GENERAL

STATISTICS
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Preliminary Concepts
1.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
1.2 Variables and Data
1.3 Summation

Chapter 2. Data Collection and Presentation

2.1 Data Collection
2.2 Data Presentation
2.3 Graphical Representation of
Frequency Distribution
Chapter 3. Measure of Central Tendency
3.1 The Mean
3.2 Median and Mode
3.3 Percentiles, Deciles, and
Quartiles

Chapter 4. Measure of Disfersion and Skewness

4.1 Measure of Variability
4.2 Coefficient of Variation
Chapter 5. Permutations and Combinations
5.1 Principle of Counting
5.2 Permutations
5.3 Combinations
Chapter 1
 1.1 Introduction and
Basic Concepts
This section aims to:
 discuss the background and the development of
statistics;
 Define and differentiate the two branches of
statistics; and
 Differentiate population from sample.
Statistical information and development can be
traced back from ancient times. People
compiled statistical data with regard to all sorts
of things such as agricultural crops, athletic
events, commerce and trade and so on. As time
went by, statistical work has continued to have a
marked influence on the activities of mankind in
a wider scope from describing important
features of the data and analyzing them.
 Statistics
 A science of conducting studies to collect,
organize, summarize, analyze, and draw
conclusion from data; interpreting and
presenting numerical data.
 Can refer to the mere tabulation of numeric
information as in reports of stock, market,
transactions, or to the body of techniques used
in processing or analyzing data.
 Data
Data are the raw material which the statistician
works. Data can be found through surveys,
experiments, numerical records, and other
modes of research.
 Statistician
Statistician is also used in several ways. It can
be a person who simply collects information or
one who prepares analysis or interpretations. It
may mean a scholar who develops a
mathematical theory on which the science of
statistics is based.
 Two Branches of
Statistics
Statistics can be organized into descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.
 Descriptive Statistics
 Concerned with collecting, organizing,
presenting, and analyzing numerical data.
 Inferential Statistics
 Its main concern is to analyze the
organized data leading to prediction or
inferences.
The word “population” and “sample” are the most
commonly used words associated with statistics.
 Population
 Refers to the groups or aggregates of
people, objects, materials, events or
thing of any form.
 Sample
 Consist of few or more members of the
population.
 1.2 Variables and Data
This section aims to:
 Differentiate the two types of variables;
 Identify and illustrate the two areas of
quantitative variables;
 Enumerate the classifications of data; and
 Apply the types of variables in various fields of
applications.
Statistical data or information can be gathered
through different ways such as interviewing
people, observing or inspecting items, using
questionnaires and checklists. The characteristic
that is being studied is called a variable. It
varies from one person or thing to another.
Examples of variables for people are height,
weight, age, sex, marital status, eye color, etc. The
first three of the given variables yield numerical
values and are examples of quantitative
variables. The last three yield non-numerical
values or attributes are examples of qualitative
variables.
Qualitative Variables are further classified as
either discrete or continuous. A discrete
variable is a variable whose values can be
counted using integral values such as the number
of enrollees, drop-outs, graduates in a certain college,
deaths, and number of employees. A continuous
variable is a variable that can assume any
numerical value over an interval or intervals.
Height, weight, temperature, and time are examples
of continuous variables.
A variable can be dependent or independent
depending on its use. To predict the value of
variable on the other, independent variable is the
predictor while the dependent variable is the
variable whose value is being predicted.

For example, to predict the value of sunlight on

the growth of a certain plants, the dependent
variable is the growth of the plant while the
independent variable is the amount of sunlight
exposed to the plant.
 Scales of
Measurement of
Data
 Nominal Data
 Use numbers for the purpose of identifying
name or membership in a group or category.
 Ordinal Data
 Connote ranking or inequalities in this type
of data, numbers represents “greater than”
or “less than” measurement, such as
preferences or rankings.
 Interval Data
 Indicate an actual amount and there is equal unit
of measurement separating each score,
specifically equal intervals. The true zero is
present.
 Ratio Data
 Similar to interval data but has an absolute zero
and multiples are meaningful. It include all the
usual measurement of length, height, weight,
area, volume, density, velocity, money and
duration.
 1.3 Summation
This section aims to:
 Introduce a special notation that will work as a
shortcut for expressing sum of terms and
thereby appreciate mathematics as a tool of
symbols; and
 State and analyze the properties of summation.
When dealing with a sum of terms, we shall
have occasions to use an abbreviated form.
This special symbol for writing of sums is
called summation.
Summation is denoted by ∑, is
defined as n

