Un8 History Culture TN

Unit 4
Ancient
Cities of
Tamilagam
Learning Objectives
• To learn about the greatness of the towns of ancient Tamilagam.
• To know about Poompuhar, Madurai and Kanchi.
• To understand the ancient kingdoms of Tamilagam.
• To gain knowledge about the crafts, markets, manufactures, maritime trade,
education and water management in ancient Tamilagam.
[It is a Government Higher Secondary

School. Reciprocating the greetings
of the students of VI Std, the Social
Science Teacher signals them to get
seated]
Teacher: Wow! You look pretty in
your new dress, Tamilini.
Students: Ma’m, today is her
birthday.
Teacher: Wish you a happy birthday
Tamilini. Many more happy returns of
the day.
Tamilini: Thank you, ma’m.
Teacher: Ok children. Shall we start
today's class from Tamilini’s birthday.
Students: How come ma’m? What
is the connection between Tamilini’s
Not to scale
birthday and today’s class?
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Teacher: There is. I shall come to that Teacher: Like Harappa and Mohenjo-
later. Let us stand up and wish her first. Daro in ancient India, there were famous
Students: Happy birthday, Tamil. towns in ancient Tamilagam too. Madurai,
Kanchi and Poompuhar are prominent
Tamilini: Thank you all.
among them.
Teacher: Tamil, Is Chennai your
Tamil literature, accounts of foreign
home town?
travellers and archaeological finds provide
Tamilini: No ma’m. My home town is
us information about the ancient towns of
Kadavur near Karur.
Tamilagam.
Teacher: Good. Do you have the habit
of visiting your home town? Poompuhar
Tamilini: Yes ma’m. Every summer I Poompuhar is one of the oldest towns in
visit my home town. ancient Tamilagam. This is the place where
Teacher: Excellent! Can you tell me well known characters of Silapathikaram,
the difference between Kadavur and Kovalan and Kannagi lived. It was also a port
Chennai? town along the Bay of Bengal. The ports
were established for facilitating maritime
Tamilini: Kadavur is a village. Chennai
trade. Even in times past, countries began
is a city.
to export their surplus products and import
Teacher: Excellent! the scarce commodities by sea. Poompuhar
Teacher: Can you tell what were the is one such historic port that emerged in
earliest planned cities of ancient India? the wake of increasing maritime trade.
Students: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, It is a coastal town near the present-day
ma’m. Mayiladuthurai and is located where the
Teacher: Yes. Very good children. Today river Cauvery drains into the sea.
we are going to study about the ancient Poompuhar Port
towns of Tamilagam. They are Poompuhar,
Madurai, Kanchi. Shall we start? Poompuhar was also known by names
such as Puhar and Kaveripoompattinam.
Students: Ok ma’m.
It served as the port of the early Chola
Teacher: See we have started today’s
kingdom. One of the popular Sangam
lesson with Tamilini’s birthday. Literature. Pattinappaalai and Tamil epics,
Students: Yes mam. Silappathikaram and Manimegalai, have
references to the brisk sea-borne trade
that took place in the port city, Puhar.
Mesopotamian
Silappathikaram, in
civilisation is the
particular, speaks about
earliest civilisation in
the greatness of
the world. It is 6500
Poompuhar. The lead
years old.
female character of
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Silappathikaram is Kannagi. Her father
goods at legitimate prices. Pattinappaalai
is Maanaigan. Sea traders are known states that “selling any commodity at a
by the name Maanaigan. The male higher price was considered bad”.
character Kovalan’s father is Maasathuvan.
Massathuvan means a big trader. It is clear The author of Pattinappaalai, Kadiyalur
from the text that Poompuhar was a place Uruttirangannanar, belonged to 2nd century
where big traders and sea traders had BCE. This is indicative of Puhar’s antiquity.
settled down. Horses were imported by sea. Pepper was
procured through the land route. Gold
Numerous merchants from foreign
that came from Vadamalai was polished
countries such as Greece and Rome
and exported to the overseas countries.
landed at Poompuhar. Due to busy and
Sandal from Western Ghats, pearls from
continuous trade, many of them stayed
southern sea, corals from eastern sea and
on indefinitely in Poompuhar. There are
food items from Eelam were imported.
evidences of foreigner settlements in the
town. People speaking many languages Poompuhar had been built differently
inhabited Poompuhar in its glorious days. from other towns. Each social group had
As loading and unloading of ships took a separate settlement. Streets were broad
some months, the foreign traders began to and straight, dotted with well-designed
interact with the local people during that houses. There was also a dockyard.
period. This enabled the natives to learn We can learn about the life of the
foreign languages for communication. people of Puhar by reading Pattinappaalai
Similarly, the foreigners also learnt Tamil to and “Puhar Kandam” of Silappathikaram.
communicate with the natives. This contact Puhar was a busy port upto 200 CE. It
facilitated not only exchange of goods might have been either washed away by
but also languages and ideas resulting in sea or destroyed by big shore waves. The
cultural blending. remains of that destruction can still be
The traders of Poompuhar were known seen in the present Poompuhar town.
for their honesty and integrity. They sold
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Madurai
Madurai has been one of the oldest cities in
India. Its antiquity can be understood from
the sobriquet “Sangam Valartha Nagaram”
it has earned.
Pandyas, the Cholas and later the
Kalabras ruled Madurai in the ancient
period. During medieval times, later
Cholas and later Pandyas followed by
the Nayaks ruled this historic town. This
has resulted in cultural blending. Trade last Sangam. Ahil, fragrant wood, was
flourished and evidence for this has been brought from Port Thondi to Madurai.
unearthed in archaeological excavation King Solomon of ancient Israel imported
done in Keezhadi near Madurai. pearls from Uvari near the Pandyan port,
Madurai is proudly associated with Korkai.
tamil sangam (academies), which worked A mint of Roman coins was present
for the promotion of Tamil language. at Madurai. The coins of other countries
Forty-nine poets were associated with the were also minted at Madurai, which is a
proof for the glory of Madurai.
Thoonga Nagaram
The fame of Madurai is attested by
the accounts of the Greek historian
Megasthanese. Chanakya, Chandragupta’s
minister, makes a mention of Madurai in
his book, Arthasastra.
In the moat around the town, tunnels
had been constructed in such a way that
even elephants could comfortably enter.
Madurai had Naalangadi and
Allangadi. Kanchi
Naalangadi – Day Market. A place of learning is called school. Several
Allangadi – Evening Market. schools were established in great numbers
Madurai is known as Thoonga for the first time in Kancheepuram. Jains
Nagaram (the city that never studied in Jainapalli, and Buddhists
sleeps). Madurai was a safe studied in Viharas.
place where women purchased The greatness of Kanchi as an
things from Allangadi without educational centre can be understood
any fear. from the fact that the Chinese traveller
Hieun Tsang who studied at Nalanda
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Hieun Tsang
University visited Kanchi of those times. Hundreds of lakes were

‘Kadigai’ to pursue his created for storing water around the
further studies. town of Kanchi. These lakes were well
Poet Kalidasa says, connected with canals. During the later
“Kanchi is the best of the period, Kanchi came to be known as the
towns”. Tamil poet saint Thirunavukarasar district of lakes. Water management skills
praises Kanchi as “Kalviyil Karaiillatha of the ancient Tamils can be understood
Kanchi”. from the construction of Kallanai in the
Chola country and the lakes and canals in
Hieun Tsang remarked that Kanchi
Kanchi.
can be counted as one among the
Apart from Poompuhar, Madurai
seven sacred places like Budh Gaya
and Kanchi, there were other towns
and Sanchi. Kanchi is the oldest
too in ancient Tamilagam. Korkai,
town in Thondai Nadu. Scholars like
Vanchi, Thondi, Uraiyur, Musiri, Karuvur,
Dharmabalar, Jothibalar, Sumathi and
Mamallapuram, Thanjai, Thagadoor and
Bodhi Dharmar were born in Kanchi.
Kaayal are some of them. By conducting
Kanchi is also known as the temple town.
archaeological research, more information
The famous temple of great architectural
can be gathered about these places.
beauty, Kailasanathar temple, was built
Thank you students. With this, we
by later Pallava king Rajasimha at Kanchi.
shall complete this lesson now.
During the Pallava period, a large number
of cave temples were built. The Buddhist
monk Manimegalai spent the last part of
her life at Kanchi speaks highly of that Poompuhar was a port.
town. Madurai was a trading town.
Water management played an Kanchi was an educational centre.
important role in the agrarian society
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Tamil sayings represent the uniqueness of each ancient Tamil kingdom
Chola Nadu - sorudaithu (rice in abundance).

