Chapter Six: Processing , Analysis and interpretation of Data

 The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the
outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan.

 Processing implies checking data, encoding, input, and data cleaning, correcting data
for statistical purposes, and selecting data analysis strategy so that they are amenable to
analysis.

 The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups.

 Raw data/information: the information/data collected/collated either from primary or

secondary sources at the initial stage.
 Working with data starts with the scrutiny of data (known as editing of data).
 Raw data, particularly the primary data, can hardly speak anything unless and otherwise
arranged in order or processed.
 There are several steps to follow before a set of data is put under analysis befitting with
the objectives of a particular research program.

 Though the order of the steps are not unique and may change according to the need and
objective of a study, the following steps are generally followed:

 scrutiny/editing of data/arrangement of data/ coding of data

 classification of data, and

 Presentation of data
 Scrutiny/editing and arrangement of data

 Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (especially in surveys)
to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible.

 As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires

and/or schedules.

 Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered,
uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate
coding and tabulation.

 With regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can talk of field
editing and central editing
 Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for
completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated and/or in
illegible form at the time of recording the respondents’ responses.
 Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and
returned to the office.
 This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough editing by a single
editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large inquiry.
 Arrangements of data can be made using SORT command in MS Excel or similar
command in other similar software.
 Coding: refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to the responses so
that these could be categorized.
 Classification: the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics.
 Classification according to class-intervals such as data of income, production, age,
weight, etc.
 Classification according to attributes: data are classified on the basis of common
characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or
numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.).
 Presentation of data

 Edited/scrutinized data can either be used for the application of statistical

methodologies and/or presented in a suitable form to present and concise the
information from the recorded data.
 Different forms of presentation of data are:
 Textual form: data/information is presented in a form of a paragraph.
 Tabular form: data can be presented in a very efficient manner in a table.
 It is the most widely used form of data presentation.
 A table consists of the following parts:
o Title: a brief description of the content or the subject matter presented in a table.
o Stub: describe the contents of the rows of a table.
o Caption: describes the content of each and every column.
o Body: relevant information is given in the body of a table
o Footnote: are not compulsory but may be used to indicate the source of
information or a special notation (if) used in the table.
 Diagrammatic form: diagrammatic forms of presentation are
o Line diagram: representing frequencies in the form of line graph.
o Bar diagram: representing the frequencies in the form of bars.
o Histogram: reflection of nonexistence of any gap between two consecutive classes is
also reflected by leaving no gap between two consecutive bars.
o Frequency polygon: If the midpoints of the top of the bars in histogram are joined by
straight lines, then a frequency polygon is obtained.
o Cumulative frequency curve or Ogive: Partitioning the whole data set can very well
be made with the help of a cumulative frequency graph, also known as OGIVE
o Pie charts: The basic idea behind the formation of a pie diagram is to take the whole
frequencies in 100% and present it in a circle with 360 angle at the center
o Pictorial diagrams: information is presented in pictorial forms
o Maps: represent the distribution of particular parameters like a forest area in a country,
paddy-producing zone, and different mines located at different places in a country,
rainfall pattern, population density, etc
o Etc.; within each type, there may be variant types.
Bar graph

Histogram
Pie diagram

Frequency Polygon
 Some problems of processing the data
 The problem concerning “Don’t know” (or DK) responses.
 How DK responses are to be dealt with by researchers?
 The best way is to design better type of questions.
 Good rapport of interviewers with respondents will result in minimising DK
responses.
 But what about the DK responses that have already taken place?
 One way to tackle this issue is to estimate the allocation of DK answers from other
data in the questionnaire.
 The other way is to keep DK responses as a separate category in tabulation where we
can consider it as a separate reply category if DK responses happen to be legitimate,
otherwise we should let the reader make his own decision.
  Use or percentages: Percentages are often used in data presentation for they
simplify numbers, reducing all of them to a 0 to 100 range.
 Analysis of Data: is the process of evaluating data using analytical or statistical tools to
discover useful information.
 Analysis is a process of working with the data to summarize, describe, and explain
the data in terms of the research questions or hypothesis.
 It measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the
data groups.
 Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves estimating the
values of unknown parameters of the population and testing of hypotheses for
drawing inferences.
 Analysis may, therefore, be categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
(Inferential analysis is often known as statistical analysis).
 Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable.
o This study provides us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other
subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics such as size. Composition, efficiency,
preferences, etc.
o This sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (described as unidimensional
analysis), or in respect of two variables (described as bivariate analysis) or in respect
of more than two variables (described as multivariate analysis).
o In this context we work out various measures that show the size and shape of a
distribution(s) along with the study of measuring relationships between two or more
variables.
 Measures of Central Tendency and Locations

 The measures of central tendency describe that the major part of values in the data
set appears to concentrate (cluster) around a central value called average with the
remaining values scattered (spread or distributed) on either sides of that value..