∑ x =x +x +…+x
i 1 2 n

i=1
Where 1 and n are called the lower and upper
limits respectively. We note that x1, is read as “x
sub 1”
Chapter 2
 2.1 Data Collection
This section aims to:
 Identify, compare and contrast the different
types of data;
 List and explain the various techniques of
selecting a sample; and
 Enumerate and illustrate the different
sampling techniques.
 Types of Data
 Primary Data - data collected directly by the
researcher himself. These are first-hand or
original sources.
 They can be collected through the ff:
3. Direct observation or measurement (primary
source of info).
4. By interview (questionnaires or rating scales).
5. By mail of recording or of recording forms.
6. Experimentation.
 Secondary Data
 Are information taken from published or
unpublished materials previously
gathered by other researchers or agencies
such as book, newspapers, magazines;
journals, published and unpublished
thesis and dissertations.
 Two types of Sampling
Technique:
 Probability Sampling - every unit has a
chance of being selected and that chance
can be qualified.
 Non-Probability Sampling - every item in
a population does not have an equal
chance of being selected.
 Sampling Technique
 Procedure in selecting the numbers of samples
from the entire population.
Different Types
of Sampling
Techniques
 Simple Random Sampling
 It is recommended to prevent the possibility of a
bias or erroneous inference. Under the concept
of randomness, each member of the population
has an equal chance to be included in the sample
gathered.
 Systematic Random Sampling
 The items or individuals are arranged in
some way perhaps alphabetically or other
sort.
 Stratified Random
Sampling
 In this type of planning a population is first
divided into subsets based on homogenity called
Strata. The Strata are internally homogenous as
possible and at the same time each stratum is
different from one another as much as possible.
 Cluster Sampling
 Can be done by subdividing the population into
smaller units and then selecting only a random
some primary units where the study would then
be concentrated if sometimes referred are
sampling because it is frequently applied on a
geographical basis
 2.2 Data Presentation
This section aims to:
 Summarize and present data in different forms;
 Arrange and organize the raw data into a n
array and construct the frequency distribution,
stem and lead diagram; and
 Define, illustrate, and solve for the class limits,
class boundaries and class marks.
 Methods in Presenting
Data
Textual Form - data in paragraph form.
Tabular Form - systematic arrangement of data in
rows and columns.
Graphical Form - a graph or chart is a device for
showing numerical values in pictorial form.
Semi Tabular/Semi Tabular Form - the
combination of Textual and Tabular Form.
 Stem and Leaf Diagram
Raw data are data collected in an investigation
and they are not organized systematically. Raw
data that are presented in the form of a
frequency distribution are called grouped data.

There are two methods of organizing the raw

data – setting up an array and stem-and leaf
diagram.
For example, a nationwide travel agency offers
special rates for package tours during summer.
To economize spending for the advertisement
only certain age group of people will be sent
brochures for attraction. The agency gets to
previous passenger customers from its files and
groups them according to ages. Only those age
groups with least people are sent brochures.
The following are the ages of the previous
customers:
 Example:

59 50 52 38 80 62 77 56
60 61 58 62 51 36 54 18
71 54 44 52 26 63 58 56
41 34 61 50 60 53 62 62
53 43 63 71 65 79 45 66
I. Setting up an array from
the largest to the smallest

80 79 77 71 71 66 66 66

63 63 62 52 52 52 61 61

60 60 59 58 58 55 54 54

53 53 52 52 50 50 50 45

44 43 41 38 36 34 26 18
II. An array from the
smallest to the largest
18 26 34 36 38 41 43 44

45 50 50 51 52 52 53 53

54 54 55 58 58 59 60 60

61 61 62 62 62 62 53 53

66 66 66 71 71 77 79 80
 III. Setting up into
stem-and-leaf diagram
1 8
2 6
3 4 6 8
4 1 3 4 5
5 0 0 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 8 8
6 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 6 6
7 1 1 7 9
8 0
 Tally Method

