. Starting with A Minor the main notes will be a – F – d – E. Although
we are just dealing with a bass line here, remember, for the purpose of creating
arpeggiations, that lower case letters refer to minor chords, and upper case to major.
So the chords will be A minor – F major and so on. Example 22a shows a simple case.
Here, in bar 2 the main note (F) is preceded by an arpeggiated note (A) of the chord.
The A – G sharp – A pattern helps reinforce the sense of A minor.
Example 22a. A variant of the main motif in A minor.
Remember that each key signature will correspond to both a major key and a minor
key. These are said to be relative major/relative minor keys. So C major is the
relative major of a minor, and so on.
The seventh step [leading note] of the scale in A minor is G sharp. There are two
things to remember here – obviously remember to sharpen the G, but also take care to
avoid a possible augmented interval between F and G sharp. If you are moving
upwards by step to the G sharp, use the melodic form of the minor scale, as shown in
Example 22b (at *), then, usually continue on to the key note at the top of the scale.
Example 22b shows the Key Motif (four bars) being rounded off by the tonic note or
chord. Notice how, in the second bar, passing notes are created from the descending
melodic minor scale and that the main note (F) is approached from an arppeggiated
note (A; the G and E in this bar are the passing notes).
Example 22b. The leading note approached using the melodic minor form of the
scale.
We shall need to return to the question of the leading note. In practice, when playing
the leading note, the general advice will be to approach it from above (that is, by
stepping or leaping downwards to the leading note).
But there is a further point: you can also use the ‘modal’ form of the seventh step,
which in A minor would be G natural. The implied chord progression would now be
a – F – d – e. This will produce an interesting an slightly archaic sound, and can also
be useful for suggesting, or indeed avoiding a change of key. If you are trying to keep
things simple, it is probably best to invent melodies which do not incorporate the
34
leading note.
Exercise 22: Invent six minor-key variants of the Key Motif. Take care to use
the melodic minor form of the scale, when approaching the leading note in a
scalic context.
23. Reharmonising the penultimate note of the Key Motif. Increasingly, the Key
Motif will be placed in any voice part (pedals, LH or RH). We need to think in more
detail about harmonising the penultimate note of the Key Motif, which is the fourth
step of the scale. From the various chords discussed previously, it will be realised
that this note (and the supertonic chord it often represents) will be the most frequently
varied, particularly by chromatic inflexion. However, it is also possible to change the
implied chord here, quite significantly.
The possibilities are partly dependant upon the note after the fourth step of the scale.
In the original Key Motif, this note ascended by step, however, it is also possible for it
to fall by step. Thus, for practical purposes, there are four main variants: two in the
melody, with the fourth step of the scale (F in C major) rising or falling; and two in
the bass, with the fourth step rising or falling. Amongst these alternatives are even
further variations, some of which are shown with straightforward harmonisations in
Example 23a.
Example 23a: The final two notes of the Key Motif in melody (i – iii) and bass (iv –
vi).
(i) shows the rising fourth step treated rather conventionally as part of an imperfect
cadence. In this case, the second chord is the dominant (a chord of G, in C major).
(ii) Alternatively we can harmonise the fourth step of the scale in the melody (or other
upper-voice part) as the dominant seventh. In this case, it usually falls by step (as do
sevenths generally), so, strictly speaking, the Key Motif needs to fall instead of rise
here. However, if another voice supplies the third of the tonic chord – as here in the
‘alto’ part – then the melody is free to rise (as in the original Key Motif).
(iii) Here the fourth degree of the scale is treated as the dominant seventh (falling
‘correctly’) with the most probable bass line.
(iv) This is the standard treatment of the fourth degree of the scale in the bass which
has been discussed extensively above.
35
(v) In the bass voice, where the fourth step of the scale is treated as the dominant
seventh, it gives us a particularly interesting chord – the dominant seventh in last
inversion. The bass nearly always resolves down by step, and later we will consider
some interesting modulations at this point.
(vi) shows two interesting related possibilities. The same F – E motif from (v) is
found in the bass, and this could be considered a possibility in a C major context. Or
this example could be thought of as being in A minor, in which case the melody D – E
contains the rising fourth step of the scale. In the minor key, this rising fourth can be
treated as a so-called Phrygian cadence, which again helps establish the dominant
chord, and can be exploited to create modulations.
Example 23b shows the same progressions but now dressed up in more nineteenth-
century garb, with mordents, chromatic passing notes and suspensions. Obviously
these snippets assume that the relevant bars are approached with the Key Motif varied
in the melody (i – iii) or bass (iv – v) and melody or bass (depending on key) (vi) in an
appropriate style.
Example 23b: Various decorations of the progressions shown in Example 23a.
Exercise 23: this exercise is based on just two notes: the fourth note of the scale
resolving downwards (4th–3rd); harmonise this as the dominant seventh, first in
the melody and then in the bass. See Example 23a(iii) and (v) and Example
23b(iii) and (v) for guidance. Repeat through several major and minor keys
until this important progression is thoroughly internalised.
Practise the Phyrgian cadence (see examples 23a(vi) and 23b(vi)) in all minor
keys (this progression is only available in minor keys). The bass steps down 6th–
5th step of the scale, the melody rises 4th–5th, which can be ‘decorated’ with a
chromatic passing note.
36
Practise harmonising the fourth step of the scale rising (4th–5th) in both melody
and bass. Finally, mix and match the various treatments of the 4th step of the
scale as discussed in this section.
24. Two useful bass lines. Most of the suggestions in chapters 2 and 3 were for
melodies invented above the Key Motif; (with luck and planning, some possibilities
might work below as well). So, before we go any further, here are a couple of useful
bass lines which work effectively against the Key Motif in the melody (Example 24a).
You may notice that the Key Motif is a four-bar phrase ending on the fifth step of the
scale [the dominant]. To complete the Key Motif we have had to add a tonic chord at
the end and thus extend it to a five-bar phrase. Personally, if I had just improvised a
fugue in three independent parts, I would not be particularly concerned about the odd
five-bar phrase, but most discussions of improvisation are most insistent here: four
bars good, five bars bad. So, rather than thinking of these as completely new entities,
it may help to think of them harmonically as the Key Motif, with the second bar
‘missing’, [thus, in technical terms, the second bar becomes the pre-dominant chord
and the third bar the dominant chord – one bar earlier than in the original
harmonisation of the Key Motif]. This means, for example, that all the chromatic
possibilities originally applicable to bar 3 (such as the chromatic passing note) can
now in addition be applied to bar 2. Similarly, the sustained counterpoint now lasts
just two bars before resolving down to the leading note (in bar 3). Compare the
middle voice here with the sustained counterpoint shown in Example 8b.
Example 24a: Two new bass lines: “Bells” and “Standard Cadence”
The two bass lines can be referred to as the ‘Bells’ (it sounds like a peal of bells) and
‘Standard Cadence’ (a very stock cadence line). You will notice, of course, that the
Key Motif fits above these bass lines quite happily, with the melody stepping upwards
at the end (where another voice supplies the third of the chord) or resolving
downwards. The sustained counterpoint, ‘Sust’, also works well here, but is now just
held on for two bars before resolving (compare with Example 9). These possibilities
are further illustrated in Example 24b. Notice how the ‘sighing’ melody line produces
a particularly plaintive affect.
37
Example 24b: ‘New’ bass lines, with Key Motif varied in melody.
It might also be noted that the second statement of the Key Motif (bar 5) includes with
a doubled third (G in bass and middle voice) which, while technically questionable, is
probably acceptable in improvisation.
The most important message of section 24 is that the final two notes of the Key Motif
can be harmonised in many different ways. An awareness of this variety becomes
particularly useful when we consider ways of joining two or more statements of the
Key Motif together. The Key Motif as originally considered in Example 1 is open-
ended, in that it ends on a dominant chord. These new bass lines enable the Key
Motif to be harmonised as a closed four-bar phrase.
Exercise 24: (Optional: practise the bass line of the ‘Bells’ and ‘Standard
Cadence’ through all keys on the pedals.)
Practise harmonising the KM in one upper voice over the ‘Bells’ or ‘Standard
Cadence’, and repeat adding a counter-melody in the other upper voice.
25. The interrupted cadence. As seen in section 24, the Key Motif can be treated
as a ‘closed’ four-bar phrase by harmonising the final two chords dominant–tonic.
While this has some clear advantages (the piece can be finished!) it may also result in
rather short-breathed phrases. A possible alternative harmonisation for the last two
notes of the Key Motif is the interrupted cadence. Here the bass, instead of leaping
dominant–tonic, simply steps up, dominant–submediant. It is important to stress that
this progression is only possible where the dominant seventh (the penultimate note of
the Key Motif) falls by step, as discussed in section 23.
Example 25a, in G major, shows two harmonisations of the Key Motif. The first, in
the melody, is accompanied by a version of the Bells bass line in which the final note
rises by step (*). This produces an interrupted cadence. Notice how the Key Motif
falls by step at this point. In bars 5–8 the Key Motif is lightly varied in the left-hand
part, while the pedals add the Standard Cadence line; the right hand plays a simple
counterpoint.
38
Example 25a: The final note of the Key Motif harmonised with an interrupted
cadence(*).
The interrupted cadence can be varied in several ways, of which five are illustrated in
Example 25b (these extracts presuppose a similar context to bars 3–4 in Example
25a). [Where a fourth voice is shown (in small notes) this indicates the most likely
note to double at the cadence, which is a particularly troublesome location for
consecutives. Maintaining a three-note texture helps here, especially where the
dominant seventh resolves down to the fifth of the submediant chord.]
Example 25b: Variations on the interrupted cadence.
In cadence (i) the dominant seventh is held over as a suspension to produce a very
poignant ‘sigh’ in bar 2.
In cadence (ii) a six-four chord, with two appoggiaturas is created over the
submediant note [E].
A 4–3 suspension has been included in cadence (iii), and a 9 – 8 suspension in