Pandya Nadu - muthudaithu (pearls in abundance).
Chera Nadu - vezhamudaithu (elephants in abundance).
Thondai Nadu - Saandrorudaithu (scholars in abundance)
Chera Nadu - Comprised Malayalam-speaking regions and Tamil districts of

Coimbatore, Nilgiris, Karur, Kanniyakumari and Some parts of present Kerala.
Chola Nadu - Present-day Thanjavur, Tiruvarur, Nagai, Trichy and Pudukkottai
districts.
Pandya Nadu - Erstwhile composite Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Sivagangai,
Thuthukkudi and Tirunelveli districts
Thondai Nadu - Present-day Kancheepuram, Dharmapuri, Tiruvallur, Tiruvannamalai,
Vellore and northern parts of Villupuram districts.
Summary
))Madurai, Kanchi and Poompuhar are • Foreigner - a person who
famous towns in ancient Tamilagam. comes from
))We know about the life of the another country
people of Poompuhar by reading • Blending - the mixings
Silappathikaram and Pattinappaalai.
• Integrity - the quality of being
))Madurai is associated with three
honest
sangams.
• Legitimate - reasonable prices
))Kanchi was an educational centre.
prices
Many great scholars were associated
• Antiquity - a long time ago
with it.
))Kanchi known as a city of temples, was • Sobriquet - nick name
also known for water management.
• Mint - A place where
coins are made
• Moat - a deep and wide
trench filled with
water surrounding
• Maritime - trade by sea
a palace
Trade
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Unit 1
Society and Culture in
Ancient Tamizhagam:
The Sangam Age
Learning Objectives
• To understand that Sangam Tamil literature is the main source for the study of
ancient Tamil society
• To know the rule of Muvendars (Three Great Kings) – the Chera, Chola and the
Pandya kings – and their contemporary minor chieftains
• To gain an understanding of the administrative system and the socio-economic
conditions of Tamizhagam
• To learn about the Kalabhra period
The Sangam Age

The word ‘Sangam’ refers to the association ArumugaNavalar (Jaffna), U.V.Swaminatha
of poets who flourished under the royal Iyer and Damodharam Pillai (Jaffna) strove
patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai. hard and spent many years in retrieving and
The poems composed by these poets are publishing the Tamil classics and the ancient
Tamil texts, which were originally present as
collectively known as Sangam literature.
palm leaf manuscripts.
The period in which these poems were
composed is called the Sangam Age.
Sources
Inscriptions Hathigumpha Inscription of King Karavela of Kalinga,
Pugalur (near Karur) Inscription, Ashokan Edicts II and
XIII, and inscriptions found at Mangulam, Alagarmalai
and Kilavalavu (all near Madurai)
Copper Plates Velvikudi and Chinnamanur copper plates
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Coins Issued by the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas and the

chieftains of Sangam Age as well as the Roman coins
Megalithic Monuments Burials and Hero stones
Excavated Materials Adichanallur, Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Puhar, Korkai,
from Alagankulam, Uraiyur
Literary Sources Tholkappiyam, Ettuthogai (eight anthologies),
Pathupattu (ten idylls), PathinanKeezhkanakku (a
collection of eighteen poetic works), Pattinapalai and
Maduraikanji. Epics Silapathikaram and Manimegalai.
Foreign Notices The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Pliny’s Natural
History, Ptolemy’s Geography, Megasthenes’s Indica,
Rajavali, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa
Tholkappiyam is a work on Tamil grammar. It represents the quality of Tamil language and the
culture of Tamil people of the Sangam Age.
Time Span 3rd century BC (BCE) to c. 3rd century AD (CE)
Tamizhagam Vengadam (Tirupathi hill) in the north to

Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) in the south,
Bounded by sea on the east and the west.
Age Iron Age
Culture Megalithic
Polity Kingship
Dynasties ruled The Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas
George L. Hart, Professor of Tamil language at the University of California, has

said that Tamil is as old as Latin. The language arose as an entirely independent
tradition with no influence of other languages.
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Cheras famous of the Chola kings. He defeated

the combined army of the Cheras,
Muvendars (Three Great Kings) controlled
Pandyas and the eleven Velir chieftains
the territories of Tamizhagam during the
who supported them at Venni, a small
Sangam Age. The Tamil word ‘Vendar’
village in the Thanjavur region. He
was used to refer to three dynasties,
converted forests into cultivable lands.
namely the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
He built Kallanai (meaning a dam made of
The Cheras ruled over the central and
stone) across the river Kaveri to develop
north Travancore, Cochin, south Malabar
agriculture. Their port Puhar attracted
and Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. The
merchants from various regions of the
Pathitrupathu (a collection of ten decades
Indian Ocean. The Pattinapaalai, a poetic
of verses) provides information about the
work in the Pathinenkeezhkanakku, gives
Chera kings. It is known that the Chera
elaborate information of the trading
king Senguttuvan went on a military
activity during the rule of Karikalan.
expedition to North India. He brought
stones from the Himalayas for making the
idol of Kannagi, an epic character from Kallanai
Silappathikaram . He introduced pattini It was a dyke, built with
cult. CheranSenguttuvan’s younger stones. It was constructed
brother was IlangoAdigal. He was the across the Kaveri to divert
author of Silappathikaram. Another Chera water throughout the
delta region for irrigation.
king, CheralIrumporai, issued coins in
When it was built, Kallanai irrigated an
his name. Some Chera coins bear their
area of about 69,000 acres.
emblem of bow and arrow.
Prominent Chera Rulers

UdayanCheralathan
Imayavaramban NetunCheralathan
CheranSenguttuvan
CheralIrumporai
Cholas
Prominent Chola Rulers
The Chola kingdom of Sangam period Ilanchetsenni
extended upto Venkatam (Tirupathi) KarikalValavan
hills. The Kaveri delta region remained Kocengannan
the central part of the kingdom. This KilliValavan
area was later known as Cholamandalam. Perunarkilli
KarikalValavan or Karikalan was the most
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Pandyas kings issued many coins. Their coins have

elephant on one side and fish on another
The Pandyas ruled the present-day southern
side. MudukudimiPeruvazhuthi issued coins
Tamil Nadu. The Pandya kings patronized the
to commemorate his performance of many
Tamil poets and scholars. Several names of
Vedic rituals.
Pandya kings are mentioned in the Sangam
literature. Nedunchezhiyan is hailed as Prominent Pandya Rulers
the most popular warrior. He defeated the Nediyon
combined army of the Chera, Chola and five Nanmaran
Velir Chieftains at Talayalanganam. He is MudukudumiPeruvazhuthi
praised as the lord of Korkai. Pandya country Nedunchezhiyan
was well known for pearl hunting. Pandya
Pala
r
S.
Pen
Marakkanam
nar
Arikamedu
Ka
ve
ri Kaveripumpattinam
C H O L A S
Urayur Nagapattinam
Musiri
Pe
riya
r S
A
Y
D Va
N Madurai igai
CH
A
P
ER
Tama Alagankulam
ra para
AS
ni
S
Korkai
R
I
L A
Kanyakumari
N
K
A
The Titles Assumed by the Muvendars
CHERAN CHOLAN PANDIYAN
• Adhavan • Senni • Maran
• Kuttuvan • Sembiyan • Valuthi
• Vanavan • Killi • Sezhiyan
• Irumporai • Valavan • Tennar
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Royal Insignia
Sceptre (kol), drum (murasu) and white umbrella (venkudai) were used as the symbols
of royal authority.
Muvendar Garland Port Capital Symbols
Palmyra Muziri/ Vanchi/

Cheras
flower Tondi Karur
Bow and arrow
Fig (Athi) Uraiyur/

Cholas Puhar
flower Puhar
Tiger
Pandyas Margosa Korkai Madurai
(neem) flower
Two Fish
Minor Chieftains – seven patrons (KadaiyezhuVallalgal). They

Ay, Velir and Kizhar were Pari, Kari, Ori, Pegan, Ay, Adiyaman
and Nalli. They were popular for their
Apart from three great kings, there were
generous patronage of Tamil poets.
several brave independent minor chieftains.
The name ‘Ay’ is derived from the ancient Tamil Kizhar was the village chief.
word ‘Ayar’ (meaning shepherd). Among Ay
chiefs of Sangam Age, Anthiran, Titiran and Sangam Polity
Nannan were the important names. Kingship
The kingship was hereditary. The king

was called Ko. It is the shortened form
of Kon. Vendan, Kon, Mannan, Kotravan
and Iraivan were the other titles by which
the king was addressed. The eldest son
of the reigning king generally succeeded
to the throne. The coronation ceremony
was known as arasukattilerudhal or
mudisoottuvila. The crown prince was
known as komahan, while the young ones
The Velirs–Vellalars– constituted the were known as Ilango, Ilanchezhiyan and
ruling and land-owning class in the ancient Ilanjeral. King held a daily durbar (naal-
Tamizhagam. The famous Velirs were the avai) at which he heard and resolved all
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the disputes. The income to the state was (shield), tomaram (lance), spears, bows and
through taxation. Land tax was the main arrows. Tomaram is mentioned as a missile
source of revenue and it was called ‘Irai’. to be thrown at the enemy from a distance.
This apart, the state collected tolls and The place where the weapons were kept
customs (sungam), tributes and fines. was known as paddaikottil. The forts were
The kings and soldiers wore the protected by deep moats and trenches. The
heroic anklet (Veera kazhal). On the anklet, war drum was worshipped as a deity.
the name and achievement of the wearer
Law and Justice
were blazoned. Spies were used not only
to find out what was happening within the The king was the final authority for appeal.
country, but also in foreign countries. In the capital town, the court of justice was
A wound in the back was considered called Avai. In the villages, Mandram served
a disgrace and there are instances of as the place for dispensing justice. In civil
kings fasting unto death because they cases, the method of trial followed was to
had suffered such a wound in the battle. call upon the plaintiff to thrust his hand
into a pot containing a cobra. If the cobra
The Court bit him, he was sentenced; if the cobra did
not bite him he was considered innocent
The king’s court was called Arasavai. The
and acquitted. Punishment was always
king occupied a ceremonious throne in the
severe. Execution was ordered for theft
court called Ariyanai. In the court, the king
cases. The punishment awarded for other
was surrounded by officials, distinguished
crimes included beheading, mutilation of
visitors and court poets. The rulers had
the offending limbs of the body, torture
five-fold duties. They were encouraging
and imprisonment and imposition of fines.
learning, performing rituals, presenting
gifts, protecting people and punishing the
criminals. Ambassadors were employed by Local Administration
the kings. They played a significant role. The The entire kingdom was called Mandalam.
king was assisted by a number of officials. Mandalam was divided into Nadus. Kurrm
They were divided into Aimperunguzhu was subdivision of Nadu. The Ur was a
(five-member committee) and Enberaayam village, classified into perur (big village),
(eight-member group). Sirur (a small village) and Mudur (an old
village) depending upon its population,
Army
size and antiquity. Pattinam was the
The king’s army consisted of four divisions, name for a coastal town and Puhar was
namely, infantry, cavalry, elephants and the general term for harbour town.
chariot force. The army was known as
‘Padai’. The chief of the army was known Important Towns
as Thanaithalaivan. The prominent weapons Puhar, Uraiyur, Korkai, Madurai, Muziri,
used during this period were sword, kedayam Vanji or Karur and Kanchi.
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Thinai (tract)-based Sangam Society
The land form was divided into five thinais (eco-regions).
Eco-region
(thinai) Landscape Occupation People Deity
Kurinji Palmyra flower Hunting /gathering Kuravar/kurathiyar Murugan
Mullai Forest region Herding Aayar/aaichiyar Maayon
Marutham Riverine track Agriculture Uzhavan/uzhathiyar Indiran
(plains)
Neithal Coastal region Fishing/saltmaking Parathavar/ nulathiyar Varunan
Palai Parched land Heroic deeds Maravar/Marathiyar Kotravai
Land was classified according to its Sangam period were Sivan, Mayon (Vishnu),
fertility. Marutham was called menpulam Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai. The Hero
(fertile land). It produced paddy and stone (natukkal) worship was in practice.
sugarcane. The rest of the landscape, Buddhism and Jainism also co-existed.
excluding Neithal, was called vanpulam
Veerakkal/Natukkal
(hard land), and it produced pulses and dry
grains. The ancient Tamils had a great respect
for the heroes who died in the battle
Status of Women field. The hero stones were erected to
commemorate heroes who sacrificed their
There was no restriction for women in
lives in war.
social life. There were learned and wise
women. Forty women poets had lived
and left behind their valuable works.
Marriage was a matter of self-choice.
However, chastity (karpu) was considered
the highest virtue of women. Sons and
daughters had equal shares in their
parents’ property.
Caste did not develop in
Women Poets of Sangam Age Tamizhagam as it did in the northern
Avvaiyar, VelliVeethiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar, India. Varuna system (occupation-based
AathiManthiyar, PonMudiyar.
caste) came to the Dravidian south
comparatively late.
Religious Beliefs and Social
Divisions Dress and Ornaments
The primary deity of the Tamils was Seyon The rich people wore muslin, silk and fine
or Murugan. Other gods worshipped during cotton garments. The common people
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also part of the population. Weaving was