 Thus, the tendency of the observations to cluster around a central value is known as
central tendency.

 The different Measures of Central Tendency are

 Mean: Its chief use consists in summarizing the essential features of a series and in
enabling data to be compared.
 It is the simplest measurement of central tendency and is a widely used measure.
  Media: is the value of the middle item of series when it is arranged in ascending or
descending order of magnitude.
 It divides the series into two halves; in one half all items are less than median,
whereas in the other half all items have values higher than median.
 Mode: is the most commonly or frequently occurring value in a series.
 Midpoint average: is simply the arithmetic mean of the lowest and highest value of a
given set of data. If L and U are the lowest and highest values of a given set of data,
respectively, the midpoint range (MDr) is (L + U)/2, etc.
 Measures of Dispersion, Skewness, and Kurtosis

 Dispersion is a search for a spread of the observations within a given data set.
  The tendency of the observations of any variable to remain scattered/dispersed from a
central value or any other value is known as dispersion of the variable
 Important measures of dispersion are

 Range: A range of a set of observations is the difference between the maximum value
and the minimum value of a set of data.

 Mean deviation: is the average of difference of the values of items from some average
of the series.

 Variance: is the mean squared deviation from the mean for a given set of data.
  Standard deviation: measure of variability computed by taking the positive square
root of the variance.

 Skewness and Kurtosis

 Skewness and kurtosis talk about the nature of the frequency distribution.

 Skewness refers to the horizontal property of the frequency distribution.

 A frequency distribution of the set of values that is not ‘symmetrical (normal)’ is

called asymmetrical or skewed.

 In a skewed distribution, extreme values in a data set move towards one side or
tail of a distribution, thereby lengthening that tail.

 Kurtosis: refers to the peakedness of a frequency distribution

 Thus, to know the nature of the data, the measures of central tendency and measures of
dispersion along with skewness and kurtosis of the frequency distribution are essential.

 Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining
the amount of correlation between two or more variables.

 The problem of measuring the degree of association among the variables is considered
through a correlation and regression analysis.

 Does there exist association or correlation between the two (or more) variables? If yes,
of what degree?
 Is there any cause and effect relationship between the two variables in case of the
bivariate population or between one variable on one side and two or more variables on
the other side in case of multivariate population? If yes, of what degree and in which
direction?
 Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect changes
in another variable.

 It is thus a study of functional relationships existing between two or more variables.

 Simple Regression Analysis

 Regression can only interpret what exists physically i.e., there must be a physical way
in which independent variable X can affect dependent variable Y.

 The regression analysis is a statistical method to deal with the formulation of

mathematical model depicting relationship amongst variables which can be used for
the purpose of prediction of the values of dependent variable, given the values of the
independent variable.
 Simple Regression Analysis concerned with the study of the dependence of one
variable, the dependent variable, on one or more other variables, the explanatory
variables, with a view to estimating and/or predicting the (population) mean or
average value of the former in terms of the known or fixed (in repeated sampling)
values of the latter.

 Simple linear regression model is called the two-variable linear regression model or
bivariate linear regression model because it relates the two variables x and y. The
linearity implies that a one-unit change in x has the same effect on y, regardless of the
initial value of x.
 This is unrealistic for many economic applications. For example, in the wage-
education example, we might want to allow for increasing returns: the next year of
education has a larger effect on wages than did the previous year.
  Mathematically: Y =α + βX, where α and β are the parameters, known as the intercept
constant and regression coefficient of Y on X.
 The intercept constant signifies the value of the dependent variable at initial stage,
and the regression coefficient measures the change in a dependent variable to per unit
change in the independent variable X.
 Multiple Correlation and Regression
 When there are two or more than two independent variables, the analysis concerning
relationship is known as multiple correlation and the equation describing such
relationship as the multiple regression equation.
 Multiple regression analysis is an extension of simple regression analysis to cover
cases in which the dependent variable is hypothesized to depend on more than one
explanatory variable.
 Mathematically, Yi = β0 + β1*X1 + β2*X2 + … + βn*Xn + εi
Yi = β0 + βi∑Xi+ εi
 Example: EARNINGS = β1 + β2S + β3ASV + u; where EARNINGS is hourly
earnings, S is years of schooling (highest grade completed), ASVABC is composite
score on the cognitive tests, and u is error term.