cadence (iv).
In (v) a chromatic passing note has been introduced between the dominant and
submediant notes. This can be incorporated along with the various melodic
dissonances shown in Examples (i)–(iv), (though avoid the lower mordent in the bass
at this point).
Each of these ‘decorations’ has its own peculiarly expressive quality and can be
incorporated to ‘ring the changes’ at the cadence points. It is worth learning the
specific possibilities carefully, to avoid accidentally creating consecutives. This type
of progression (dominant–submediant in bass) can also be incorporated apart from
39
cadences; here it will be called the ‘interrupted progression’. Apart from bringing
variety to the harmony, the interrupted cadence and interrupted progression are very
useful for instigating key changes. Very frequently, a piece will draw to a close with
two nearly identical phrases, the first ending on an interrupted cadence and the second
completing the piece with a perfect (dominant–tonic) cadence.
The interrupted cadence in the minor key is very effective, but requires particular
care. [To avoid augmented intervals and consecutives.] Example 25c shows a
version of Example 25a, but now in G minor. The submediant chord in minor keys is
a major chord (E flat major in a G minor context).
The various decorations illustrated in Example 25b do not work so effectively in the
minor key, and are best avoided. However, there are a couple of other possibilities for
the minor key which can be mentioned here. The A in bar 6 (*) can be flattened to
produce a major chord at this point. [The resultant chord is known as the Neapolitan
sixth.] The third in the final chord (*) has been raised from B flat to B natural to
make a major chord. [This is called a Tierce de Picardy.]
Example 25c. The interrupted cadence in G minor.
Exercise 25c: Practise the interrupted cadence and ‘interrupted progression’ in

all major and minor keys. In minor keys, be particularly careful to avoid
augmented intervals. [In four-part harmony, the general rule is ‘double the
third of chord VI in an interrupted cadence.]
Practise harmonising the KM (in melody) ending with an interrupted cadence.
In minor keys, practise ending on a Tierce de Picardy (major final tonic chord)
and also incorporate the Neapolitan sixth.
26. Joining statements of the Key Motif. Section 6 concluded by joining six
variations of the Key Motif, but here we are joining two versions which are the same,
or which move in sequence. Although this seems a very simple challenge, it is
actually almost more of a challenge to repeat a phrase than to vary it – you have to
remember exactly what you played and how you played it, including the articulation.
The first task is to play two identical statements of the Key Motif (or a variation of it)
on the pedals. When you can easily repeat a variation on the pedals, follow this by
repeating the statement an octave higher in the left hand, and then either at this pitch
or an octave higher again in the right hand. A simple example is shown in Example
26a.
40
Example 26a. A Variant of the Key Motif transposed through three octaves.
Exercise 26: Play a variation of the Key Motif on the pedals, repeat an octave
higher (or even two octaves higher if preferred) in the LH and then at this pitch
or an octave higher still in the RH. Repeat with different variations, and in
different keys. When this process is fluent add the Bells bass line to the LH, then
the Standard Cadence together with the Sustained Counterpoint to the RH.
(Remember that in this context, the sustained note lasts for two bars and then
resolves down to the leading note; see Example 24b). To make the melody sound
more conclusive, in some variations resolve the penultimate note downwards in
bars 7–8 and 11–12 in the LH and RH versions respectively. To introduce
further variety, end the second phrase (bar 8) with the interrupted cadence
(melody note must resolve down here and texture filled out to three-parts). Vary
this cadence as illustrated in Example 25b. If all this seems rather involved for
just 12 bars, an outline of a possible variation in D flat major is shown in
Example 26b.
Example 26b. Outline for a 12 bar variation on the Key Motif (KM).
27. Joining statements of the Key Motif in sequence. Next we join two versions of
the Key Motif in sequence. First, we will go from major to relative minor. Starting in
C major, play a variation of the Key Motif and follow it by the same melodic outline,
but ‘transposed’ down into A minor. Note that we are not talking about exact
transposition, but simply broadly the same melody played a third lower. To help
identify this process, it could be called -3 (three notes down); see Example 27a, pedal
part, bars 1–4 and 7–8.
41
We now begin to see some of the ‘magical properties’ of the Key Motif. The Key
Motif ends on the fifth step of the scale (the dominant); when it is continued in
sequence a third down, the next bar begins on the sixth step of the scale. This is
melodically very convenient: usually, you just step up one pitch and start the key
motif again. Occasionally, if you have employed an octave leap in varying the Key
Motif, you will need to balance with another octave leap on the dominant note, to join
with the next statement of the Key Motif. Harmonically, in addition, the juncture can
be treated as an interrupted progression (bars 4–5). The chromatic passing note
‘nudges’ the harmony in the direction of the relative minor.
Example 27a. Three statements of the Key Motif on the pedals in sequence.
Now the same process can be continued in sequence down another third (-3), which
luckily completes the piece on the tonic in bar 12. Notice that, in this third statement,
(pedals bars 9–12) the penultimate note is already ‘sharpened’ to provide the correct
leading note, so we now have a ‘closed’ 12 bar piece. You will note that, also
fortunately, the starting notes for the three statements of the Key Motif happen to be
the first three main notes of the Key Motif itself (eg. In Example 27a, B – G sharp –
E).
Hopefully, by this stage, you will be able to improvise some interesting counter
melodies above the three statements of the Key Motif in the bass line. It is important
to remember that most of your ‘audience’ will hear the melody as the ‘important line’;
the Key Motif has slipped into the background and merely acts as a sort of scaffolding
for your melodic inspiration. Trying to maintain some consistency in the figuration
will suggest a sense of unity. Perhaps above the KM variation of Example 27a, the
melody could incorporate some mordent figures to balance those in the pedals. Also
it is useful to remember that the melody can itself be repeated in sequence: this will
lend a sense of direction and structure to the music (features which can easily be
lacking in improvisation). Obviously, an effective melody in the first phrase should
also fit against the second phrase, but a third lower. Remember, on the other hand,
sequence is not a technique which should be overused: perhaps invent a distinctive
melody for the third phrase.
The ‘melody’ lines in Example 27a are probably not interesting enough to past
muster. However, Example 27a does illustrate some useful – if relatively static –
textural fillers. The LH bars 5–8 plays the sustained counterpoint (it starts on G
sharp, to fit with the second statement of the Key Motif). This could be repeated in
bars 9–12 (and nearly is). Meanwhile the RH part plays a repeated pattern of four
bars [this is called an ostinato]. These fillers will not work against every possible
42
variation of the Key Motif, but they are handy when craftsmanship has to take
precedence over inspiration.
Of course, a 12 bar piece is in some respects unsatisfactory: it really needs to be

extended to 16 bars. Here, the simplest solution is to add an additional four bars,
comprising the Key Motif in the RH over the standard cadence pattern in the pedals.
Remember, of course, to allow the final fourth step of the scale to resolve downwards
to the third of the tonic chord.
Exercise 27: Take a few moments to plan a 16 bar improvisation in a major key
based on the Key Motif in Sequence. The following is a suggested plan.
Phrase 1: Key Motif in pedals, decorated with mordents. In the melody (RH)
introduce a 7–6 mordent figure in bar 2, and a cadential 6-4 pattern in bar 4. The LH
perhaps plays the sustained counterpoint.
Phrase 2: Key Motif in pedals, now transposed down a third. This four-bar phrase is
basically the same as the first, but transposed down (-3) and freely adapted to the
relative minor.
Phrase 3: Key Motif in pedals, now transposed down by another third. Instead of
repeating the previous melodic material in sequence, perhaps develop some ideas
further, for example, by replacing the 7–6 pattern, with a 9–8 or 4–3 dissonance.
Alternatively introduce a new melodic variant at this point. This phrase ends on the
tonic chord; avoid making it sound too final by, for example, placing the fifth of the
chord in the top voice, by introducing suspensions in the upper voices or by
connecting this to the next phrase with passing notes.
Phrase 4: Phrase 3 ends on the tonic. Now, also in the tonic, play the Standard
Cadence line in the pedals, with the RH playing the Key Motif (in the varied version
from the pedals in bars 1–4, but at a higher octave). Remember to resolve the final
melody note downwards so that it plays the third of the tonic chord (in the pedal
version it stepped upwards). Decorate with suspensions or chromatic notes in the LH.
Example 27b suggests a possible realisation of the above scheme, some features of
which have been annotated. Additional points of interest here are, first, the falling
sixth melodic motif (bars 10 and 11) which then steps down, this is an expressive
gesture much used by composers of the eighteenth century; second, the 4–3
appoggiatura in bar 14, which, while requiring careful handling (because it forms an
augmented fourth above the bass) can be effective; and third, the final cadence which
is decorated with a 7–8 pattern, this is usually (as here) combined with a 4–3
suspension.
43
Example 27b. A 16 bar improvisation based on the Key Motif in Sequence.
This plan can easily be adapted to start in a minor key. The second statement of the
Key Motif also start down -3 (ie not in the relative major). So from A minor, the
three statements of the Key Motif in the pedals will start on A, F and D, while the
fourth, in the RH will start again on A, with the last melody note resolving down.
Consolidation Exercise: Practise Exercise 27 in various keys each with a