CLASS LIMIT TALLY f CLASS

BOUNDARY
80-89 I 1 79.5-89.5
70-79 IIII 4 69.5-79.5
60-69 IIIII-IIIII- 13 59.5-69.5
III
50-59 IIIII-IIIII- 13 49.5-59.5
III
40-49 IIII 4 39.5-49.5
30-39 III 3 29.5-39.5
20-29 I 1 19.5-29.5
10-19 I 1 9.5-19.5
n=40
 2.3 Graphical
Representation of
Frequency Distribution
This section aims to:
 Define and illustrate histograms, frequency
polygon, ogives and pie graphs;
 Portray and apply the distribution of data in
various graphs such as histogram, frequency
polygon, and a cumulative frequency polygon.
Graphical forms of presenting information is
often more helpful in making a stronger impact.
There are some features in tabular form, which
can’t be discerned simply by looking at raw
data.
Graphical Representation
of Frequency
Distribution
 Frequency Histogram
It is a bar graph that displays the classes
or the horizontal axis and the frequency of
the classes on the vertical axis.
 Frequency Histogram

14

12

10

8
Series1
6

0
14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5
 Frequency Polygon
It is a line chart that is constructed by
plotting the frequencies and class mark
and connecting the plotted pointed by
means of a straight line; the polygon us
closed by considering an additional class
at each end and each end of the lines are
brought down to the horizontal axis at the
mid point of the additional classes.
 Frequency Polygon
14

12

10

8
Series1
6

0
14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5
 Ogive
It is a graph of a cumulative frequency
distribution and sometimes called a
cumulative frequency distribution graph.
 Ogive

45
40
35
30
25 Series1
20 Series2
15
10
5
0
9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5 69.5 79.5
 Pie Chart
It is a graphical presentation that uses
circle or pie.
 Pie Chart

36 36
27 36
36 9
9 117 9
9
117
117
117
27
Chapter 3
 3.1 The Mean

This section aims to:

 State and illustrate the definition of the mean
both for grouped and raw data (ungrouped);
 Apply the shortcut formula for calculating the
mean.
The most commonly used measure of central
tendency is the mean. When taking an average,
it is the mean that is often referring to.

This section is divided into two: the mean for

ungrouped data and the mean for grouped data
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY
-single number represent the given data.

 Mean – average value of the given data.

- not appropriate measures of central
tendency if there is outer.

2. Median – divide the distribution into two equal

parts (upper 50% and the lower 50%)
3. Mode – the most frequent occuring data.
- nominal value/part.
 UNGROUPED DATA

25 32 41 58 78 9 5 105 110 112 112 115

Mean = ∑X
n
= 883
11
= 80.2727
 GROUPED DATA
Short Method

Mean = AM (∑fd/n) i
Long Method
Mean = ∑fx
n
= 2250
40
Mean = 56.25
 3.2 Median and Mode
This section aims to:
 Differentiate the three principal measurements
of central tendency;
 Apply the computations of the median and
mode in various sets of data
 B. Median - is the middle measure in a set
of measures arranged in order magnitude.
If the total number of measure is given by
the average of two middle measures.
Thus, in the median, half the distribution
lies above it.
Mode = 112
 if in case of two mode, it is called bimodal.
 if no mode, there is no pair of data.
 C. Mode - is the item or measure which occurs
most often. It has the highest number of
frequency.
 ASSUMED MEAN
Mean = AM+ (∑fd/n)i
= 64.5+ (-33/40)10
= 64.5-8.25
Mean = 56.25
Median
Median = LL+(n/2-<cf) i
f
= LL + (20-9/13)10
= 49.5 + (11/13) 10
= 49.5 + 8.4615
Median =57.9615
Mode
Mode= LL + (∆1/ ∆1+ ∆2) i
*where ∆1 = difference between the modal
class and the next lower score.
∆2 = difference between the modal
class and the next upper score.
3.3 Percentiles, Deciles,
and Quartiles
This section aims to:
 Define, illustrate, and distinguish percentiles,
deciles, and quartiles; and
 Discuss the formulas of percentiles, deciles, and
quartiles.
 Measure of Location
 Position/Location
 QUARTILE (Q)
 Q1- 25% 1/2

 Q2- 50% 1/2

 Q3- 75% 3/4

 DECILE (D)
 D1 -10%
 D2– 20%
 D3– 30%
 D4- 40%
 D5- 50%
 D6- 60%
 D7- 70%
 D8- 80%
 D9- 90%
 PERCENTILE (P)
 P1- 1/100
 P2- 2/100
 P3- 3/100
 P4- 4/100
 P5- 5/100
…..
 P99- 99/100
 UNGROUPED DATA
85 92 105 118 126 149 165 189 205 210 220

Q1 : 0.25n = 0.25(11) = 2.75

d = 105-92 = 13
c = 13(0.75) = 9.75
Q1= 92=9.75
Q1= 101.75
Q3 : 0.75n = 0.75(11) = 8.25
d = 205-189 = 16
c = 16(0.25) = 4
Q3= 189+4
Q3= 193
P3 : 0.3n = 0.3(11) = 8.25
d = 118-105= 13
c = 13(0.3) = 3.9
P3= 105+3.9
P3= 108.9
 GROUPED DATA