the most common part-time occupation
of the farmers and a regular full time job
for many others.
Festivals and Entertainments
People celebrated several festivals. The

harvest festival, (Pongal) and the festival
of spring, kaarthigai, were some of them.
wore two pieces of clothes made of Indira vizha was celebrated in the capital.
cotton. The Sangam literature refers to There were many amusements and
clothes, which were thinner than the skin games. This included dances, festivals,
of a snake (Kalingam). Women adorned bull fights, cock fights, dice, hunting,
their hair plaits with flowers. Both men wrestling and playing in swings. Children
and women wore a variety of ornaments. played with toy cart and with the sand
They were made of gold, silver, pearls, houses made by them.
precious stones, conch shells and beads.
The People were fond of using aromatic Trade
perfumes.
Trade existed at three levels: local,
overland and overseas. The extensive and
Arts
lucrative foreign trade that Tamizhagam
There are many references to variety enjoyed during this period stands
of musical instruments such as drum, testimony to the fact that Tamils had been
flute and yazh. Karikalan was master of great seafarers. Warehouses for storing
seven notes of music (EzhisaiVallavan). the goods were built along the coast. The
Singing bards were called panar and chief ports had light houses, which were
vraliyar. Dancing was performed by called KalangaraillanguSudar. Caravans
kanigaiyar. Koothu (folk drama) was the of merchants carried their merchandise
most important cultural practice of the to different places in oxen-driven carts.
people of Sangam Age. They developed Barter system was prevalent.
the concept of Muthamizh (Iyal, Isai,
Naatakam). Malabar Black Pepper
When the Mummy of Ramses II of the
Occupation Egypt was uncovered, archaeologists
found black pepper corns stuffed into his
The major occupations of the people were:
nostrils and in his abdomen (as a part
agriculture, cattle rearing, fishing and
of embalming process practised in olden
hunting. Other craftsmen like carpenter, days).
blacksmith, goldsmith, and potters were
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There were two kinds of markets or Trade Contact with Overseas

bazaars in the leading cities like Puhar and Countries
Madurai. In Madurai they were Nalangadi Archaeological excavations have
(the morning bazaar) and Allangadi (the confirmed the trading relations between
evening bazaar). In these markets large the Tamizhagam and the countries such
varieties as well as large quantities of goods as Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, South
were sold and purchased. East Asia and Sri Lanka.
Major Ports: Musiri, Tondi, Korkai
Kalabhras
Main Exports
salt, pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spices, Towards the end of the 3rd century AD
diamonds, saffron, precious stones, (CE), the Sangam period slowly went into
muslin, sandal wood a decline. Following the Sangam period,
the Kalabhras had occupied the Tamil
Main Imports
country for about two and half centuries.
Topaz, tin, wine, glass, horses
We have very little information about
Kalabhras. They left neither artefacts
Silk supplied by Indian merchants to
nor monuments. But there is evidence
the Roman Empire was considered
of their rule in literary texts. The literary
so important that the Roman emperor
Aurelian declared it to be worth its weight sources for this period include Tamil
in gold. NavalarCharithai, Yapernkalam and
Periapuranam. SeevakaChinthamani and
Kundalakesi were also written during
Muziris – First Emporium this period. In Tamizhagam, Jainism and
The Roman writer Pliny the Elder writes of Buddhism became prominent during
Muziris in his Natural History as the ‘first this period. Introduction of Sanskrit
emporium (shopping complex) of India’. A and Prakrit languages had resulted in
temple of Augustus was built at Muziris,
the development of a new script called
which had a Roman colony.
Vattezhuththu . Many works under
A papyrus document (now in Vienna PathinenKeezhkanakku were composed.
museum) of 2nd century BC (BCE) records
Trade and commerce continued to flourish
the agreement between two merchants’
during this period. So the Kalabhra period
shippers of Alexandria and Muziris.
is not a dark age, as it is portrayed.
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Unit 4
South Indian
Kingdoms
Learning Objectives
• To know the southern Indian states that emerged after the fall of the
Mauryan Empire
• To acquire information of the ruling dynasties such as Pallavas,
Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas and their domains
• To understand their contribution to society and culture with reference to literature, art
and architecture
• To become familiar with the artistic and architectural splendour of Mamallapuram shore
temple, Ellora monuments and Elephanta cave temples
South Indian Kingdoms control over the greater part of India in this
period.
By the early 7th century, synchronising
with the Harsha’s reign in the north, the The Pallavas
far south had come under the control of The Pallava kings ruled around the
the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Pallava prosperous agrarian settlement and
sovereignty included the domains of the important trade centre of Kanchipuram on
Cholas and the Pandyas. The latter were the southeast coast of India. Kanchipuram
then emerging as ruling dynasties in their was well known to Chinese and Roman
respective river valley regions. Much of the merchants. From the flourishing trade centre
central and eastern Deccan was under the of Kanchipuram, the later Pallavas extended
Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), who were their sovereignty over all the Tamil-speaking
then pushed away by the Rashtrakutas. regions during the 7th and 8th centuries.
The medieval period in India was marked The central part of their kingdom, however,
by thee mergence of regional centres of was Thondaimandalam, a large political
power. There was no single imperial power region comprising northern parts of Tamil
like Mauryas or Guptas who exercised Nadu and the adjoining Andhra districts.
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PALLAVA TERRITORIES
Ujjain
Narmada Mahanadi
Nagpur
God Bay of
a var
i
Bengal
Bijapur
hna
Arabian Kris
Masulipatnam
Sea
Pallava Territories
KANCHI
CauvVellore
er y
Anda
Mamallapuram
Laks
man and Nicobar

h
PANDYA
adw
e
Madurai
ep
Indian Ocean
Sources
Inscriptions Mandagapattu Cave, Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II
Copper Kasakudi Plates

Plates
Literature Mattavilasa Prahasana, Avanthi Sundarakatha, Kalingathu Parani,
Periya Puranam, Nandi Kalambagam
Foreign Accounts of Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang
Notice
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Pallava Genealogy
(Prominent Kings) Narasimhavarman I’s army general
was Paranjothi. Popularly known as
There were early Pallava rulers who were Siruthondar (one of the 63 Nayanmars),
feudatories of Satavahanas. Simhavishnu, son Paranjothi led the Pallava army during
of Simhavarman II (around 550 AD (CE), created the invasion of Vatapi. After the victory
a strong Pallava kingdom after destroying the he had a change of heart and devoted
Kalabhras. He defeated many kings in the himself to Lord Siva
south including the Cholas and the Pandyas. –PeriyaPuranam

His able son was Mahendravarman I. He was
succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman I. Narasimhavarman II (c. 695–722),
The other prominent Pallava rulers were also known as Rajasimha, was a great
Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha and military strategist. He exchanged
Nandivarman II. The last Pallava ruler was ambassadors with China. His reign was
Aparajita. comparatively free from any political
Mahendravarman (c.600–630AD disturbance. Therefore, he could
(CE)) contributed to the greatness of the concentrate on temple-building activities.
Pallava kingdom. Mahendravarman I was During his reign, the famous Kailasanatha
a follower of Jainism in the early part of his temple at Kanchipuram was built.
rule. He was converted to Saivism by the
Saivite saint Appar (Tirunavukkarasar). Name of the King Title/s Adopted
He was a great patron of art and
Simhavishnu Avanisimha
architecture. He is known for introducing
Mahendravarma I Sankirnajati
a new style to Dravidian architecture,
Mattavilasa
which is referred to as ‘Mahendra style’. Gunabhara
Mahendravarman also wrote plays, Chitrakarapuli
including (c.620) MattavilasaPrahasana. Vichitra Chitta
(The Delight of the Drunkards) in Sanskrit, Narasimhavarma I Mamallan, Vatapi

which denigrates Buddhism. Kondan
Mahendravarman’s reign involved

Pallava’s Contribution
constant battles with the Western Chalukya
to Architecture
kingdom of Badami under Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin seems to have defeated Pallava period is known for architectural
Mahendravarman in one of the battles and splendour. The Shore Temple and various
taken over a large part of his territory (Vengi) other temples carved from granite
in the north. His son Narasimavarma I monoliths and the Varaha cave (7th
(c. 630–668) avenged the defeat by century) at Mamallapuram, are illustrious
capturing Vatapi, the capital of Chalukyas. examples of Pallava architecture. In 1984,
He set Vatapi on fire, killing Pulakesin in the Mamallapuram was added to the list of
process. UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Pallava architecture can be classified as The most important among the