different variation on Key Motif. Repeat, this time starting in a minor key and
including minor-key specific variants, such as ending on a Tierce de Picardy (a major
chord at the end, see Example 25c). When this is fluent, plan a more extensive
improvisation in ternary form (A – B – A) as follows:
First section: 16 bars in the major key (eg G major) based on Exercise 27. Second
section: 16 bars in the tonic minor (eg G minor) based on Exercise 27; end with a
Tierce de Picardy. The bass line for this section, can either be the Key Motif as
varied in section 1, but adapted to the minor key, or a new variation on the Key Motif.
Third section: 16 bars, repeating as closely as possible what you played for section 1.
If you find it easy to recall what you played earlier, then add further variations to the
material.
We now need to leave the much-explored, varied and decorated Key Motif, and turn
instead to other chord progressions. We will catch up with the Key Motif in the Third
Part of this guide, dealing more specifically with fugue, counterpoint and canon.
44
Chapter 5
Sequences and Digressions
28. The Romanesca Bass. While I was contemplating ‘how to improvise’ and
developing the concept of the Key Motive, I came across a particularly illuminating
book: The Galant Style by Prof. Gjerdingen. Prof. Gjerdingen’s work is at times quite
complex, but, to greatly simplify, the book explores some of the harmonic formulas
used to teach composition in the mid-eighteenth century and beyond. Budding
composers – and cultivated amateurs – were expected to learn a series of ‘templates’
or ‘schemata’, in effect, standardised bass lines, together with their implied
harmonies, and sometimes also an associated melody line. Working with such stock
phrases, composers were able to write fluently and skilfully in the accepted Galant
idiom.
Prof. Gjerdingen specifically compares these musical phrases with the type of
improvised dialogue routines for which ‘Commedia del Arte’ acting troupes were
famous. No doubt musicians also improvised around standardised schemata and some
of these formulas could prove extremely useful for improvisation. Several of the bass
lines went by recognised names – many of which originated in the late Renaissance –
to others, Prof. Gjerdingen assigns new names. For example, our Key Motif is related
to the ‘extended cadence’, or, with the sharpened third note, to the ‘Jommelli’. We
will consider three other ‘schemata’ here: the Romanesca, the Fonte and the Monte.
The Romanesca Bass line was already well known in the sixteenth century, and used
as the basis for improvised vocal variations (Greensleeves is probably the best known
tune partly based on the Romanesca). The original Romanesca bass was typically an
eight-bar pattern as shown in Example 28a, but we are just concerned just with its
characteristic four-note opening (the second four-bar phrase is clearly derived from
the first).
Example 28a. The Romanesca Bass line.
In terms of tonal harmony this tune begins in B flat major and ends in G minor –
which could make a useful modulatory ploy – but we are going to consider just the
first four notes from the point of view of B flat major. It is assumed that the reader
has worked through Part A of this guide, and will be able to improvise the types of
‘decorations’ – appoggiaturas, suspensions, passing notes and chromatic passing notes
– discussed.
The chording of the first three notes is fairly obvious – equivalent to the first, fourth
and second notes of the Key Motif – B flat major, F major (with optional seventh) and
G minor (F to G forms a sort of ‘interrupted progression’). Needless to say, all the
melodic and harmonic variants considered in section 25 (the interrupted cadence) can
be explored here.
45
The fourth harmony is more intriguing. This could be, for example, B flat major (in
first inversion), D minor or, most likely D major. If the last, then the whole
progression works rather effectively in sequence. Example 28b suggests some
possibilities. The familiar sound of these variations reflects the popularity of the
Romanesca, and perhaps also Pachelbel’s canon, the bass of which shares its first four
notes.
Example 28b. Variations on the first four notes of the Romanesca.
The possibilities here are limitless. (i) shows, in semibreves a very standard melody
line; the smaller notes suggest a variation on this. Because the bass line leaps down to
bar 2, the melody often rises in the second bar. The LH introduces the dominant
seventh in the middle of bar 2, and a 4–3 suspension in the D major chord.
(ii) shows a very standard sequence of suspensions in the melody part – joining a 4–3
suspension over the F to a 9–8 over the G; both are very standard dissonances, and
should be learned in this context. A possible four-part elaboration of this passage is
given in (iii). With this level of dissonance, the sevenths in bars 2 and 4 of (iii) can be
sounded on the main beat.
The variation in (iv) maintains a steadier crotchet [quarter note] pulse. In all these
examples, a chromatic passing note, F sharp, is possible between the bass notes F–G.
While the most likely harmonies are shown in Example 28b, it is also possible to
change the chords implied by the bass notes. In Example 28c the first chord has
become G minor, the third E flat major (momentarily: the E flat is a standard
‘decoration’ for this interrupted progression), while the final chord is B flat major.
This basic progression is further elaborated by various mordent figures.
46
Example 28c. Alternative chords for the Romanesca bass.
These four bass notes are ‘open ended’, in the sense that they do not end on the tonic
chord. A possible continuation could be called ‘the descending cadence’; three
versions are shown in Example 28d. The first is simply four descending steps to end
on the tonic, the last two notes form a final cadence; the second is a variant of this,
with a slightly more emphatic cadence; the third, however, ends on a dominant chord,
and so, forming a half-close, is again open ended. Notice the sustained counterpoint
against this.
Example 28d. The descending cadence.
Example 28e illustrates how the Romanesca can lead into the descending cadence,
with two contrasting variations.
Example 28e. The Romanesca bass, with ‘descending cadence’, in two variations.
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These two variations illustrate the contrast possible over a similar bass line. The
‘descending cadence’ bass line (bars 5–8) is, at its simplest, a scale stepping down
through four notes to the tonic (E flat – D – D – B flat). In slightly more elaborated
form, the penultimate note leaps up to the dominant, as shown in minims, bar 7. The
‘descending cadence’ bass line is connected to the end of the Romanesca (in bars 4–5)
via an ‘interrupted progression’; notice how the third of the E flat chord is doubled by
both LH and RH parts. In bars 1–8 the harmony is presented very simply in three
voices. The only ‘decorations’ included in this version are a 9–8 suspension above
the bass in bar 3, and a balancing seventh suspension over the bass note in bar 7.
(This ‘works’ whichever bass line is preferred.)
The second variation is more elaborate, and shows that even an essentially
seventeenth-century bass line can be dressed up in nineteenth-century attire. The only
adjustment to the bass line is a chromatic passing note (bar 10). To balance this,
several chromatic passing notes and lower chromatic mordents have been included in
the upper voices. In addition, the variation is coloured by a series of appoggiaturas.
For example, in bar 11, the ninth over the bass has been included as an appoggiatura
instead of suspension. In bar 13 (LH), a very expressive appoggiatura has been added
above the E flat (indicated as ‘7’). This is an additional way of elaborating the
interrupted progression in a minor key (effectively G minor at this point) and can be
usefully learned. In bar 14, as well as the 4–3 appoggiatura in the LH, the RH plays a
minor ninth above the bass, which has a particularly anguished sound. Incidentally,
the descending cadence is ‘closed’ since it finishes on the tonic. However, an open
version can easily be generated by changing the final note to F, the dominant, in
which case the penultimate bar will takes C minor [supertonic] harmony, rather than
dominant.
There is an interesting challenge in the middle of this bass line: the rather static
pattern D – E flat – D in bars 4–6. The harmonies should be varied here, without
stretching the bounds of probability. The E flat can be thought of in B flat major, as
the fourth step of the scale falling, or in G minor, as part of a Phrygian cadence (see
discussed in Section 23). It is worth noting that the D – E flat – D motif can be
incorporated throughout the phrase imitatively (Example 28f(iv)) to suggest a quasi-
polyphonic style.
Example 28f (i) considers the three pitches in G minor, with a very standard Phrygian
cadence. This can be incorporated into the whole passage as shown in (iv, bar 4); the
following C minor chord (in the seventh bar) works satisfactorily if approached via
the outer voices moving in contrary motion. (ii) is in the major key, first leaning
towards E flat major but then re-establishing B flat major in the following bar. This is
the standard voicing for the falling fourth step of the scale (in the bass). (iii) shows a
more chromatic solution, passing through C minor and to G minor. These solutions
are worth learning to help harmonise this type of rather static bass
line.
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Example 28f. Possible harmonisations of the D – E flat – D Motif.
Exercise 28: (Optional: revise the interrupted cadence and progression plus the
various decorative possibilities shown in Example 25b. In minor keys practise
incorporating the type of 7–6 suspension shown in Example 28f(i)).
Practise the various harmonisations for the D – E flat – D motif (or the equivalent in
other keys) shown in Example 28e.
Practise the descending cadence ending first on the tonic (eg, in C major F – E – D –
C (where the D will take dominant harmony)) and dominant (eg in C major F – E – D
– G (where the D will take supertonic harmony)).
Play the Romanesca bass (four notes) followed by the descending cadence ending on
either a full close (tonic chord) or half close (dominant chord) (total 8 bars), and then
transpose to various keys. When fluent, practise, in two or three parts, the types of
variation shown in Example 28b. Finally, plan a set of four variations over this bass
line, characterised in turn by a melody in semibreves, a melody in minims,
suspensions and then chromatic notes.
29. The Fonte. Two of Prof Gjerdingen’s most intriguing progressions are the Fonte
(the Well) and the Monte (the Mountain), which are common enough sequences, and
it is very useful to be able to identify them by name.
At its simplest, the Fonte is the four-chord sequence shown at the start of Example
29a(i), which also illustrates some possible contexts for this progression.
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Example 29a. The Fonte and possible contexts in G major.
Here, the Fonte can be thought of as the fourth note of the scale falling, first in A
minor and then in G major, and harmonised as the dominant seventh. This
progression has already been introduced in section 23. For a more chromatic version,
the dominant sevenths could be replaced by diminished sevenths: place an F natural in
the LH of the first chord (resolving on E) and then, in sequence, an E flat in the next
bar (resolving on D). The Fonte frequently leads into an emphatic cadence at the end
of a section or at the end of a phrase. A possibility is shown in Example 29a(i), with a
seventh on the sharpened subdominant at the start of the third bar leading to a perfect
cadence. The C sharp alternative continues the rising semitone pattern in the bass
already established in the previous bars. It is important to remember that the
subdominant seventh (bar 3) resolves directly to the full dominant seventh (E to C
natural in the LH); a D here could result in consecutive fifths.
There are many variations on the Fonte. At (ii) the second half of bars 1 and 2
include 9–8 suspensions, which always work very effectively in this type of context.
The following chord (third bar) is a supertonic seventh, this time with a flattened fifth
– again an E natural would be possible instead here, or, alternatively, a C sharp in the
bass. This progression is further elaborated in (iii). Here the chords have each been
prolonged over a full bar. The RH part is in more idiomatic keyboard figuration, and
in bars 2 and 4, combines a 4–3 suspension with the 9–8 already mentioned.
(iv) gives a more extended context for the Fonte. Here passing notes have been
placed leading down to each successive ‘leading note’ (the G sharp and F sharp).
This creates a very powerful pedal line. However, a little care is needed here to avoid
consecutives, which is why the resolution of the suspension in the third bar is varied.
At the G sharp, the melody could rise to E; similarly, at the F sharp, the melody could
rise to D. This adjustment perhaps hints at the hymn tune, Angel Voices, the
penultimate line of which is based on the Fonte.
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In its original form, the Fonte comprises these particular chords (leading to supertonic
and tonic respectively) but it is quite easy to imagine similar sequences on other steps
of the scale. Example 29b shows possible chords leading to each step of the scale in
the bass.
Example 29b. The Fonte extended to all steps of the scale.
Some might find the abrupt chromaticism of bar 5 a little extreme, nevertheless
elements from this scale can be explored separately. (An alternative, though perhaps
even more extreme, would be to place a B flat in the melody and an E natural in the
bass at this point.) The variations – especially the 9–8 suspension, considered above –
can apply throughout the scale, and the bass line of Example 29a(iv) can be developed
further.
Although the Fonte originally worked through supertonic and tonic, in some ways it
can be more usefully adapted to lead to submediant and dominant – as will be
discovered, these pitches are generally easier to tie into a typical context. In the
minor key, it is relatively difficult to incorporate the Fonte. However, by exploiting
the flat supertonic (the Neapolitan step) it is possible to introduce the Fonte, again
leading to submediant and dominant, as shown in outline in Example 29c. This
progression is probably best approached from the sumediant chord (perhaps from an
interrupted cadence). Notice in the fourth bar an alternative bass note (shown as a
reduced note): the C natural here leads very easily into the standard cadence line.
[This C natural, together with the suspension in the ‘alto’ part, produces a very
expressive half-diminished seventh chord.]
Example 29c. Outline progression with the Fonte adapted to G minor.
Exercise 29: Practise the scale shown in Example 29b, transposing to six different
major keys. Repeat including 9–8 suspensions on each step (see Example 29a(ii)).
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Improvise four-bar phrases starting with the Fonte and leading to a perfect cadence
(see Example 29a (i) – (iii)). Devise some fragments with the Fonte at
submediant/dominant pitch leading to a perfect cadence (major and minor keys;
Example 29c can be referred to as a guide).
Improvise a 16 bar piece, starting with the Romanesca (4 bars), then descending
cadence (4 bars) followed by the Fonte (4 bars) and standard cadence (4 bars).
Use the same scheme as the basis for an improvisation in the minor key. Invent and
explore a simple motif (perhaps in ¾ time the lilting rhythm, crotchet, dotted crotchet,
quaver) throughout the piece. Example 29d gives some idea of the possibilities,
though in the major key. There are a few somewhat ungainly moments here, which
are probably passable in an improvisatory context. Notice the following points: a
prevailing motif used imitatively; the descending bass line which leads to a half close
(bass bars 5–8, ending on G); notice how this is connected the start of the Fonte bass
line at submediant pitch (bar 9) via a chromatic passing note. The Fonte itself takes a
varied melody line, and ends with the chromatically descending step (F natural
instead of G, bar 12) which then connects to the lightly varied standard cadence line at
the conclusion (bars 13–16).
Example 29d. Improvisation on the Romanesca and Fonte Bass lines.
30. The Monte. Whereas the Fonte is essentially a falling sequence, the Monte
(Mountain) is the reverse: a chromatically climbing sequence. The Fonte is ideally
suited to preparing for a cadence; the Monte is more developmental and tends to lead
forwards. The Monte is also particularly useful for increasing dramatic tension and
for preparing for a change of key. The Monte is probably easiest to introduce on
exactly the same steps as the Fonte (in reverse order, of course, as this climbs rather
than falls) dominant and then submediant, as shown in outline in Example 30a,
leading away from the first three steps of the Romanesca opening. As could be
52
predicted, each of the ‘dominant-tonic’ style progressions (shown bracketed) takes a