C.I. f <cf X <cf f/n sector

80-89 1 40 84.5 1 0.0025 9percen
t
70-79 4 39 74.5 5 0.1000 36
60-69 13 35 64.5 18 0.3250 117
50-59 13 22 54.5 31 0.3250 117
40-49 4 9 44.5 35 0.1000 36
30-39 3 5 34.5 38 0.0750 27
20-29 1 2 24.5 39 0.0250 9
10-19 1 1 14.5 40 0.0250 9
n=40 ∑rf=1
Q1 = LL + n/4 - <cf i
f
= 49.5 + 10-9 10
13
= 4905 + (1/13) 10

= 4905 + 0.7692

Q1 = 50.2692
Q3 = LL + 3n/4 - <cf i
f
= 59.5 + 30-22 10
13
= 59.5 + (80/13) 10

= 59.5 + 6.1538

Q3 = 65.6538
 D2 = LL + 0.2n - <cf i
f
= 39.5 + 8-5 10
4
= 39.5 + (30/4) 10

= 39.5 + 7.5

D2 = 47
P23 = LL + 0.23n - <cf i
f
= 49.5 + 92.2 - 9 10
13
= 49.5 + (0.2/13) 10

= 49.5 + (0.0153)10

= 49.5 + 0.1538

P23 = 49.6538
Q3 = LL + 3n/4 - <cf i
f
= 59.5 + 30-22 10
13
= 59.5 + (80/13) 10

= 59.5 + 6.1538

Q3 = 65.6538
MEASURE OF VARIABILITY OR
DISPERSION
 Measure of the scatteredness of a particular
data in a given data set.
 Average of distance
1. Range = H.S. – L.S.
C.L. Range
80-89 8905-9.5 = 80

2. Mean Average Deviation

- takes into account all the variables in a given
distribution.
FORMULA FOR FINDING MEAN
AVERAGE DEVIATION:

MAD = ∑|x-x|
n
3. Standard Deviation
- the most commonly used in measures of variability

UNGROUPED DATA
Sample SD
1. SD= ∑(x-x)2 2.
SD= ∑x2 – (x)2
n-1 n-1

Population SD
= ∑x-m)2
N
GROUPED DATA:

SD = i ∑f(d1)2 - ∑fd1 2
n n
4. Quartile Deviation
- semi- center quartile range.
- represent mid-point of middle part of a
distribution.
 FORMULA:
UNGROUPED DATA:

QD = Q3 – Q1
2
Chapter 4
 MEASURE OF VARIABILITY
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
 Coefficient of Variation denoted by CV allows
the variability of scores in 2 sets of data that do
not necessarily measures the same thing.
 The one who got highest scores is the one who
needs improvement.
 FORMULA:

CV SD x 100%
x
Example:

10- Highest
1- Lowest

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Coke 8 10 2 8 9 5 8 6 8 10

Pepsi 9 8 1 10 9 3 7 8 8 10
 x= 7.4 (coke)
x x x-x |x-x| (x-x)2 (x)2

8 7.4 .6 .6 .36 64
10 7.4 2.6 2.6 6.76 100
2 7.4 5.4 5.4 29.16 4
8 7.4 .6 .6 .36 64
9 7.4 1.6 1.6 2.56 81
5 7.4 -2.4 2.4 5.76 25
8 7.4 .6 .6 .36 64
6 7.4 -1.4 1.4 1.96 36
8 7.4 .6 .6 .36 64
10 7.4 2.6 2.6 6.76 100
∑|x-x|=18.4 ∑(x-x)2=54.4 ∑(x)2=602
 x= 7.3 (pepsi)

x x x-x |x-x| (x-x)2 (x)2

9 7.3 1.7 1.7 2.87 81
8 7.3 0.7 0.7 0.49 64
1 7.3 -6.3 6.3 39.69 1
10 7.3 2.7 2.7 7.29 100
9 7.3 1.7 1.7 2.87 81
3 7.3 -4.3 4.3 18.47 9
7 7.3 -0.3 0.3 0.09 49
8 7.3 0.7 0.7 0.49 64
8 7.3 0.7 0.7 0.49 64
10 7.3 2.7 2.7 7.29 100
∑|x-x|= ∑(x-x)2=80.1
Coke

CV = SD x 100% SD= ∑(x-x)2

n-1
x
= 54.4
CV= 204585 x 100% 9
7.4
= √6.04

CV= 33.2229%
SD= 2.4585
Pepsi
SD= ∑(x-x)2
n-1

= 80.1
10-1
= 80.1
9
= √ 8.9
SD = 2.9833
SD2= 8.9
DECISION:

Pepsi needs more

improvement than coke in terms of

taste
A distribution of 2 different units is given to compare
in dispersion of heights versus in dispersion of
weights. The mean height is 5.70 feet with SD = 0.9 ft.
The mean weight is 72.5 kg with SD = 801 kg.
Compare the dispersion in heights and in weights.