1. Rock-Cut temples – Mahendravarman
Mamalla style of architecture is the open
style art gallery. Several miniature sculptures
such as the figure of lice-picking monkey,
2. Monolithic Rathas and Sculptural
elephants of huge size and the figure
Mandapas – Mamallan style
of the ascetic cat have been sculpted
3. Structural Temples – Rajasimhan
beautifully on the wall of a huge rock.
style and Nandivarman style
The fall of the River Ganga from the head
Mahendra Style of Lord Siva and the Arjuna’s penance are
The best example of MahendraVarma notable among them. The Great Penance
style monuments are cave temples at panel is considered to be the world’s
Mandagapattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, largest open-air bas relief.
Dalavanur, Tiruchirapalli, Vallam,
Tirukazhukkundram and Siyamangalam.
Arjuna’s Penance
Cave Temple Mandagapattu

Rajasimha Style
Mamalla Style
Narasimhavarma II, also known as
The five rathas (chariots), popularly called
Rajasimha, constructed structural temples
Panchapandavar rathas, signify five different
using stone blocks.The best example for
style of temple architecture. Each ratha has been
the structural temple is Kailasanatha
carved out of a single rock. So they are called
temple at Kanchipuram. This temple was
monolithic. The popular mandapams (pillared
built by using sand stones. Kailasanatha
pavilions) they built are Mahishasuramardhini
temple is called Rajasimheswaram.
mandapam, Thirumoorthi mandapam and
Varaha mandapam.
Panchapandavar Rathas Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple
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Nandivarma Style times and it attracted students from all

parts of India and abroad.Vatsyaya who
The last stage of the Pallava architecture
wrote Nyaya Bhashya was a teacher at
is also represented by structural temples
Kanchi (Gatika).
built by the later Pallavas. The best
example is Vaikunda Perumal temple at The treatise on Dakshin Chitram
Kanchipuram. (Paintings of South India) was
compiled during the reign of
Mahendravarma I.
The great Sanskrit scholar, Dandin,
lived in the court of Narasimhavarma I.
Dandin composed Dashakumara
Charita.
Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived
in the time of Simhavishnu. Bharavi
wrote Kiratarjuniya, an epic in verses.
Kanchi Vaikunda Perumal Temple
Tamil literature had also flourished
Society and Culture during the Pallava rule. Thevaram
composed by Nayanmars and
The Pallavas supported Jainism, Buddhism Nalayradivyaprabantham composed
and the Vedic faith. They were great patrons by Azhwars, which are still chanted
of music, painting and literature. Some of by devout people. Perundevanar, who
the Pallava kings patronised the Azhwars was patronized by Nandivarman II,
and Nayanmars. These exponents of Bhakti translated the Mahabharata into Tamil
Cult preached a new form of Vaishnavism as Bharathavenba.
and Saivism. Among the Saivites were
Appar and Manikkavasakar. Among the Pallava Art
Vaishnavites were Nammazhvar and Andal.
The Bhakti movement aimed at preaching a The Pallava kings had also patronised fine
popular faith, in which prayers in Tamil were arts. The music inscriptions in Kudumianmalai
preferred to those in Sanskrit. Women were and Thirumayam temples show Pallavas’
encouraged to participate in the religious interest in music. The famous musician
congregations. The Tamil devotional cult Rudracharya lived during Mahendravarma I.
was competitive with Buddhism and Jainism. The sculptures of this period depict many
Therefore the latter suffered a gradual images in dancing postures.
decline in most parts of Tamil country.
The Chalukyas
Education and Literature The Chalukyas ruled larger parts of west
Gatika (monastery or centre of learning) and centre of South India, consisting of
at Kanchi was popular during the Pallava Maratha country with Vatapi (Badami) as
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their capital. There were three distinct but The Chalukyas of Vatapi
closely related and independent Chalukya
Pulakesin I, a petty chieftain of Pattadakal
dynasties. They were (1) Chalukyas of
in the Bijapur district, took and fortified
Badami, (2) Chalukyas of Vengi (Eastern
the hill fort of Vatapi around 543 AD (CE).
Chalukyas) and (3) Chalukyas of Kalyani
He soon conquered the territory between
(Western Chalukyas). These Chalukyas
the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and
held Harsha in the north, the Pallavas
the Western Ghats. His son Kirtivarman I
in the south and Kalinga (Odisha) in the
(c. 566 to 597) brought the Konkan coast
east.
under Chalukya control. Pulakesin II
(c.610 to 642) emerged as the most
Sources powerful ruler of the dynasty. The
Inscriptions Badami Cave Inscription Persian (Iran) king Khusru II sent an
of Mangalesha embassy to the court of Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin succeeded in seizing parts of
Kanchi Kailasanatha
Gujarat and Malwa. He defied the North
Temple Inscription
Indian ruler Harsha and according to an
Pattadakal Virupaksha agreed understanding Narmada river
Temple Inscription was fixed as the boundary between the
Aihole Inscription of two. About 624, Pulakesin II conquered
Pulakesin I the kingdom of Vengi and gave it to his
Foreign Accounts of Chinese brother Vishnuvardhana, the first Eastern
Notice traveller Hiuen Tsang Chalukya ruler.
During 641–647 the Pallavas
ravaged the Deccan and captured Vatapi,
Aihole Inscription: It is found at but the Chalukyas had recaptured it
Meguti Temple in Aihole (Bagalkot district, by 655. Vikramaditya I (655 to 680)
Karnataka). It is written in Sanskrit by and Vikramaditya II, the successor of
Ravikirti, a court poet of Chalukya king
Vikramaditya I captured Kanchipuram
Pulakesin II. It makes a mention of the
but spared the city. Kirtivarman II,
defeat of Harsha Vardhana by Pulakesin II.
the successor of Vikramaditya II was
defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of
the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani
They were the descendants of Badami

Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern-
day Basavakalyan). In 973, Tailapa II,
a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling
from Bijapur region defeated Parmara of
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Malwa. Tailapa II occupied Kalyani and

his dynasty quickly grew into an empire
under Somesvara I. Somesvara I moved
the capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani.
For over a century, the two empires
of southern India, the Western Chalukyas
and the Chola dynasty of Thanjavur,
fought many fierce battles to control the
fertile region of Vengi. During the rule of
Vikramaditya VI in the late 11th century,
vast areas between the Narmada River in
the north and Kaveri River in the south
came under Chalukya control.
Contributions to Art and

Architecture
As supporters of both
Saivism and Vaishnavism,
the Chalukyas contributed
Cave Temple Badami
richly to art and
architecture. A new style
of architecture known as Vesara was
developed. Vesara is a combination of
south Indian (Dravida) and north Indian
(Nagara) building styles. They perfected
the art of stone building without mortar.
They used soft sandstones in construction.
They built a number of rock-cut
cave-temples and structural temples Kalleshwara Temple - Bagali
dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Brahma.
Vikramaditya II. Their cave temples are
The structural temples of Chalukyas exist
found at Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.
at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. The
important stone temples are the Vishnu The cave temples at Badami contain
temples at Badami and Aihole and the fine sculptures of Vishnu reclining on Sesha
Virupaksha or Siva Temple at Pattadakal in Nag; Varaha, the Boar; Narasimha or the
Bijapur district in present-day Karnataka. lion-faced man; and Vamana, the dwarf.
The Vishnu temple at Badami was built The Kasi Vishweshvara Temple at Lakkundi,
by Mangalesa of the Chalukya Dynasty the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the
and contains the Aihole inscription of Kalleshwara Temple at Bagali and the
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Mahadeva Temple at Itagi represent well- Badami. Krishna I succeeded Dantidurga. He

known examples of the architecture of consolidated and extended the Rashtrakuta
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. power. He was a great patron of art and
Chalukyas adopted the Vakataka architecture. The Kailasanatha temple at
style in paintings. Some of the frescoes of Ellora was built by him.
the caves of Ajantha were created during
Rashtrakuta Kings
the reign of Chalukyas. The reception given
to the Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta
depicted in a painting at Ajanta. dynasty was Amogavarsha. He built a
new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed
Pattadakal (UNESCO World Heritage in Karnataka) and Broach became the
Site) is a small village in Bagalkot district port. Amogavarsha (c. 814–878) was
of Karnataka. It has ten temples. Out of converted to Jainism by Jinasena, a Jain
them, four were built in northern style monk. Krishna II, who succeeded his
(Nagara), while the rest six are in the
father Amogavarsha, suffered a defeat in
southern (Dravida) style. Virupaksha
the battle of Vallala (modern Tiruvallam,
Temple and Sangameshwara Temple are
in Dravida Style and Papanatha temple is Vellore district) at the hands of Cholas
in Nagara style. The Virupaksha temple is under Parantaka in c. 916. Krishna III
built on the model of Kanchi Kailasanatha (c. 939–967) was the last able ruler
temple. Sculptors brought from Kanchi of Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated
were employed in its construction. the Cholas in the battle of Takkolam
(presently in Vellore district) and
captured Thanjavur. The Chalukyas under
Krishna III contested with other ruling
dynasties of north India for the control of
Kanauj. He built Krishneshwara temple at
Rameshwaram.Govinda III was the last
ruler to hold the empire intact. After his
death, the Rashtrakuta power declined.
Contribution of
The Rashtrakutas Rashtrakutas to literature,
art and architecture
The Rashtrakutas ruled not only the Deccan
but parts of the far south and the Ganges Literature
plain as well from 8th to 10th century AD(CE). Kannada language became more
They were of Kannada origin and their mother prominent. Kavirajamarga composed by
tongue was Kannada. Dantidurga was the Amogavarsha was the first poetic work in
founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty. He was an Kannada language. Court poets produced
official of high rank under the Chalukyas of eminent works in Kannada. The three
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gems of Kannada literature during the Elephanta Island

period were Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna.
Originally known as Sripuri and called
Adikavi Pampa was famous for his creative
Gharapuri by the local people, Elephanta
works Adipurana and Vikramarjunavijaya.
is an island near Mumbai. The Portuguese
The life of Rishabadeva, the first Jain
named it as Elephanta, after seeing the
Tirthankara is depicted in Adipurana.
huge image of an elephant. The Trimurthi
In Vikramarjunavijaya Pampa’s patron,
(three-faced) Siva icon is an illustrative
Chalukya Arikesari, is identified with
of the sculptural beauty portrayed in
Arjuna, epic hero of Mahabharatha.
the Cave Temple of Elephanta. There
are impressive images of dwarapalakas
Art and architecture (entrance guards) at the entrance of the
The Rashtrakutas made significant Temple.
contribution to Indian Art. The art and
architecture of the Rashtrakutas can be
found at Ellora and Elephanta.
Kailasanatha Temple – Ellora