9–8 suspension, as does the interrupted progression of bars 2–3.
Example 30a. The Monte.
Unlike the fonte, the Monte cannot so easily be adapted to all steps of the scale, since
the chromatically rising bass line soon leads to rather extravagant modulations.
Example 30b shows how such a scale could be adapted with a ‘discontinuity’ in the
semitone pattern at * (where the accidentals shown in brackets could be omitted). In
addition, a final cadence passage has been added at the end of the scalic pattern. Of
course, this could be modified to include 9 – 8 suspensions in bars 2, 4, 6 etc; the
dominant seventh chords could be changed into diminished sevenths by adjusting the
tenor note up a semitone in bars 1, 3, etc. Alternatively, these chords could be
changed into half-diminished sevenths by moving the same notes up by a whole tone.
Example 30b. The Monte adapted to other steps of the scale.
31. Sequences. The developmental technique known as sequence is the repetition of

a musical phrase at a higher or lower pitch. Sequences are very useful in generating a
sense of organisation and structure within an improvisation, while also suggesting a
clear sense of direction. There are several types of sequence, some of which have
already been considered. The Romanesca bass line begins with two falling fourths (C
– G, A – E) which in itself forms a melodic sequence. Similarly, both the Fonte and
the Monte are in essence sequences. Usually in a sequence, both melody and
harmony are restated (higher or lower), but it could be just one or the other (for
example, a harmonic sequence, where each statement takes a different melody). If the
passage is exactly transposed this is called a real sequence; if the notes are adjusted to
the prevailing key, it is called a tonal sequence.
Some sequences are illustrated in Example 31a. These are all based on simple
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underlying harmonic progressions. Some are one-bar sequences, others two-bar