HEIGHTS WEIGHTS
CV = SD x 100% CV = SD x 100%
x x

= 0.9 x 100% = 8.1 x 10%

5.7 72.5

= 0.15789 = 0.111724

= 15.7985% = 11.1724%
 MEASURE OF SKEWNESS

 Degree of symmetry or departure from

symmetry.

FORMULA:

1. SK1 = x-x 2. SK2 = 3(x-x)

SD SD
1.SK3 = Q3 – 2Q2 + Q1
Q3 – Q1
4. SK4 = P90 – 2P50 + P10
P90 – P10
UNGROUPED DATA
5. SK5 = ∑f(x-x)3
n(SD)3
GROUPED DATA

SK5 = ∑f(x-x)3
n(SD)3
Negatively Skewed Distribution (all negative)

Positively Skewed Distribution (all positive)

Normal Distribution = 0
 Measure of Kurtosis

 It is the degree of peakedness

FORMULA:
Ungrouped Data Grouped

K = ∑(x-x)4 K= ∑f(x-x)4
n(SD)4 n(SD)4
Leptokurtic Distribution

Mesokurtic Distribution
Platykurtic Distribution
Chapter 5
5.1 PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING
This section aims to:
 State and illustrate the principle of
counting;
 Diagram the computations involving the
principle of counting; and
 Apply the principle of counting in various
area of problem solving.
 Principle of Counting

If a choice of 2 steps of which the

first can be made in n1 ways and a
second can be made in n2 ways, then
the whole choice can be made by n1
n2 ways.
EXAMPLES:
1. In a class of 20 the # of ways selecting president,
Vice-President, Secretary, treasurer is

20 . 19 . 18 . 17 = 116280
1. Certain government employees are classified
into 2 categories
Sex: (male, female)
Marital Status : (single. Married, widow,
separated)
2 . 4 = 8
 GENERALIZATION OF
PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING
 If a choice has k steps of which the first
can be made ian N1 ways, of which each
of these 2nd can be made in n2 ways…. 3rd
of which of these kth can be made… in nk
which then the whole choice can be made
by n1 . n2 . nk(ways)
EXAMPLES:

1. A test is compose of a 10 multiple question with each having four(4) possible

answers.
4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 = 1,048,576

1. How many nos, of five(5) digits each can be made from the digit 1-9 if:
a. No. must be odd
b. The last two(2) digit each no. are even number.

• Repetition is not allowed

1 ,2 ,3 , 4 , 5
 5.2 Permutations
This section aims to:
 Define and illustrate permutations
 Apply permutations in various situational
conditions; and
 State and illustrate the circular permutation.
 PERMUTATIONS
 Arrangement of group of things in a definite
order that is, there is a 1st element, 2nd element,
3rd element etc. In other words, the order of
arrangement of an element is important.
 EXAMPLES:
1. In how many ways can the five(5) starting position on the PBA
team with 12 mean who can play any of the position.
12P5 = 12! = 12! = 12 .11 .10 .9 . 8 . 7 . 6 . 5 .4 .3 .2 .1 = 95,040
(12-5) 7! 7!

1. How many permutation can be made from the letter of q

word Sunday?
a. If the four(4) letters are use at a time.
6P4 = 6! = 6! = 360
(6-4)! 2!
b. All letters are used
6P6 = 6! = 720
6!
FORMULAS:

1ST Formula:
• the number if permutation n
things taken n at a time is nPn=n!
 CIRCULAR PERMUTATION

 The permutation that occur by arranging objects

in a circle are called circular permutation…

P = (n-1)!
 COMBINATION
 A combination also concerns arrangement but
without regards to order. This means that the
order or arrangement in which the element are
taken is not important.

nCr = n!
r!(n-1)!
The End
Thank You!
Presenters:
Mary Ann Frogosa
Mary Ann Mosquerra
BOA IV-1