(near Aurangabad, Maharashtra)
Kailasanatha Temple was one of the 30

temples carved out of the hill at Ellora.
It was built during the reign of Krishna I.
The temple is known for its architectural
Elephanta Cave
grandeur and sculptural splendour. The
temple covers an area of over 60,000 Pattadakal
sq. feet and vimanam (temple tower)
Rashtrakutas built temples in the complex
rises to a height of 90 feet. This temple
of Pattadakal. The Jain Narayana temple
has resemblance to the shore temple at
and the Kasi Vishwesvara temple were
Mamallapuram. The Kailasanatha temple
built by Rashtrakutas.
portrays typical Dravidian features.
Kailasanatha Temple – Ellora Jain Narayana Temple
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Unit -1
Sources of
Medieval India
Inscriptions: Temple Wall, Copper Plate & Palm Leaf
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with

Sources of the study of medieval India
Temples, mosques, tombs, palaces and forts as important sources
Literary and inscriptional texts
Accounts of Arab and Turkish travellers
Introduction:
Do you know the famous words of
The periods from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 and Khafi Khan, a courtier of Emperor
from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified as Aurangzeb? He says, ‘It is the duty of
Early Medieval and Later Medieval periods, an historian to be faithful, to have no
respectively, in Indian history. Numerous and hope of profit, no fear of injury, to show
varied sources are fortunately available to the no partiality on one side, or animosity
historians engaging in the study of Medieval on the other, to know no difference
India. Added to the information that can be between friend and stranger, and to
gleaned from inscriptions, monuments and write nothing but with sincerity.’
coins are the accounts left by Arab, Persian and
Turkish chroniclers. These accounts are rich in Sources
detail and have given first-hand information on
Sources are the supporting materials,
the life of kings, though they provide very little
documents or records in the form of evidence
information on the life of the common people.
that help to reconstruct the past.
The opinions of the courtiers and chroniclers
are often one-sided, written in a hyperbolic Classification of Sources
language, exaggerating the king’s achievements.

Let us now explore the various sources available
Primary Sources Secondary Sources
for the study of the history of Medieval India.
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We examine the details of political, Copper-plate grants, which were treated as

economic and socio-cultural developments legal documents, have significant source value.
with the aid of sources. The Islamic-Persian practices and the relatively
Primary Sources: Inscriptions, monuments high cost of copper plates made palm leaf and
and coins, and the information available in paper cheaper alternatives from 13th century
them. onwards.
Secondary Sources: Literary works, chronicles, Several copper-plate grants issued during
travelogues, biographies and autobiographies. the later Chola period (10th to 13th century)
Inscriptions record gifts to individual priests or teachers
who were Hindu, Buddhist, or Jaina, or to
persons of eminence. Both the giver and the
receiver are very elaborately described. By
contrast, most stone inscriptions differ in their
content. In stone inscriptions, the beneficence
of a donor is recorded. The major focus is upon
the giver. Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra
Chola I and the Anbil plates of Sundara Chola
are notable examples. Uttiramerur inscriptions
in Kanchipuram district provide details of the
Rock Inscription
way in which the village administration was
Inscriptions are writings engraved on conducted.
solid surfaces such as rocks, stones, temple
walls and metals. The king’s royal decrees,
dedications and donations, monuments raised
in commemoration of victories in wars, those
built in memory of deceased warriors, contain
rich information about the concerned era.
Copper plate Inscription
Various types of lands gifted by the Chola
kings are known from the inscriptions and Monuments
copper plates. They are:
Temples, palaces, mosques,
Vellanvagai - land of non-brahmin
tombs, forts, minars and
proprietors
Brahmadeya - land gifted to Brahmins minarets are called by the
Shalabhoga - land for the maintenance collective name monuments.
of a school The Sultans of Delhi introduced a new type
Devadana - land gifted to temples of architecture. The monuments they built had
Pallichchandam - land donated to Jaina
arches, domes and minarets as the main features.
institutions
The inscriptions in these monuments contain
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Dilwara Temple Mt. Abu Hampi - Vijayanagar
rich information, which can be used to construct (all in and around Delhi) and Charminar
history. The medieval Khajuraho monuments (Hyderabad) are the important mosques
(Madhya Pradesh) and temples in Konark belonging to the medieval times.
(Odisha) and Dilwara (Mt.Abu, Rajastan)
The forts of historical importance are Agra
constitute valuable sources to understand the
Fort, Chittor Fort, Gwalior Fort and Delhi
religion-centered cultural evolution in northern
Red Fort as well as the forts of Daulatabad
India. Temples in Thanjavur (Brihadeshwara),
(Aurangabad) and Firoz Shah Kotla (Delhi).
Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram
Palaces in Jaipur, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur signify
symbolise the magnificent structures the
the greatness of the Rajput dynasty that wielded
Later Cholas built in Tamil Nadu. Vitala and
enormous power from these places. Qutb Minar
Virupaksha temples at Hampi similarly speak
and Alai-Darwaza, the tombs of Iltutmish,
of the contribution of Vijayanagara rulers (15th
Balban and all the Mughal rulers are the other
century).
prominent structures recognised as valuable
sources of information. Cities in ruin such as
Firozabad and Tughlaqabad in north India and
Hampi in south India remain rich repositories
of the history of medieval India.
Coins
The picture and the legend on the coins convey
the names of kings with their titles and portraits,
events, places, dates, dynasties and logos. The
composition of metals in the coins gives us
information on the economic condition of the
Charminar empire. Mention of king’s achievements like
military conquests, territorial expansion, trade
Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid, Moth-ki- links and religious faith can also be found in the
Masjid, Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri Dargah coins.
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Devaram composed by Appar, Sambandar

and Sundarar and compiled by Nambiyandar
Nambi, Manikkavasakar’s Thiruvasagam, all
were scripted during the Chola times. Jayadeva’s
Gita Govindam (12th century) was a follow-up
of the Bhakti Movement in South India. Kabir
Lakshmi Coin of Ghori Coins of Khalji
Das, a 15th century mystic poet, also had an
Muhammad Ghori had stamped the figure influence on the Bhakti Movement in India.
of Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and had Secular Literature
his name inscribed on it. This coin tells us that
this early Turkish invader was in all likelihood Madura Vijayam and Amuktamalyatha
liberal in religious outlook. were poems composed by Gangadevi and
Krishnadevaraya respectively that help us gain
Copper Jitals are available for the study of
insight into the events and individuals associated
the period of the Delhi Sultans. Silver Tanka
with the Vijayanagara Empire. Chand Bardai’s
introduced by Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khalji’s
Prithiviraj Raso portrays the Rajput king’s
gold coins, Muhammad-bin-Tughluq’s copper
valour. We have no Indian accounts about what
token currency are indicative of coinage as well
happened during the Turkish invasion of India.
as the economic prosperity or otherwise of the
For pre-Islamic periods, the only exception was
country of the time.
Kalhana’s Rajtarangini (11th century).
A jital contained 3.6 Books, Biographies and Autobiographies
grains of silver. Forty-
eight jitals were equal to 1 Minhaj-us-Siraj, patronised by Sultan Nazir-
silver tanka. ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty, wrote
Tabakat-i-Nasiri. The compendium deals with
the period from the conquest of Muhammad
Ghori to A.D. (CE) 1260. The compendium
was named after his patron. In the 13th century,
Hasan Nizami, a migrant from Ghazni wrote.
Taj-ul-Ma’asir towards the end of Iltutmish’s
Religious Literature rule. It provides information about Qutb-ud-
Devotional movement in South India and din Aibak and is considered the first official
later in North resulted in the development history of the Delhi Sultanate. Zia-ud-Barni,
of bhakti or devotional literature. The a courtier of Muhammad Tughluq, wrote
Chola period was known as the period of Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, in which he dealt with the
devotional literature and works such as history of Delhi Sultanate from Ghiyas-ud-din
Kamba Ramayanam, Sekkizhar’s Periyapuranam, Balban to the early years of the reign of Firoz
Nalayira Divyaprabhandham, composed by Shah Tughluq. Ferishta’sTarikh-i-Frishta (16th
12 Azhwars and compiled by Nathamuni, century) deals with the history of the rise of the
Mughal power in India.
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stayed in India for 10 years. The most accurate