sequences. Sequences can also be constructed from complete four-bar phrases.
(i) shows the Fonte treated as a real sequence: the two bars can be thought of as in A
major and then G major, though the overall effect is to reinforce the tonic key.
(ii) Here, a rising chromatic line, also harmonised as a real sequence, helps to
generate tension, but such lines soon sound rather unsophisticated.
(iii) shows the start of the Romanesca treated as a harmonic and melodic sequence.
Even though most sequences move up or down by step, this is by no means essential,
and this particular sequence moves down a third.
The bass line and the melody line do not have to move by the same interval. In (iv)
the melody above the ‘Bells’ bass line moves down by step, though the bass line itself
moves down a fourth.
In (v) the melody moves down sequentially, though the accompaniment is not
sequential. Similarly in (vi), though here the melody moves down by a third. (vii)
illustrates a similar process, with the melody rising by a third.
Finally, the importance of direct repetition should not be overlooked. For example,
the melody of (vi) could be repeated but ending with a perfect cadence, to form the
conclusion of a movement.
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Example 31. Sequences constructed over basic harmonic progressions.
55
Chapter 6
Pedal Notes
32. The tonic pedal. A pedal note is, as its name implies, a sustained note held on
the pedals while the harmonies change above. There is a very standard opening
progression which makes use of the stabilizing effect of a tonic pedal note, as
illustrated in Example 32a, which shows a characteristic chord progression and, in
smaller notes, the underlying chords. The second chord here is the so-called
supertonic seventh (D–F–A–C in C major) with the seventh in the bass, which
resolves downwards in the next bar. This is a very standard eighteenth-century
opening gambit, and is a good way of establishing the home key, because the key note
sounds in the bass in bars 1, 2 and 4 (bars 1–2 can be tied through). We could call
this the ‘Vivaldi gambit’ after the composer who first popularised the progression.
Example 32a. The ‘Vivaldi gambit’.
There are several variants on this opening, which can usefully be practised in all keys.
These are shown chordally in Example 32b, though usually there is some decorative
figuration above the bass note; the progression is equally effective in minor keys. In
place of the dominant seventh of the third bar (i) shows a half-diminished seventh. In
(ii) this becomes a full diminished seventh. At (iii) the final chord becomes a
dominant seventh in last inversion (D flat in the bass; which must lead to C in the bass
of the next chord). Incidentally, this is the progression underlying the opening of
Handel’s Zadok the Priest. The supertonic seventh can itself be modified in the sort
of ways already considered in relation to the Key Motif: at (iv) the third of the chord
has been sharpened, while at (v) the fifth has been flattened. The final example shows
the progression in C minor. When practising these progressions working through
various keys, start with block chords, (though more widely spaced than in Example
32b) and then add increasingly elaborate figuration above in the melody line. For this
progression to be effective the bass line is usually quite static.
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Example 32b. Variations on the ‘Vivaldi gambit’.
One potential problem with this opening gambit is that it is very strongly ‘harmonic’,
and it is sometimes difficult to invent a convincing melody above. However, it might
be noted that the Key Motif works here – the second version of the sustained
accompaniment is now in the pedal part, as illustrated in Example 32c (the Key Motif
is shown in small notes in the Left Hand).
Example 32c. The Key Motif over the Vivaldi gambit.
The ‘Vivaldi gambit’ is, very specifically, an opening progression. However, a tonic
pedal can also be exploited at the end of a piece to draw it to an effective conclusion.
There is usually an emphatic cadence leading into the tonic pedal, and the pedal note
itself forms a type of ‘afterthought’. The tonic pedal is characterised by what could
be called ‘Plagal’ harmonies: chords leaning towards the subdominant (fourth step of
the scale) and, in particular, towards the minor subdominant triad. The ‘minor’
quality could also be reinforced by the diminished triad on the supertonic. In both
triads, the essential chromatic note is the flattened sixth step of the scale. The leading
note (the seventh step of the scale) is usually introduced only at the last moment.
Exmple 32c is a modified version of Example 32b, which can now function as a
concluding phrase.
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Example 32c. Tonic pedal note with minor subdominant inflections.
Example 32d is a more extended illustration of tonic pedal notes, beginning with the
Vivaldi gambit, and ending with a tonic pedal note. The middle bars are characterised
by what is called an inverted pedal note: this is a sustained note in an upper voice, or,
as here, in the middle of the texture. It is related to the sustained motif, but continued
more extensively, against changing harmonies. Notice the flat seventh (F natural) just
before the pedal note; this ‘nudge towards the subdominant’ (ie towards C major in a
G major context) is very characteristic of passages including tonic pedal notes.
Example 32d. Tonic pedal notes in a more extended context.
Exercise 32: Practise the ‘Vivaldi gambit’ as an opening phrase in various major and
minor keys, ringing the changes both by varying the precise chords (as in Example
32b) and by inventing different melodic figuration and/or melody lines. Include the
Key Motif in some variations. Practise a closing tonic pedal note, demonstrating the
‘nudge toward the subdominant’ and minor subdominant chording (In C major, this
will involve B flat – A flat and similar). Play minor variants of the Key Motif over a
tonic pedal (and ending on a major chord).
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33. The dominant pedal preparation. In most musical forms, the return of the
main theme is of vital structural importance. This is true even in small-scale pieces.
Thus the preparation for the return of the theme is itself a significant section.
Example 33 illustrates a characteristic dominant pedal note from a rather jolly organ
sonata. Notice the various features which contribute to the build up towards the
return of the first subject, at the a tempo marking. (The tune, incidentally, is built over
the ‘Vivaldi gambit’ discussed above.) Note first, the outward moving, partly
chromatic scales which lead into the pedal note and hint at both the subdominant
(with the G natural) and the dominant (D sharp). This particular scale pattern is worth
learning. Second, the descent into the main subject is actually via two descending
scale passages, reinforced with sixths and then triads. Third, throughout, one or other
voice is syncopated which adds to the sense of anticipation. Finally, the a motif from
the main theme is introduced in rising and then falling sequence, in an inner voice.
Although pedal notes are often most effective as here in a faster tempo, they can also
be adapted to slower tempi.
Example 33. Dominant pedal note leading into return of main subject.
Exercise 33: Transpose the harmonies of the first four bars of Example 33 into
various keys, also adapt them to various time signatures (in ¾ each chord probably
becomes a whole bar). Syncopate an inner part against the moving scalic lines.
Practise playing scales in thirds and sixths (descending and ascending) above a
dominant pedal note to arrive at an emphatic tonic chord. Vary the volume over the
pedal note with the swell pedal. Finally, improvise a short theme based on the
‘Vivaldi gambit’ (see section 32) and then practise leading back into this theme via a
dominant pedal note. End the piece over a tonic pedal note incorporating minor
‘plagal’ harmonies.
34. Extended dominant chords. In previous sections we have looked at the chord
on the fifth step of the scale – the dominant triad – and the dominant seventh. There
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is, in fact, a whole range of dominant-related chords, which can add colour to an
improvisation. Some of these are illustrated in Example 34a.
Example 34a. Extended dominant chords.
After the two standard chords (Examples i and ii), next is the so-called dominant
ninth, which can either be a major or minor ninth from the bass (iii and iv). The
dominant thirteenth is a nineteenth-century standard, which usually also includes the
third and seventh (v); a slightly less cloying version incorporates the ninth (vi). The
fifth of the dominant triad can be augmented (vii) – a feature that often results from a
chromatic passing note. This also sounds effective alongside the dominant seventh
(viii). In minor keys, only the dominant minor ninth is possible, as in (iv), while the
augmented fifth is not available (in C minor (viii) would effectively be the same as
the dominant thirteenth).
Example 34b shows some of these chords in a possible context. (i) illustrates the
standard dominant seventh; notice how the E flat is sustained through into the
dominant chord from an E flat chord. (ii) and (iii) show the dominant ninth and minor
ninth respectively. (iv) shows the dominant thirteenth in a very standard context. (v)
combines elements of the dominant ninth (major and minor) with the augmented fifth
(C sharp). Of course, the diminished seventh, should not be forgotten, as illustrated at
(vi) in a G minor context.
Example 34b. Some extended dominant chords in context.
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Very often this type of dominant chording is extended over several bars leading up to
a return of the main theme. A characteristic case is illustrated in Example 34c, with
the pedals outlining dominant ninth chording, and the main theme returning at the ‘a
tempo’. The syncopation in the previous two bars (in effect, forming one bar of 3/2)
is known as the hemiola rhythm.
Example 34c. Extended dominant chords leading into a recapitulation.
Exercise 34: Transpose the extended dominant chords from Example 34a into six
major keys. Similarly, practise those extended dominant chords available in the
minor key. Next, improvise a likely context for each chord. Build some of the chords
into longer phrases, and then improvise four-bar passages of dominant chording, as
though preparing for the return of a main theme. In these phrases, vary the voice
(pedal, LH, RH) which plays the arpeggiations. The return of a major-key theme is
often approached via the minor key; the dominant minor ninth is a useful chord for
achieving this effect. Improvise a theme in D major, and then practise leading into
the theme, first, with dominant-minor ninth chording (as though in D minor) and,
second, from a dominant pedal note. Repeat this exercise in other major keys.
Consolidation exercise: improvise a piece of approximately 32 bars worked out

mainly in four-bar phrases. Allow a few moments to plan the piece before you play;
the following scheme is a suggested outline, but can be interpreted with flexibility.
The simplest version of this piece might comprise arpeggiated chords (vary the
pattern for each phrase). A more elaborate version might incorporate more distinctive
melodic material, at least in the main phrase, which is then repeated as the fourth and
seventh phrases. If in triple time, incorporate the hemiola rhythm as an approach to
the final cadence.
(i) Start with a phrase based on the ‘Vivaldi’ gambit;

(ii) join this phrase to the next via the ‘Fonte’;
(iii) build the next four bars above a dominant pedal note;
(iv) repeat the opening chords on the submediant (sixth) step of the scale;
(v) join this phrase to the next via the ‘Monte’;
(vi) build the next four-bars from arpeggiated dominant (minor) ninth chords;
(vii) repeat the opening phrase and cadence into:
(viii) end over a tonic pedal with a ‘nudge’ towards the subdominant.
35. Closing motifs. One of the most effective ways of drawing a piece to a close is
by repeating a short cadential motif, either at the same pitch or in sequence. The type
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of phrase depends, of course, upon the context, but very characteristically these
phrases ‘curl’ around the tonic. It is quite noticeable that the sixth step of the scale (A
in C major) is often treated as a dominant ninth in this type of location. This type of
cadence is illustrated in Example 35a, with (iii) being more suitable in a chromatic
context.
Example 35a. Ending phrases.
Sometimes, the penultimate phrase will lead to an interrupted cadence and the final
(otherwise identical) phrase to a full close. This is illustrated in Example 35b; phrase
(i) ends on an interrupted cadence (bar 4); this could be continued with phrases (ii) –
(iii). (ii) is a very similar phrase to (i) but with a perfect cadence. (iii) develops the
sequential idea from (i) down a third. Alternatively, phrases (ii) or (iii) could lead to
(iv), which introduces further chromatic harmony, particularly ‘nudging’ towards the
subdominant minor. An F natural introduced at the end of (ii) or (iii) would help
smooth the ‘join’ here.
Example 35b. Phrases ending with an interrupted cadence (i) and then full-close.
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Interestingly, with these features (pedal notes, dominant preparation, and cadential
phrases) that the harmony is relatively static and the melodic material involves much
repetition. Once again, successful improvisation is not necessarily thinking of ‘new’
material all the time, but building on what has already been created.
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Chapter 7
Chains of Suspensions
36. Chains of suspensions. In sections 16 – 18 we have looked at suspensions,