 Interpretation: The regression coefficient of each X variable provides an estimate of its

influence on Y, controlling for the effects of all the other X variables.

 Other Measures

 Time series analysis: In the context of economic and business researches, we may
obtain quite often data relating to some time period concerning a given phenomenon.
Such data is labelled as ‘Time Series’.
 Such series are usually the result of the effects of one or more of the following factors:
 Secular trend or long term trend that shows the direction of the series in a long period
of time. The effect of trend (whether it happens to be a growth factor or a decline
factor) is gradual, but extends more or less consistently throughout the entire period of
time under consideration. Sometimes, secular trend is simply stated as trend (or T).

 Short time oscillations i.e., changes taking place in the short period of time only and
such changes can be the effect of the cyclical, seasonal and irregular fluctuation.

 Various tests can be organized

Overall test (F-test): the null hypothesis for the overall test is ‘all the coefficient of the
regression are zero?’ (no explanatory power)
Ho: β1 = β2= β3 = … = βn = 0
Test for a single variable (t-test): Does a particular independent variable adds
significantly to the explanation?

Ho: βi = 0

Several Econometric problems are also expected.

 Sample Selectivity
 Misspecification
 Omitted Variables
 Fixed Effects
 Endogenous Variables
Appropriate tests and remedial measures need to be considered for these problems.
 Interpretation and Report Writing
 After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of
drawing inferences followed by report writing.

 This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading conclusions may be drawn,
and the whole purpose of doing research may get vitiated.

 It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes
that underlie his findings.

 In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and upheld several times,
the researcher may arrive at generalizations.
  But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he/she would try to
explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
 This may at times result in new questions, leading to further researches.
 What is interpretation?
 Interpretation is a search for broader meaning of research findings.
 It is the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and/or
experimental study.
 The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz.,
 The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a
given study with those of another, and
 The establishment of some explanatory concepts.
 Interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been
observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also
provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.
 Why interpretation?
 It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract
principle that works beneath his findings.
 Through this he can link up his findings with those of other studies, having the same
abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the concrete world of events.
 Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a
guide for future research studies.
 Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are
what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research
findings.
 Technique of interpretation
 The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researcher.
 Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience.
 The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the
task of interpretation.
 The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
o Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he/she has found
and he/she must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his
diversified research findings.
 o Consult someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and
will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation.
o Researcher must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the
conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be
accurate.
 Research Report Writing
 A research report deals with results of completed research work.

 After completing a research work, it is generally produced in the written ‘form, and
is called research report or thesis. A detailed description of research activities are
provided in it.

 The report is also known as thesis or dissertation

 It is a matter of communicating what was done, what occurred, and what the results mean
in a concise, understandable, accurate and logical manner.
 It has a variety of formats and varies as to its length. It is written in past tense and in
third person.
 Good research reports are not easily written. The report writing is a skill it must be
acquired by the researcher.
 The preliminary drafts of the review of the literature can be written and revised and
brought up to-date later.
 Mechanical procedures for presenting foot notes, references, figures, tables, and the like
should be well in mind.
 Need of research report
 Writing a research report is very challenging task for the researcher.
 A good research report requires sufficient-experience and insight about his research
activities.
 A research report is needed due to the following reasons:
o The research must be reported in full and its results should be subjected to a criticism and
verification.
o The research work is done for the benefit of human being, therefore, it must be
communicable to the general public for the practical use.
o It encourages other persons to take up some problem for further investigation.
 o The research report is also necessary for giving shape and form to the investigation
and solidifying it.
o It is needed for providing a clear picture of research method, sample, and techniques
used in conducting the research work.
o The research report is meant for popularizing the new contributions in the
discipline.
 Steps in research report
 Logical analysis of the subject-matter: It is the first step which is primarily
concerned with the development of a subject.
 There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b)
chronologically.
 o The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations
between the one thing and another by means of analysis.
 Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple
possible to the most complex structures.
o Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence.

 Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report outlines
are the framework upon which long written works are constructed.

o They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points
to be stressed in the report.
 Preparation of the rough draft: researcher now sits to write down what he has done in
the context of his research study.
 Rewriting and polishing: While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for
weaknesses in logical development or presentation.
o The researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has
unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite
pattern, like a marble arch?
o He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.
 Preparation of the final bibliography: the bibliography, which is generally appended
to the research report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has
been done.
o It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted
 Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step.
o The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the like
ones.
o While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and
technical jargon.
o Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the
final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings
to others.
o A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain interest
and must show originality.
 General format of research report
 A research report includes usually the following.
 Preliminary Pages
 Title page: This is the first page of a thesis or a dissertation. It includes:
 Title of thesis.
 Name of the candidate.
 Purpose or relationship of the thesis to the course or degree requirement.
 College and/or department in which the candidate has been admitted for the
degree.
 Name of the university to which it is submitted.
 Month and year of submission or acceptance.
 Abstract: summarizes the structure of the whole text and the major facts it contains.
o Generally the abstract is written after the completion of the text of the research
report/dissertation/thesis.
o It should be written in the language of the research report/dissertation/ thesis and
translated to English and contain no more than 300 words.
 Acknowledgements: most research reports, dissertations, or theses have their subsection to
convey appreciation to those who have been involved in the study.
 Table of content: lists the chapters, topics, and sub-topics together with their page
numbers.
o Sub-topics and topics should be labelled according to the chapter, for e.g., the first
topic in Chapter 1 should be marked 1.1 and the first sub-topic, 1.1.1.
o The use of letters in parenthesis for e.g., (a), (b), (c) is appropriate as a means of
differentiating sub-topics of the same topic.
o This numbering system provides a clear picture of the relationship between chapters
and topics and shows how they are connected.
 List of tables (if any): contains the titles of tables, together with their page numbers,
which are listed in the text.
o The numbering system is according to chapter, for e.g. Table 4.1, Table 4.2.
 List of figures (if any): contains the titles of figures, together with their page numbers,
which are listed in the text.
o For e.g. Figure 3.1, Figure 3.2.
 List of Symbols and Abbreviations: the symbols and abbreviations must be in
accordance to international convention.
 List of Appendices: this list is optional and contains the titles of appendices placed in the
supplementary section.
 Main Text
 The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all
details.
 Each main section of the report should begin on a new page.
o Normally, the text consists of the following chapters:

 Introduction: this chapter contains the introduction to the issues in which the research
is concerned, the aims and objectives of the study, and the outline of the research
approach.
 The main purpose of this chapter is to indicate the need and scope of the study. It
consists essentially of the statement of research inquiry.
  It is reported in past tense form of work completed.
 The problem objectives, hypotheses, assumptions, and delimitations of the study are
reported precisely.
 Literature Review: This chapter surveys previous literature and studies relevant to the
field of study.
 The literature review should be comprehensive and include recent publications.
 Methodology: this chapter indicates the line of approach of the study.

 The first aspect deals with the method, population and sample of the study and
second part provides the tools and techniques employed in the research.
 It also presents the procedure of the study.
 The whole plan of the study is discussed in detail under this chapter.
 Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the
form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing
the main text of the report.

 This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several
chapters.

 The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions
of the data rather than the raw data.

 All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily
identifiable sections.

 All relevant results must find a place in the report.

 Discussion: this chapter contains the interpretation of the results.
 The findings of the research should be compared and contrasted with those of
previous studies presented in the literature review.
 The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the findings of the research.
 Conclusion and policy implication: in this section, the findings are summarized and
their implications discussed.

 This section may include suggestions for future work.

 Supplementary: Specific items which were not included in the main body of the text
should be put in this Supplementary Section. Typically, this section includes the
following:
 Instrumentation: Research instruments such as questionnaires, maps or computer
programmes.
  Appendix: Appendices consist of additional illustration of data sources, raw data and
quoted citations which are too long to be placed in the text.

 The appendix supports the written text of the research report/dissertation/thesis.

Appendices can be divided into Appendix A, B, C.

 Bibliography: All works or studies referred to in the research, report/dissertation, /

thesis in the form of quotations or citations must be included in the bibliography.