Tabakat is an Arabic word account of Mahmud’s Somnath expedition is
meaning generations or that of Alberuni. As learned man and a scholar,
centuries. he travelled all over India trying to understand
Tuzk is a Persian word India and her people. He learnt Sanskrit and
meaning autobiography. studied the philosophy of India. In his book
Tarikh or Tahquiq are Arabic words Tahquiq-i-Hind, Alberuni discussed the Indian
meaning history. conditions, systems of knowledge, social norms
and religion.
In the 16th century, emperor Babur’s Ibn Battuta (14th century), an Arab-born
Babur Nama and Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari and Morocco scholar, travelled from Morocco
Akbar Nama provided detailed information right across North Africa to Egypt and then to
about these two emperors. In the 17th century, Central Asia and India. His travelogue (Rihla
Jahangir wrote his memoir, Tuzk-i-Jahangiri, [The Travels]) contains rich details about the
throwing a lot of light on the period. Apart people and the countries he visited. According
from autobiographies of emperors, Tabakat-i- to him, Egypt was rich then, because of the
Akbari, authored by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, is whole of the Indian trade with the West passed
considered reliable than the exaggerated account through it. Ibn Battuta tells us of caste in India
of Abul Fazal. Similarly, Badauni’s outstanding and the practice of sati. We learn from him
work, Tarikh-i-Badauni (Badauni's History), that Indian merchants were carrying on a brisk
was published in 1595. This work spans three trade in foreign ports and Indian ships in the
volumes. The volume on Akbar’s reign is a frank seas. He describes the city of Delhi a vast and
and critical account of Akbar's administration, magnificent city. Those were the days when
particularly of his religious policy. Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq transferred his
capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) in
Travellers and Travelogues
the south, converting this city into a desert.
Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, visited when
the Pandya kingdom was becoming the leading
Tamil power in the 13th century. Marco Polo was
twice in Kayal, which was a port city (presently
in Thoothukudi district of Tamilnadu). It was
full of ships from Arabia and China. Marco
Polo tells us that he himself came by a ship from
China. According to Marco Polo, thousands of
horses were imported into southern India by
sea from Arabia and Persia.
Al-Beruni (11th century) accompanied

Mahmud of Ghazni in one of his campaigns, and Ibn Battuta
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In the South, Vijayanagar had many walls and copper-plate grants with royal
foreign visitors who left behind their detailed orders and events in the courts, which have
accounts of the state. An Italian named Nicolo evidentiary value are dealt with.
Conti came in 1420. Abdur-Razzaq came from Temples, palaces, mosques, tombs, forts,
Heart (the court of Great Khan in Central Asia) minars and minarets, collectively known as
in 1443. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller, monuments, belonging to early Medieval
visited the city in 1522. All of them recorded and Mughal periods, are highlighted.
their observations, which are very useful for The coins of Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khalji
us today to know the glory of the Vijayanagar and copper coins of the later Islamic rulers
Empire. are discussed.
Devotional literature belonging to the era of
Summary
Bhakthi Movement is provided.
The period from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 and Books, biographies and autobiographies
from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified as that provide information about the political,
Early Medieval and Later Medieval periods social and economic conditions of the
in Indian history. medieval times are detailed.
Sources are classified as primary and Travallers’ accounts mostly by the visiting
secondary sources. Arab and Persian scholars are given in the
Inscriptions on stones, rocks and temple end.
Glossary
1. chronicler a person who writes accounts of important வரலாற்றுப் பதிவாளர்
historical events
2. animosity hostility, antagonism விர�ோதம், பகைமை
3. travelogue a book or illustrated account of the places visited பயணக்குறிப்புகள்

and experiences encountered by a traveller
4. commemoration in remembrance of நினைவாக
5. elaborately in detail விரிவாக

6. minarets a tall tower, typically part of a mosque தூபிகள்
7. repositories the places, buildings where materials are stored or களஞ்சியங்கள்
kept
8. portraits pictures , images in drawing or painting உருவப்படங்கள்
9. compendium a collection of detailed information about a த�ொகுப்பு
particular subject , especially in a book
10. substantiate to prove with evidence சான்றுகளுடன்
நிரூபித்தல்
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Unit -2
Art and Architecture of
Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To understand the evolution of temple architecture in South India

To gain knowledge about the cultural heritage of Tamils
To know the contribution of Pallavas, Cholas, Vijayanagara and Nayak
rulers to the development of temple art in Tamil Nadu
Introduction
Dravidian architecture is of indigenous origin.
It advanced over time by a process of evolution.
The earliest examples of the Tamil Dravidian
architectural tradition were the 7th century
rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram. The absence
of monuments in South India prior to the 7th
century is attributed by scholars to temples ought
to have been built in wood, which were eventually Rock-cut Cave Temple,
destroyed by forces of nature. In Tamil Nadu, the Mandagapattu
evolution of temple architecture took place in five
temples were initially built by carving a rock to the
stages: (1) The Pallava Epoch (A.D. 600 to 850); (2)
required design and then rocks were cut to build
Early Chola Epoch (A.D. 850 to 1100); (3) Later
temples. The Pallava king Mahendravarman was
Chola Epoch (A.D. 1100 to 1350); (4) Vijayanagara/
a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu
Nayak Epoch (A.D. 1350 to 1600); and (5) Modern
temple was the first rock-cut temple built by him.
Epoch (After A.D. 1600).
The rock-cut cave structure has two pillars in
Pallava Epoch the front that hold it. All the cave temples have
The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition simple sanctum cut on the rear side of the wall
from rock-cut to free-standing temples. Rock-cut with a frontage-projecting mandapa (pavilion).
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Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple Kanchi Vaikuntha Perumal Temple
On either side are two dwarapalas (gatekeepers). especially of Arjuna, Bhima and Dharmaraja,
This cave architecture reached its decadent phase are decorated with niches and motifs. The
after A.D.700 and gave way to the large structural niches have the sculptures of gods, goddesses,
temples probably because the structural temples monarchs and scenes from mythology. The
provided a wider scope to the sculptor to use his Arjuna’s Penance, carved on the face of a granite
skill. boulder, is a magnificent relief, measuring
approximately 100 ft long by 45 ft high.
The Shore Temple at
Mahabalipuram, also called
the Seven Pagodas, was
built by the Pallava king
Narasimhavarman II. It is
the oldest structural temple
in South India. The structural temples were built
using blocks of rock instead of a whole block
as earlier. Narasimhavarman II, also known
as Rajasimha, built the Kanchi Kailasanatha
Arjuna’s Penance
temple. The Vaikuntha Perumal temple at
Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman II.
Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) is built of cut The Mamallapuram monuments and
stones rather than carved out of caves. It has temples, including the Shore Temple
two shrines, one dedicated to Siva and the other complex, were notified as a UNESCO
to Vishnu. World Heritage Site in 1984.
The Tamil Dravida tradition is exemplified Pandya Temples in the Pallava Epoch
by rock-cut monuments such as Pancha Pandava Early Pandyas were the contemporaries
Rathas, namely Draupadi ratha, Dharmaraja of the Pallavas. Unlike the Pallavas, Pandyas
ratha, Bheema ratha, Arjuna ratha and Nagula- installed deities in the sanctums in their
Sahadeva ratha. The outer walls of the rathas, cave temples. More than fifty cave temples
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have been found in different parts of the

Pandyan Empire. The most important of them
are found in Malaiyadikurichi, Anaimalai,
Tiruparankundram and Trichirappali. These
caves were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and
Brahma. In the Siva temple of Pandyas, the linga
is carved out of the mother rock. The figure of
Nandhi is also carved out of the rock. The Siva
lingam in the sanctum is installed in the centre Nellaiappar Temple Corridor, Tirunelveli
with enough space all around it. The sanctum
Sculptures
also has a drainage canal. The pillars are divided
The walls of the caves are decorated
into three parts and are of different sizes. The
with the bas relief of the gods and goddesses.
pillars have no uniform ornamentation. The
In the case of structural temples, the
back side walls are divided into four niches on
walls of the sanctums are free from image
which the bas- relief images of Siva, Vishnu,
decorations. Instead the superstructures and
Durga, Ganapathy, Subramanya, Surya, Brahma
the pillars have the sculptures. The sculptures
and Saraswathi are carved out. The dwarapalas
look majestic, having elaborate shoulders,
figure on either side of sanctum.
slim bodies, beautiful ornaments and
Rock-cut and structural temples are high crowns.
significant part of the Pandya architecture.
The illustrious example for rock-cut style is
unfinished Kazhugumalai Vettuvankoil temple.
The Vettuvankoil, a monolithic temple at
Kazhugumalai, is hewn out of a huge boulder on
four sides. At the top of the temple, sculptures
of Uma Maheswarar, Dakshinamoorthy, Vishnu
and Brahma are found. Meenakshi Amman
Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple Vettuvankoil Temple Sculptures
in Tirunelveli represent examples of Pandyas’
architectural style. Tiruparankundram, Anaimalai
and Kazhugumalai have the bas relief
of many deities: Siva, Vishnu, Brahma,
Parvathi, Subramanya, Ganapathi and
Dakshinamoorthy. These are some
remarkable images of the cave temples.
Many early Pandya images unearthed
from Madurai and its surrounding areas
are now in Tirumalai Nayakkar museum at
Monolithic Temple, Kazhugumalai Madurai.
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Paintings The Sittanavasal paintings have

Caves at Sittanavasal, similarities with the Ajantha paintings.
15 kilometres away Tirumalaipuram, from where we get
from Pudukkottai, and early Pandya paintings, are in a damaged
at Tirumalapuram in condition.
Sankarankovil taluk, The Early Chola Epoch
Tirunelveli district,
The Cholas came to limelight in A.D.
have outstanding early Pandya paintings.
850 under Vijaylaya Chola and continued
Sittanavasal was a residential cave of the Jain
to govern the region for about four hundred
monks. They painted the walls with fresco
years. For the Early Chola epoch, the
painting. Unfortunately, we have lost many of
temple at Dadapuram, near Tindivanam in
those paintings. Among the surviving ones,
TamilNadu, is worth mentioning.
the lotus pond is notable for its excellent
execution of colours and exposition of the The early Chola architecture followed
scene. The image of lotus flowers, leaves the style of Sembian Mahadevi. Temples with
spread all over the pond, animals, elephants, the increased number of devakoshta (niche)
buffalos, swans and a man who plucks the figures can be classified as belonging to the
flowers look brilliant. Sembiyan style. Tiruppurambiyam is an
illustrious example of early temple that was
re-fashioned in the days of Sembiyan
Mahadevi.
Sittanavasal Paintings
Tirupurambiyam Temple
Later Chola Epoch