particularly the seventh, fourth and ninth. These are notes held across (or repeated)
from one bar – where they form part of the chord – to the next – where they form the
specified dissonance and then resolve down by step. Remember that this type of
dissonance is very similar to the appoggiatura. Like the suspension, the appoggiatura
occurs on the first beat of the bar, but it is approached by leap (usually upwards). In
4/4 time, a suspension can also occur on the third beat of the bar.
Two or more suspensions can be joined together to form a sequence or chain of

suspensions. This is quite easy to accomplish and has already been seen in
connection with Romanesca bass in Example 28. A chain of seventh suspension is
probably the easiest to play, as illustrated in Example 36a.
Example 36a. A chain of 7 – 6 suspensions.
Here a dissonant seventh occurs on the first beat of bars 2 – 6 and then resolves down
by step in the middle of the bar. The bass line simply moves downwards through a
scale on the beat, and this is ‘shadowed’ by the middle voice a tenth higher. The
exact layout is not critical, but that shown is fairly standard. Note that, when the
dissonant line arrives at the dominant seventh it usually resolves ‘properly’, either on
the tonic chord or, as here, as an ‘interrupted progression’ (see the beginning of bar
6). The suspension can be ‘decorated’ as illustrated by the small notes in Example
36b (bar 2) and with the mordent motif shown in the final bar.
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Example 36b. A chain of 4 – 3 suspensions.
The chain of 4 – 3 suspensions is a little trickier. Here, melody and bass step
downwards in the same way as Example 36a. But here, if the middle voice simply
shadowed the bass voice, the pair would move downwards in ‘forbidden’ consecutive
fifths. To avoid this problem, the bass line has been adjusted in the third bar and the
middle voice in subsequent bars. To begin with practise just the outer voices to
internalise the 4 – 3 pattern and then add an inner voice making sure that it doesn’t
simply step down in parallel fifths with the bass.
Example 36c. A chain of 9 – 8 suspensions.
The 9 – 8 chain is a little rarer. However, we have already seen some possibilities
with the start of the Romanesca and with the Fonte patterns described above. Example
36c begins with the Romanesca-style bass, incorporating 9 – 8 suspensions in
sequence in the second and fourth bars. The 9 – 8 suspension can nearly always be
incorporated in this type of ‘interrupted progression’. Notice how it is nearly always
in the ‘alto’ voice part, with the top voice sounding a compound third above the bass.
Such chains of suspensions do not have to have purely scalic melodies, as Example
36d illustrates. Notice here the very poignant minor ninth (E – F) in the fourth bar.
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Example 36d. A chain of 9 – 8 suspensions.
The ‘problem’ with all such chains of suspensions is that they are highly harmonic
and it is sometimes difficult to integrate this chordal style convincingly within a
melodic passage. Nevertheless, chains of suspensions are useful for ‘stringing’
phrases out when inspiration is lacking and also for adding a sense of direction to an
otherwise meandering melody line. Example 36e incorporates various suspensions,
including some in the bass.
Example 36e. Various suspensions incorporated in a more melodic context.
37. Rising 5–6 patterns. Suspensions, of course, resolve downwards; this means
that nearly all chains of suspensions follow a downward trajectory. So here is an
alternative possibility: the rising 5 – 6 pattern. A simple pattern of rising triads
would, of course, result in consecutive fifths. However, if the top voice is ‘staggered’
and moves upwards by step before the other parts such fifths are avoided. [In
practice, the chords alternate root position and first inversion.] Example 37 illustrates
this progression. Here the lower two voices move upwards by step in tenths; the top
voice moves up a crotchet earlier. As with the chain of suspensions, when the
dominant is reached (here in bar 3) it is normally treated as a dominant seventh, so
brining the sequence to a natural conclusion.
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Example 37. The rising 5 – 6 pattern.
38. The circle of fifths. One of the most conventional (and useful) sequences, often
incorporating suspensions, is the so-called circle of fifths. This is a pattern in the bass
line which leaps down a fifth then up a fourth and continues in this manner. There are
several varieties of this progression, which (like the ‘Vivaldi gambit’ introduced in
section 32) was first popularised by Antonio Vivaldi. The first four bars of Example
38a illustrate the basic harmonic outline.
Example 38a: The basic circle of fifths and seventh suspensions.
In the first four bars, the upper voices supply the third and fifth of the triad, without
particularly following a clear sequence. The circle of fifths is very commonly
associated with an intriguing chain of seventh suspensions, as shown in the last four
bars of Example 38a. Here one upper voice sounds the third of the chord, which is
held over into the next chord to become the seventh; the other voice plays the seventh
then third in the opposite order. This type of intertwining pattern suggests a strong
sense of direction and purpose. [Incidentally, here the suspension can be on a strong
or weak beat of the bar.] Generally, when the dominant seventh is reached, it resolves
onto the tonic chord.
In another variant of this progression, the chords are chromaticised. The third of each
chord that was originally minor is changed into a major third; and, conversely, each
major seventh is turned into a minor seventh. In other words, whatever step of the
scale, the chord is modified to sound like a dominant seventh. This is illustrated in
Example 38b.
67
Example 38b. The chromaticised circle of fifths.
Here, the first four bars suggest a rather eighteenth-century style. In bar 2, the chord
on B has been converted into a major chord (by the D sharp). On the second beat, the
chord has become E major, instead of E minor, and so on. In this example, each
successive major third steps up to double the bass note of the next chord, but it could
simply ‘slide’ down chromatically to the seventh.
The next four bars illustrate a characteristic variant, where a melody is created by
leaping between the third and seventh of each chord in turn. In this case the middle
voice simply adds another note of the chord, or doubles the bass part. Notice one
interesting quirk here: in the fifth bar, the seventh above F could be flattened (to E
flat) or the third above B sharpened (to D sharp) but not both in the same bar.
The circle of fifths is a very useful ‘filler’, but the chromatic version is also handy for
changing key. It is a bit like a downward escalator where you simply jump off at the
desired level. So, Example 38b, starting from C major could finish on any beat and
continue into the next section in that key. Example 38c illustrates a phrase starting in
B flat major and leading to D minor.
Example 38c. A modulatory passage based on the circle of fifths.
68
Exercise 38. Explore the following variations over a circle of fifths, either continuing
in sequence or varying further; next, transpose this type of progressions into other
keys.
69
Chapter 8
Modulation
39. Changes of Key. Moving from one key to another [modulation] is quite an art in
itself. The following section is far from comprehensive and just looks at small-scale
excursions to closely related keys. There is often a temptation to ‘leave key changes
until later’ but this would be a mistake, because in fact, through changing the key it is
possible to introduce more variety, while re-using material already invented. In other
words, it is usually easier to rework simple progressions through various keys, than to
develop more complex ideas in a single key. The sections above frequently hint at
key changes. For example, the Fonte and Monte progressions move through related
key areas; similarly, ending phrases have been considered as ‘nudging towards the
subdominant’. Very often a pattern such as the Monte or Circle of Fifths can be
continued sequentially until the required key has been achieved, after which the piece
is simply continued in that new key.
When changing key, it is usually easiest to go ‘one step at a time’, so that the key
signature of new key is only one ‘accidental’ different from that of the old key.
Thus, from C major, G major is just a single step away by adding one sharp. In
establishing the new key, one note is vitally important: the new leading note. The
essential note for establishing a modulation from C major to G major is an F sharp.
Perhaps the easiest way to change key is via an interrupted cadence (or, even more
simply via an interrupted progression). See section 25 for the interrupted cadence
and variants upon it. The interrupted cadence will end, of course, on the submediant
chord. This can lead directly into the submediant key area. Starting from a major
key, the submediant will be the relative minor. So, after a short theme ending on an
interrupted cadence, the piece can continue in the submediant key area.
Example 39a illustrates this process with a simple Gavotte theme in G major. The
theme is basically a two-bar phrase (in itself little more than an ‘approach chord plus
cadence’) ending on a perfect cadence. The two-bar phrase is then repeated to finish
with an interrupted cadence (bar 4). The next four bars are in the relative minor key –
E minor. Here, the theme is varied and ends on a perfect cadence in E minor. Of
course, this ‘piece’ is not wildly original, but it illustrates how a simple cadential
phrase can be ‘spun out’ to eight bars.
Example 39a. Modulation via an interrupted cadence to the relative minor.
70
The same interrupted cadence can lead easily to other keys as well. For instance, the
E minor chord forms the supertonic in D major, and so ‘connects’ almost directly to
the dominant, as shown in Example 39b, where the opening phrase from Example 39a
proceeds to the dominant. Notice here the way in which the bass steps down to the
new leading note (C sharp) – usually a very effective progression. Although Example
39b ends in the dominant, there is another ‘interrupted progression’ in the sixth full
bar (landing on a B minor chord). It would be quite straightforward to continue
onwards from this point in B minor (the mediant key).
Example 39b. Modulation via an interrupted cadence to the dominant.
The subdominant key needs to be treated with more care, because it can be a
somewhat tricky key to be stuck in – though see the comments above about ‘nudging
towards the subdominant’ near the end of a piece. However, the E minor chord can
easily be modified to form a dominant seventh in C, and thus lead into the
subdominant, as shown in Example 39c, where the same opening phrase leads to C
major. Notice here, a further ‘nudge towards the subdominant’ and hints of F minor
near the end of the phrase.
Example 39c. Modulation via an interrupted cadence to the subdominant.
So far we have considered changes of key from G to B minor, C major, D major and
E minor. The supertonic is most easily arrived at simply by chromatic step up from G
(G sharp leading up to A minor). However, the interrupted cadence can be invoked
even here – with a little adjustment. The chord needs to be changed from E minor to
E major. If this is done directly, the key change sounds rather abrupt. But, if the G
sharp is delayed by a suspension, the effect is more convincing, as shown in Example
39d. In this example, the opening motif is continued sequentially, rather than varying
the whole phrase.
71
Example 39d. Modulation via an interrupted cadence to the supertonic.
On the whole it is unlikely that this type of key change could lead to the key of the
leading note (F sharp in G major) which is very remote from the tonic. If ‘needed’
such a key is more likely to be arrived at via an intermediate key – perhaps as the
dominant of B minor.
The question, of course, arises about how to return to the tonic after the digression to
another key. There are two easy solutions to this. The first, and most straightforward,
is to recognise that, in a short-term modulation, the listener has not really lost track of
the original key; hence, you can often return to the opening material with no
intervening process at all. The second way is to treat the tonic of the second key as an
approach chord and follow it by dominant preparation in the original key. (D, of
course, will already be the dominant in G.) Thus both the C major and A minor
chords (at the end of Examples 39b and c) can lead directly to D major chording in
preparation for a return to G major. E minor does not lead back quite so readily, but,
reinforced by contrary motion, the ‘folk-type’ chord progression E minor – D major
can be quite effective. Alternatively, a way back can be navigated via an interrupted
cadence (B major – C major chords) and thence back to G major.
More remote keys can be reached via an interrupted cadence to the flattened
submediant (an E flat major chord in G major). In effect, this is the same as an
interrupted cadence in G minor. So, we will now consider modulations from an
interrupted cadence starting in the minor key. Example 39e shows a Siciliano-like
movement in F minor. This is a slow movement in 6/8 time, of the sort a minor
contemporary of Vivaldi might have invented. It begins with the ‘Vivaldi gambit’
(see section 32) and decorates the interrupted cadence (bar 4) with expressive
appoggiaturas. The augmented second in the bass of bar 2 has been ‘allowed’ in an
improvisatory style. In Example 39e, the D flat of bar 4 leads rather dramatically in
bar 5 to a G flat major chord – the Neapolitan chord – and then proceeds to a cadence
in the subdominant. This particular possibility has been illustrated here because,
though unusual, the flat sixth chord connects very effectively to the flat second chord
– a progression worth learning.
72
Example 39e. Modulation from a minor home key.
Example 39e ends in B flat minor, but from the D flat chord (bar 4) the music could
take several directions. Some of the various possibilities are illustrated in Example
39f (the example takes up the harmony of bar 4, Example 39e, and assumes similar
figuration to that example, and that the phrase then continues to a full close in the
appropriate key). The chord following the D flat chord could be E flat major (with
seventh, perhaps with the D flat continuing in the bass) and this will lead to A flat
major, the relative major key (Example 39e(i)). Equally, it could continue in and
cadence on D flat major (ii).
Example 39f. Submediant chord in F minor leading to various keys.
The dominant key (which can be C major or C minor) is easier to approach from a
simple C chord, but, from the D flat chord, the bass could step down to B natural (iii),
although the key change will need to be reinforced through repetition to make it sound
convincing. (A short-term modulation to the dominant always sounds as though it
‘intends’ to return to the tonic.) If treating C minor as the dominant, then the final
cadence should include a ‘Tierce de Picardy’ (major third) which – as a dominant –
can easily lead back to the home key of F minor.
Although the ‘flat leading note key’ – E flat major when the home tonic is F minor –
sounds somewhat improbable, it is, in fact, quite conventional, especially leading
towards A flat major. To reach E flat major, the bass of the D flat chord simply needs
to be sharpened (to D natural) within a chord of D – F – A flat – B flat, which can
either be in the same or the subsequent bar (iv).
Thus from F minor, we have considered key changes to G flat, A flat (the relative
major), B flat minor, C minor/major (the dominant), D flat and E flat. All these
changes of key have been made following an interrupted cadence, which effectively
starts the process of moving away from the home key. From the tonic major, a similar
range of keys can be achieved, using the same process. Starting in F major, the
73
interrupted cadence will be as though in F minor (C major – D flat major chording);