 The references should be written consistently in the American Psychological

Association (APA) format or in another format approved by the subject experts.

 Each reference should be written in single spacing format and a double space should
be left between references.

 This list of references should not be numbered.

 Index and Glossary: When a research report is published in index, must be given.
 The index includes authors and subjects and topics or words in alphabetical order.
 In the report glossary should be provided. It includes the meanings or definitions of
some words and terms ‘used in the research report.
 Some notations symbols or abbreviations should be explained what actually they
mean or indicate in the study.
 Types of reports
 Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the
length and the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand.
 Short Reports: are more informal and are appropriate for studies in which the
problem is well defined, of limited scope, and for which methodologies are simple
and straightforward.
  At the beginning, there should be a brief statement on the problem.

 Next comes the conclusions and recommendations, followed by findings that

support the conclusions.

 Long Reports: are long and follow well-defined formats. Several formats for long
reports exist.

o The logical format

 The introductory information covering the purpose of the study, the

methodology is followed by the findings.

 The findings are analyzed and then followed by the conclusions and
recommendations.
 o The psychological format: Readers are quickly exposed to the most critical
information i.e. conclusions and recommendations.

o The chronological format: based on time sequence or occurrence.

 Usually long reports are of two types

o The popular report and the technical or base report.
o A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required
whether for record keeping or for public dissemination.
o A popular report is used if the research results have policy implications.

 Technical Report: This report should include a full documentation and detail - it is the
major source document.
  In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed, (it)
assumptions made in the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the
findings including their limitations and supporting data.

 Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
 Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the
problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data
required, etc.
 Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For
instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size,
sample selection, etc.
 Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics, and limitations. If
secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed.
 Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of
the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully
narrated.
 Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn
from the results be explained.
 Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
 Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis,
and the like ones.
 Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end
 Popular Report: is designed for the non-technical audience with no research background
and interested only in results rather than on methodology.
 Decision makers need help in making decisions.
 It gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness and on practical aspects and policy
implications.
 It should encourage rapid reading, quick comprehension of major findings and prompt
understanding of the implication and conclusions.
 A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
 The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of
most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
 Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of
the study is made in this section of the report.
 Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arises is presented along with
the specific objectives of the project under study.
 Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques
used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part
of the report.
 Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the
study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of
illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
 Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is
presented in the form of appendices.
 Research Presentation consideration
 Reports should be physically inviting, easy to read and match the comprehension
abilities of the designated audiences (reader).
 Style of writing: Remember that your reader:
 Is short of time
 Has many other urgent matters demanding his or her interest and attention

 Is probably not knowledgeable concerning ‘research jargon’

 It is always good to use words that convey thoughts accurately, clearly and
efficiently.
o Simplify- Keep to the essentials.
o Justify- Make no statement that is not based on facts and data.
 o Quantify when you have the data to do so - Avoid ‘large’, ‘small’; instead, say
‘50%’, ‘one in three’.
o Use short sentences.
o Be consistent in the use of tenses (past or present tense).
 Layout of the report: A good physical layout is important since it will:
 make a good initial impression,
 encourage the readers, and
 give them an idea of how the material has been organized so the reader can
make a quick determination of what he will read first.
o An attractive layout for the title page and a clear table of contents.
o Consistency in margins, spacing, headings and subheadings.
 o Numbering of figures and tables, provision of clear titles for tables, and clear headings
for columns and rows, etc.
o Accuracy and consistency in quotations and references.
 Oral presentation
 At times oral presentation of the results of the study is considered effective,
particularly in cases where policy recommendations are indicated by project results.
o At a university or college to other students or tutors, at a conference to other
researchers or work colleagues, or in a work place to colleagues, employers or
funding bodies.
 Good seminar presentation improves both the research and the reputation of the
researcher.
 Power Point is a useful presentation graphics program which enables you to create slides
that can be shared.

 A successful presentation typically requires a condensation of a lengthy and complex body

of information.
 About 20 minutes presentation is usually required.
 An outline of what one is going to say includes
 Opening
 Findings and conclusions
 Recommendations
 Finish the presentation with time; the time will usually pass a lot more quickly than you
think.
 Keep focused on the main ideas: The motivation, the problem, and the main results.
 You do not have to mention all of the difficulties and shortcomings; people can ask
during the presentation.
 You don’t need any literature review in a seminar.
 Just get to the point.

“End of Chapter