Thirumalaipuram Sculptures The maturity attained by Chola
architecture is reflected in the two magnificent
temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
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Brihadeeshwara Temple, Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple
Cholapuram. The magnificent Thanjavur Big This temple complex has the shrines of
Temple dedicated to Siva, completed around Chandeeswarar, Ganesa and Mahishasura
A.D.1009, is a fitting memorial to the material Mardhini.
achievements of the time of Rajaraja.
Dharasuram
Thanjavur Big Temple Dharasuram, near Kumbakonam,
At the time the Big Temple of Thanjavur is a Later Chola period temple, rich in
was constructed, it was a huge temple complex. architectural splendour, dedicated to
The 216 feet vimana (structure over the Iravatheswara (Siva as god of lord Indira’s
garbhagriha) is notable as it is one among the elephant). Rajaraja II constructed this
tallest man-made shikaras of the world. Due temple. This temple is another landmark of
to its massive height, the shikara is called the the Chola architecture. The Mahamandapam
Dakshina Meru. The huge bull statue (Nandi) is an elaborate structure. The entire structure
measures about 16 feet long and 13 feet height looks like a ratha because it has four wheels
and is carved out of a single rock at the Mahamandapam. The sanctum and
Gangaikonda Cholapuram pillars have many sculptures, which are
Gangaikonda Cholapuram served as miniatures of various mythological figures.
the Chola capital for about 250 years, until A compound wall runs round the temple
the decline of the Cholas and the rise of with a gopuram.
the Pandyas. The Brihadeeshwara temple of
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built by Rajendra
Chola, is undoubtedly as worthy a successor
to the Brihadeeshwara temple of Thanjavur.
The height of the temple is 55 metres.
The sanctum has two storeys as in the big
temple at Thanjavur. The outer wall has
many projections with niches and recesses
on three sides. In the niches there are the
Iravatheswara Temple
images of Siva, Vishnu and other gods.
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Later Pandyas
The contribution of Later Pandyas to South
Indian art was significant. A case in point is the
cave temple at Pillayarpatti (near Karaikudi,
TamilNadu) belonging to 13th century. This
temple is important both for its sculptures and
for an inscription. A beautiful Ganesha is carved
facing the entrance. The importance of the figure,
referred to Desivinayaga in the cave inscription,
is that there are two arms with the trunk turning Vellore Jalagandeshwar Temple
Kalyana Mandapam
to the right
The main features of the Vijayanagar and
Nayak architecture are decorated mandapas,
ornamental pillars, life-size images, gopuras,
prakaras, music pillars, floral works and stone
windows during the 15th to 17th centuries.
Tanks are attached to the temples. Gateways
to temple are constructed from four directions
with massive gopurams.
The practice of fitting the niches with

Pillayarpatti Temple and
Karpaka Vinayagar sculptures continued during the Nayak period.
There was an increased use of major sculpted figures
(relief sculpture) as found at the Alakiya Nambi
Vijayanagara Epoch
temple at Tirukkurungudi (Tirunelveli district)
During the Vijayanagara epoch, a new and the Gopalakrishna temple in the Ranganatha
form of construction emerged. It is the temple complex at Srirangam. The southern
mandapam (pavilion) to where the gods festival mandapam of Adinatha temple at Azhwar
are carried every year. Pillared outdoor Tirunagari and the porch of the Nellaiyappar
mandapams are meant for public rituals with temple at Tirunelveli are other notable examples.
the ones in the east serving as the waiting
room for devotees, which adorn the large
temples. These mandapams attract attention
for its monolithic pillars. On these pillars
are sculptured horses, lions and the gods.
The kalyana mandapam at Kanchipuram
(Varadaraja Perumal temple) and at Vellore
(Jalagandeshwar temple) are notable examples.
Mandapam of Adinatha Temple,
The most celebrated of these mandapams in
Azhwar Tirunagari
temple of Madurai is the Pudumandapam.
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In TamilNadu, the image of deities are seen at Varadharaja Perumal temple

attached to composite columns gradually at Kanchipuram, Kudalazhagar Temple at
freed themselves from the core column. The Madurai and the temples of Srivilliputhur,
1000-pillar mandapam of the Meenakshi- Tiruvellarai, Azhaharkoil, Tiruvannamalai
Sundareswarar temple, Pudumandapam and Srirangam. The paintings mostly have
at Madurai, Rathi Mandapam at the stories from Ramayana, palace scenes and
Tirukkurungudi and Vanamamalai Temple mythological stories.
at Nanguneri are illustrious examples
for the mandapam architecture of
this period.
Sculptures in Varatharaja Temple,

Kanchipuram
1000-Pillar Mandapam, Madurai Modern Period (After A.D. 1600)

Meenakshiamman Temple
The Sethupathis, as the feudatories of
Madurai Nayaks, ruled Ramanathapuram and
The pillars of this period are more contributed to the Ramanathaswamy temple
decorative than the previous period. architecture. In the temple of Rameswaram,
Monolithic gigantic yazhi pillars, horse the predominance of corridors is striking. It is
pillars with life-size portraits of mythological claimed that this temple has the longest set of
and royal family members, common folk, corridors in the world. The temple has three
animals and floral works were made. Musical sets of corridors. The outer set of the temple’s
pillars were the peculiar feature of this time. corridors has a height of almost 7 metres and
A sitting lion at the top of the pillars is a stretches for about 120 metres in both the eastern
common feature in the mandapams. The and western directions. The corridors to the
windows are carved out on the walls of the north and to the south, on the other hand, are
sanctum and mandapams. about 195 metres in length. The outer corridor
is also remarkable for the number of pillars
The Jalagandeshwara temple at Vellore,
that support it, which is over 1200 in number.
the temples at Thadikompu near Dindugal
Moreover, many of these pillars are decorated by
and Krishnapuram near Tirunelveli and
ornate carvings. The innermost set of corridors
the Subramanya shrine in the Big Temple
is the oldest of the three.
Thanjavur are most remarkable edifices of
this time. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings
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Unit -III
Emergence of New
Kingdoms in South India:
Later Cholas and Pandyas
Temple at Darasuram
Learning Objectives
To trace the origin of the later Cholas and the later Pandyas
To know about the prominent rulers of both the kingdoms
To acquaint with their administrative system
To understand the social, economic and cultural development during
their reign
I. The Later Cholas gradually declined under his successors. In

the 9th century Vijayalaya, ruling over a small
Introduction
territory lying north of the Kaveri, revived the
The Cholas are one among the popular and Chola Dynasty. He conquered Thanjavur and
well-known Tamil monarchs in the history of made it his capital. Later Rajendra I and his
South India. The elaborate state structure, the successors ruled the empire from Gangaikonda
extensive irrigation network, the vast number Cholapuram, the newly built capital.
of temples they built, their great contributions
to art and architecture and their overseas Rajaraja I (A.D. (CE) 985 - 1016) was the
exploits have given them a pre-eminent position most powerful ruler of Chola empire and also
in history. grew popular beyond his times. He established
Chola authority over large parts of South India.
Revival of the Chola Rule
His much-acclaimed naval expeditions led to
The ancient Chola kingdom reigned supreme the expansion of Cholas into the West Coast and
with the Kaveri delta forming the core Sri Lanka. He built the famous Rajarajeswaram
area of its rule and with Uraiyur (present- (Brihadeshwara) Temple in Thanjavur. His son
day Tiruchirappalli) as its capital. It rose to and successor, Rajendra Chola I (A.D. (CE)
prominence during the reign of Karikala but 1016 - 1044, matched his father in his ability to
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expand the empire. The Chola empire remained On hearing the death of Athirajendra, the
a powerful force in South India during his reign. Eastern Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya
After his accession in A.D. (CE) 1023, his striking seized the Chola throne and began the rule
military expedition was to northern India, of Chalukya-Chola dynasty as Kulothunga I.
capturing much territory there. He proclaimed Kulothunga established himself firmly on the
himself the Gangaikondan (conqueror of the Chola throne soon eliminating all the threats
Gangai region). The Gangaikonda Cholapuram to the Chola Empire. He avoided unnecessary
temple was built to commemorate his victories wars and earned the goodwill of his subjects.
in North India. The navy of Rajendra Chola But Kulothunga lost the territories in Ceylon.
enabled him to conquer the kingdom of Srivijaya The Pandya territory also began to slip out of
(southern Sumatra). Cholas’ control over the Chola control. Kanchipuram was lost to the
seas facilitated a flourishing overseas trade. Telugu Cholas. The year 1279 marks the end
Decline of the Chola Empire of Chola dynasty when King Maravarman
Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last king
Rajendra Chola’s three successors were
Rajendra Chola III and established the rule of
not capable rulers. The third successor
the Pandyas in present-day Tamil Nadu.
Veerarajendra’s son Athirajendra was killed in
civil unrest. With his death ended the Vijayalaya Administration
line of Chola rule.
The central administration was in the hands of
king. As the head of the state, the king enjoyed
enormous powers. The king’s orders were
written down in palm leaves by his officials or
inscribed on the temple walls. The kingship
was hereditary in nature. The ruler selected his
eldest son as the heir apparent. He was known
as Yuvaraja. The Yuvarajas were appointed
as Governors in the provinces mainly for
administrative training.
Ruins of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
The Chola rulers established a well-
Matrimonial alliances between organised system of administration. The
the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas empire, for administrative convenience, was
began during the reign of Rajaraja I. divided into provinces or mandalams. Each
His daughter Kundavai was married mandalam was sub-divided into naadus.
to Chalukya prince Vimaladitya. Within each naadu, there were many kurrams
Their son was Rajaraja Narendra who (groups of villages). The lowest unit was the
married the daughter of Rajendra Chola gramam (village).
named Ammangadevi. Their son was
Kulothunga I.
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Local Governance There is a detailed description of how members

were elected to the committees of the village
Local administration worked through various
sabha in the inscriptions found there. One
bodies such as Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar
member was to be elected from each ward.
and Nattar. With the expansion of agriculture,
There were 30 wards in total. The eligibility to
numerous peasant settlements came up on the
contest was to men in the age group of 35–70,
countryside. They were known as Ur. The Urar,
well-versed in vedic texts and scriptures, and
who were landholders acted as spokesmen in
also owned land and house. The process of
the Ur. Sabhaiyar in Brahman villages also
election was as follows: The names of qualified
functioned in carrying out administrative,
candidates from each ward were written on the
financial and judicial functions. Nagarattar
palm-leaf slips and put into a pot. The eldest of
administered the settlement of traders. However,
the assembly would engage a boy to pull out one
skilled artisans like masons, blacksmiths,
slip and declare his name. Various committees
goldsmiths, weavers and potters also lived in
were decided in this way.
Nagaram. Nattar functioned as an assembly of
Nadu and decided all the disputes and issues Revenue
pertaining to Nadu.
The revenue of the Chola state came mainly from
The assemblies in Ur, Sabha, Nagaram and the land. The land tax was known as Kanikadan.
Nadu worked through various committees. The Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey
The committees took care of irrigation, roads, of land in order to fix the government’s share
temples, gardens, collection of revenue and of the land revenue. One-third of produce was
conduct of religious festivals. collected as land tax. It was collected mostly in
kind. In addition to land tax, there were taxes
Uttiramerur Inscriptions
on profession and tolls on trade.
Social Structure Based on Land