this gives an entrée into a wide variety of distant keys. The return to the home key can
be accomplished via a circle of fifths.
Finally, in this section, here are some useful progressions based on ‘irregularly
resolved’ dominant sevenths, which are very characteristic ‘improvisation’
progressions. The first two move towards the relative minor. Example 39g(i) begins
in B flat major; the listener expects the dominant seventh, which arrives at the end of
bar 2, to resolve on a B flat chord. The melody note is, as expected, D (in bar 3) but
the bass moves up to F sharp at this point, and the middle voices confirm a dominant
seventh in the relative minor. The phrase ends in G minor.
Example 39g. Irregularly resolved sevenths.
Example 39g(ii) works through similar harmonies. Here, however, the dominant
seventh at the end of bar two is in last inversion (the seventh, E flat, is in the bass).
This resolves down to D, the bass of a dominant seventh in G minor.
The ‘irregularly resolved’ seventh in Example 39(iii) is actually itself a chromatic

chord (bar 3): a supertonic seventh (based on C) with a sharpened third in the bass.
The supertonic chord resolves, as usually happens, on the dominant seventh, but
instead of an F, the seventh itself (E flat) is in the bass (with the F delayed by a
suspension in the middle voice). In turn the E flat resolves down to the third of the
tonic chord (D).
40. Hymn-tune references.
The aim of this guide is to base improvisation on set harmonic patterns, rather than on
existing melodies. However, even for ‘background music’, the listener appreciates
some familiar reference points, and well-known hymn tunes are effective in this
74
context. There are several beautiful hymn tunes in 3/4 time; these often seem to have
particularly characterful (and therefore identifiable) melodic contours. Also, the
harmony often is (or can be) just one chord in each bar, which integrates well in the
style considered here.
Example 40a shows the last two phrases of the well-known melody Crimond (usually
sung to the words ‘The Lord’s my Shepherd’) almost any bars from which can be
adapted to the harmonic progressions discussed above.
Example 40a: Two phrases from ‘Crimond’
40b shows two possibilities: the first is over a rising chromatic bass which emphasises
the G minor feeling of the phrase; the second begins over the ‘Vivaldi gambit’ (see
section 32) and ends with the ‘Bells’ bass line. Occasional chromatic passing notes
add a little spice to the chords.
Example 40b: Two reharmonised versions of the phrases from ‘Crimond’
Of course, these phrases can be subdivided and used separately, or they can be
extended further, by, for example, ending on an interrupted cadence and then
continuing in another key. Alternatively, the cadence could simply be reharmonised
in D minor, and this could be the springboard for further variations.
Richmond (‘O for a thousand tongues to sing’) is another well-known melody which
can be incorporated into an improvisation phrase-by-phrase and with varied
harmonies. Here, for instance is the third phrase, which could be reworked in several
ways.
75
Example 40c: Third phrase from ‘Richmond’.
The original harmonisation has a circle-of-fifths through the complete bars at this
point, which can be easily adapted (d, g, C, F – these two chord in the third bar –
ending on B flat). There are also several possibilities in F major, B flat major,
‘leaning towards’ D minor, or ending in G minor. Alternatively, the first note of each
bar could be treated as an appoggiatura.
A third example of a very tuneful and readily adaptable hymn is ‘Hyfrydol’

(‘Alleluia! Sing to Jesus’) which includes some particularly captivating sequences in
the fourth to sixth phrases. Needless to say, many other hymns also offer inspiration
for improvisation.
Exercise 40: Memorise the hymn tunes ‘Crimond’, ‘Richmond’ and ‘Hyfrydol’ and
practise transposing these tunes into various keys.
Harmonise Example 40a ‘leaning towards’ D minor. Next repeat this phrase –
without melodic alteration – four times, first harmonising in F major, then in D minor,
thirdly ‘leaning towards’ G minor (at the start) and finally returning to F major.
Manage the key changes, perhaps using an interrupted cadence or progression to
modulate from F major to D minor, and move to G minor via a Tierce de Picardy.
Practise transposing these phrase into different keys, and harmonising them,
modulating between the phrases. The phrases can be adapted (ie transposed with
adjustments) to suit the minor mode. Example 40a could be freely transposed down a
third or a fifth and then reharmonised in D minor (add C sharp where necessary).
Improvise a piece based on Crimond, moving through different key areas (with
appropriate modulations) and in which some lines are reworked in the minor key.
Repeat this type of process with phrases from the other tunes learned. When the three
tunes can be performed with sufficient variety, improvise a ‘Fantasy on Hymn Tunes’
which makes reference to all three tunes.
76
Chapter 9
Fugues and Canons
41. The Mysterious Qugue. ‘Qugue’ may look like a misprint for Fugue, and so it is
in some ways: what we are working on here is not quite a proper fugue, but it shares
features in common with a fugue, so it could be called a quasi-fugue, or Qugue, for
short. We are going to invent three-part counterpoint straight off, in a way that will
intrigue most aware listeners.
First of all, we need to revise the Key Motif and the ways in which it can be varied. If
necessary, skim through section A again to refresh your memory. Perhaps most
importantly, we need to remember the flexibility possible in harmonising the last two
notes of the key motif which can rise or fall by step, as discussed in section 23.
In C major, the penultimate note is F, which can rise to G or fall to E. In technical

terms, the note F can be treated as ‘pre-dominant’ and harmonised with an F major or
D minor chord (or a chromatically altered version); it then leads to a G major chord.
Alternatively, the note F can be though of as the dominant seventh, and harmonised
with a G major chord, or an extended dominant chord; in this case it usually falls to E
– as part of a perfect or interrupted cadence – but could rise to G as part of a perfect
cadence. This gives quite a lot of flexibility in harmonising the last two notes, the F
in particular. The sustained counterpoint, if included, will start on the key note and
then fall by step in the dominant chord, which will be on the third or fourth main note
of the Key Motif, depending on which harmony is used.
It might be useful at this point to improvise a variation of the Key Motif, alternately in
melody and then bass, and vary the harmonisation of the final two notes. Incorporate
the sustained counterpoint in some of the phrases.
In the following discussion, remember that -3 is not a literal transposition, but a

‘moving down’ by three notes within the scale of the original key. So, if the melody
starts on C, when transposed -3, it will start on A.
Having thoroughly revised the Key Motif, we can now set about improvising the first
section of a Qugue: the exposition. The following is a recipe for the exposition of a
Qugue; try to work through it mentally a couple of times before playing it on the
organ. Start with four four-bar phrases; later there can be far more flexibility, but
stick to four-bar phrases at the moment. To clarify here, I suggest possible ‘solution’
starting in the key of B flat major [these are shown in squared brackets] but, of course,
any key is possible. First we need two main themes:
(i). Selecting a major key, invent a simple variation on the Key Motif, without
chromaticism but perhaps incorporating an arpeggiation, a mordent and a passing note
(nothing too elaborate for a first attempt); step up to the final note in the fourth bar.
This variant will be called the Subject.
(ii) The Key Motif itself remains the basic four notes, possibly incorporating a
passing note or two.
77
From these two ideas (together with the sustained counterpoint and standard cadence
bass line) we can invent four phrases:
(i) Play the Subject in the pedals (solo). [Starting note, B flat].
(ii) Second phrase: here the left hand plays the Subject [starting note, B flat] at a
suitable octave (probably an octave higher than the pedal version). Against the
Subject, on the pedals, play the Key Motif, but down a third (-3) [starting note G].
(iii) Next, play the Subject in the right hand but starting a third lower (-3) [starting
note, G]. Against the subject, play the Key Motif in the pedals down a further third (-
5) [starting note, E flat]. (Incidentally, as a mnemonic, the successive phrase in the
pedals will start on the respective note of the Key Motif itself (see section 26)). The
left-hand here can play the sustained counterpoint or a variant of it, starting -3, that is,
on the same note (or an octave lower) as the RH [starting note G].
(iv) Finally, play the Subject in the Right Hand (probably an octave higher than
the LH in iv) [starting note B flat]. The pedals play the standard bass line, the LH
plays the sustained counterpoint starting on the Key Note [B flat]. This time we step
down on the final note of the Subject, to provide the third of the tonic chord.
Think through the process described above a couple of times and then try it out. Even
though you are playing to a formula, there will still be a lot to think about, especially
in joining the phrases, which may entail some nifty octave adjustment. If the
description above still leaves some points of confusion, Example 41a (overleaf) shows
the various events in outline, but experiment with the above ‘recipe’ before looking at
this ‘solution’.
I hope this exposition turned out well: if not, have a couple more goes before perusing
the outline given in Example 41a. If successful, what you have played may have
more in common with a round than a fugue, but it is contrapuntal, and in three real
parts, so well done. Using just this simple ‘recipe’ (which can start in a major or
minor key) you can further vary the Subject and the Key Motif (effectively the
countersubject) and, of course, the basic metre and pulse. In short, with 24 keys to
explore, approximately the same number of time signatures, and a huge number of
variants of the Key Motif, there is an almost infinite variety of ‘solutions’ to this
‘Qugue’ exposition.
78
Example 41a. The Exposition of a ‘Qugue’ in outline.
You will soon notice that negotiating the ‘joins’ smoothly between the phrases
requires quite a lot of skill. The most obvious problem is that the octave may be
‘wrong’. For example, from B flat major, a different Subject might arrive on low F in
bar 4. Although the pedal part can continue at this pitch, sooner or later the octave
will need to be adjusted; this can be done most simply with an octave leap at the end
of the phrase. If bar 4 is altered like this, you may try to make a similar adjustment to
subsequent statements of the Subject.
Secondly, there is a perfect cadence leading into bar 12 (A to B flat in the bass). This
may sound too final and so you will need to keep some momentum going, perhaps
with a suspension in an inner voice, or by connecting to bar 13 with some passing
notes. Another way of dealing with this, and perhaps a more musical solution, is to
allow the Subject to resolve downwards in bar 12 (to B flat), and harmonise it as an
interrupted cadence, or, indeed, by hinting at G minor. Obviously, the sustained
counterpoint will have to be adjusted to avoid doubling the leading note.
There is also a danger that there is too much rhythmic similarity between the Subject
and the Key Motif; this obviously depends how they are varied. Since they will be
sounded together, try to select complementary rhythms.
As a final point, notice the ‘lean towards the subdominant’ in bars 13 – 14; this is
quite easy to incorporate, and is very characteristic of a closing phrase and simply
involves the flattened leading note resolving downwards (In B flat major, an A flat
resolving to G).
79
42. Variants on the ‘Qugue’ exposition.
The basic ‘Qugue’ scheme can be elaborated in several ways. The phrases are
effectively joined by ‘interrupted progressions’ (the bass steps up at the end of each
phrase). These ‘interrupted progressions’ can be decorated in various ways (see
section xx). In the major key, one of the easiest ways is to incorporate a chromatic
passing note in the bass. In example 41a in bar 4 the bass would step up F – F# – G.
Alternatively, the ‘interrupted progression’ could be changed to a perfect (V-I). In

this way a couple of bars can be interpolated between, say the second and third
phrases.
A note on the possible chromaticism in bar 3: obviously this basic plan can be
explored still further. If you decide to put a chromatic passing note in bar 3 (E natural
leading to F), a couple of curiosities emerge. The equivalent note (-3) in bar 11 would
be a C#, hinting at an interesting modulation. Now, what happens in bar 15? The
chromatic passing note is not possible here because the penultimate note resolves
down to the final note. There are a couple of alternatives: the fourth step of the scale
could be sharpened in the bass of bar 14 (also to E natural) and/or, in bar 15 the E flat
could be replaced by a C# (an augmented fifth). Both these notes neatly refer back to
the earlier chromaticisms.
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The ‘Reluctant’ Organist’s Guide to Improvisation

The ‘Reluctant’ Organist’s

The ‘Reluctant’ Organist’s Guide to Improvisation

Chapter 1 – The Key Motif

1. The Key Motif

Chapter 2 – Adding a Descant

7. The importance of contrary motion

Chapter 3 – Simple Three-part Textures

15. Basic three-part textures

Chapter 4 – Minor Variations and Reflections

22. The Key Motif in the minor mode

Chapter 5 – Sequences and Digressions

28. The Romanesca Bass

Chapter 6 – Pedal Notes

32. The tonic pedal

Chapter 7 – Chains of Suspensions

36. Chains of suspesions

39. Changes of Key

Chapter 9 – Fugues and Canons

41. The mysterious ‘Qugue’

The ‘Reluctant’ Organist’s Guide to Improvisation

Improvisation on the organ – an alternative strategy

Many years ago, I was privileged to witness an organ improvisation by a remarkable

I have purposefully written this introduction in non-technical language. Occasionally,

A brief list of useful books

Chapter 1 – The Key Motif

Example 1a. The Key Motif.

Example 2. Examples of rhythmic patterns.

Example 3. The Key Motif in B flat, incorporating some octave leaps.

4. Arpeggiations. As well as leaping to notes at the distance of an octave, you can

Some possible arpeggiated bass lines are shown in example 4.

Example 4. Examples of Arpeggiations of the Key Motif in E flat.

Exercise 4: using the resources of sections 2 (rhythmic patterns), 3 (octave leaps)

5. Mordents. We now come to a class of note which could be described as

Example 6c. Passing notes combined with arpeggiations and/or mordents.

Example 6d: Six variations on the Key Motif in G Major.

7. The importance of contrary motion. By now you will be able to create a

Secondly, try to avoid landing on a ‘hollow interval’ such as a fifth or an octave in

Example 8a: Chords implied by the Key Motif in the Bass.

Example 8b: The sustained counterpoint.

Example 10: Varied melodies above the Key Motif.

Exercise 10. (Optional: as a preliminary exercise, practise the chord progression

Example 11c: more flowing counter-melodies above the Key Motif.

Exercise 11: (Optional: as a preliminary exercise, practise the chord

original chords (as in Example 8a) then a countermelody based on the

Example 12a: scalic countermelodies.

Example 12b: countermelodies incorporating scale passages, ties and mordents.

13. Swapping the major/minor character of the available chords. In section 11

Example 13a: The second chord modified from minor to major.

Example 13c: The penultimate chord modified from minor to diminished.

[From a technical point of view, where there is a chromatically altered version of a

Example 13d: the two chromatic variants in succession.

Example 13e: The ‘available notes’ above the Key Motif.

Exercise 13: (Optional: transpose the chords progressions shown in Examples 8a

Example 14: a simple imitative texture.

Consolidation exercise: Take a few moments to plan the following improvisation.

Variation 1: unaccompanied Key Motif in Pedals.

Example 16: sevenths added above the Key Motif.

We now come to a particularly important dissonance: the dominant seventh. This is

Practise five-bar phrases, comprising the KM in the pedals extended to end on

Example 17. Added fourths (the 4 – 3 dissonance).

Example 18. Added ninths (the 9 – 8 dissonance).

Example 19. The ‘six-five dissonance’.