Relations
The Chola rulers gifted tax-free lands to royal
officials, Brahmins, temples (devadana villages)
and religious institutions. Land granted to Jain
institutions was called pallichchandam. There
were also of vellanvagai land and the holders
of this land were called Vellalars. Ulu-kudi, a
sub-section of Vellalar, could not own land but
Uttiramerur Inscriptions had to cultivate Brahmadeya and vellanvagai
lands. The holders of vellanvagai land retained
Uttiramerur presently in
melvaram (major share in harvest). The ulu-kudi
Kanchipuram district was
got kil-varam (lower share). Adimai (slaves) and
a Brahmadeya village (land
panicey-makkal (labourers) occupied the lowest
grants given to Brahmins).
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rung of society. In the intermediate section Chola art. Temples during the Chola period
came the armed men and traders. were not merely places of worship. They were
the largest landholders. Temples promoted
Irrigation
education, and devotional forms of art such
Cholas gave importance to irrigation. The 16- as dance, music and drama. The staff of the
mile long embankment built by Rajendra Chola temples included temple officials, dancing
in Gangaikonda Cholapuram is an illustrious girls, musicians, singers, players of musical
example. Vati-vaykkal, a criss-cross channel, instruments and the priests.
is a traditional type of harnessing rain water in
Cholas as Patrons of Learning
the Cauvery delta. Vati is a drainage channel
and a vaykkal is the supply channel. The Chola kings were great patrons of learning.
commonly owned village channel was called ur- Rajendra I established a Vedic college at
vaykkal. The nadu level vaykkal is referred to as Ennayiram (now in Villupuram District). There
nadu-vaykkal. The turn-system was in practice were 340 students learning the Vedas, grammar
in distributing the water. and Upanishads under 14 teachers. This example
was later followed by his successors and as a result
Religion
two more such colleges had been founded, at
Chola rulers were ardent Saivites. Hymns, Tirubuvanai near present-day Puducherry and
in praise of the deeds of Lord Siva, were Tirumukkoodal in present-day Chengalpattu
composed by the Saiva saints, the Nayanmars. district, in 1048 and 1067 respectively. The
NambiyandarNambi codified them, which great literary works Periyapuranam and
came to be known as the Thirumurai. Kamba Ramayanam belong to this period.
Temples Trade
The Chola period witnessed an extensive There was a flourishing trade during the
construction of temples. The temples in Chola period. Trade was carried out by two
Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and guild-like groups: anju-vannattar and mani-
Darasuram are the repository of architecture, gramattar. Anju-vannattar comprised West
sculpture, paintings and iconography of the Asians, Arabs, Jews, Christians and Muslims.
Big Temple Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple
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They were maritime traders and settled on the the later Pandyas re-established their authority.
port towns all along the West Coast. It is said Their rule continued until 16th century.
that mani-gramattar were the traders engaged
Revival of Pandya Kingdom (A.D. (CE)
in inland trade. In due course, both groups
600 - 920)
merged under the banner of ai-nutruvar and
disai-ayirattu-ai-nutruvar functioning through Kadunkon recovered Pandya territory from
the head guild in Ayyavole, Karnataka. This the Kalabhras towards the close of 6th century.
ai-nutruvar guild operated the maritime trade He was succeeded by two others. Arikesari
covering South-East Asian countries. Through Maravarman was the first strong Pandya ruler
overseas trade with South-East Asian countries who ascended the throne in A.D. (CE) 642. He
elephant tusks, coral, transparent glass, betel was a contemporary of Mahendravarman I and
nuts, cardamom, opaque glass, cotton stuff with Narsimahvarman I. Inscriptions and copper
coloured silk threads were imported. The items plates praise his victory over his counterparts:
exported from here were sandalwood, ebony, Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese.
condiments, precious gems, pepper, oil, paddy, Arikesari Maravarman is identified with the
grains and salt. Kun Pandian, the persecutor of Jains.
II. The Later Pandyas Saivite saint Thirugnanasambandar

Introduction converted Arikesari from Jainism to
Saivism. On his conversion, Arikesari
Pandyas were one of the three ancient Tamil is alleged to have impaled around 8000
dynasties that ruled southern India since the Jains on stakes. Though the number
4th century B.C. (BCE) but intermittently. is an exaggerated one, the anti-Jain
Korkai, associated with pearl fisheries, is attitude of Arikesari after his conversion
believed to have been their early capital and to Saivism cannot be doubted.
port. They moved to Madurai later, as many
early Tamil inscriptions of Pandyas have been
After Arikesari, the greatest of the dynasty
unearthed in Madurai and its surroundings.
was Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayan (Varaguna
Under the Pandya kings of the Sangam Age,
I) (756-815), the donor of the Velvikkudi plates.
Madurai was a great centre of culture. Poets
Nedunjadayan expanded the Pandya territory
and writers of Tamil language gathered there
to include Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli, Salem
and contributed to the development of Tamil
and Coimbatore districts. Nedunjadayan’s
Classics. The Pandyas had re-established their
successors Srimara Srivallabha and Varaguna
strong position in south Tamil Nadu by the end
II, were successively defeated by Pallavas. Later
of the 6th century A.D. (CE), after eliminating
they could not face the rising Chola dynasty
the rule of Kalabhras. But they could not resist
under Parantaka I. Parantaka I defeated the
the rising power of the later Cholas who ruled
Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled the country
South India from 9th to 13th century. Thereafter
in 920. Thus ended the Pandya rule revived by
taking advantage of the decline of Chola power,
Kadungon.
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Rise of Later Pandyas (1190 - 1310) Kanchipuram in northern Tamil Nadu, Arcot
and Salem in the western region.
The Chola viceroyalty became weak in Pandya
country after the death of Adhirajendra (the last
king of Vijayalaya line). Eventually the Pandya
kingdom could emerge as the only leading
Tamil dynasty in the 13th century. Madurai
continued to be their capital. Now Kayal was
their great port. Marco Polo, a famous traveller
from Venice, visited Kayal twice, in 1288 and
1293. He tells us that this port town was full of
ships from Arabia and China and bustling with
business activities.
Marco Polo hailed the Pandyan

Kingdom as ‘the richest and the most Coin of Pandya Kingdom
splendid province in the world’. Together
with Ceylon, he added, it ‘produced
There were two or three co-regents who ruled
most of the gems and pearls that are
simultaneously along with Sundarapandyan:
found in the world’. In his travel account
VikramaPandyan and ViraPandyan. After
he recorded the incidents of sati and the
Sundarapandyan, MaravarmanKulasekaran
polygamy practiced by the kings.
ruled successfully for a period of 40 years , giving
the country peace and prosperity. He had two
Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan
sons. The king’s appointment of ViraPandyan
The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya as a co-regent provoked the other son Sundara
Kingdom was Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman) Pandyan who killed his father Maravarman
Sundarapandyan (1251 to 1268). He brought Kulasekaran. In the civil war that ensued,
the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule, which ViraPandyan won and became firmly
extended up to Nellore in Andhra. He held the established in his kingdom. The defeated
Hoysalas in check. The Chera ruler, the chief of SundaraPandyan fled to Delhi and took refuge
Malanadu, accepted his feudatory position and under the protection of Ala-ud-din Khalji. This
paid tribute to Sundarapandyan. Emboldened provided the opening for the invasion of Malik
by the decline of the Chola state, the Boja King Kafur.
of Malwa region Vira Someswara challenged
After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan
Sundarapandyan. In a war at Kannanur,
Kingdom came to be divided among a number
Sundarapandyan defeated Someswara.
of kings from the main ruling Pandya’s family.
Sundarapandyan succeeded in establishing
In Madurai, a Muslim State subordinate to the
his authority over the chieftains of Cuddalore,
Delhi Sultan came to be established.
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Polity and Society Administrative Divisions
State Pandy nadu, as in Chola state, consisted of many

provinces known as vala-nadus, which, in turn,
Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their were divided into many nadus and kurrams.
capital. Madurai has been popularly venerated The administrative authorities of nadus were
as Koodal. The kings are traditionally revered the nattars. Nadu and Kurram contained
as Koodal-kon, Koodal Nagar Kavalan. The settlements, viz. mangalam, nagaram, ur and
Pandyas derived military advantage over kudi, where different social groups inhabited.
their neighbours by means of their horses.
Village Administration
They imported these horses through Arabs
with whom they had commercial and cultural An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli district)
contact. dated A.D. (CE) 800 provides an account of
village administration. It looks similar to
The king claimed that he was ruling Chola’s local governance that included village
according to Manu Sastra. This doctrine assemblies and committees. Both civil and
supported the social hierarchy in the military powers seem to have been vested in the
society. Kings and local chiefs created same person.
Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or
Irrigation
Chatur-vedi-mangalam with irrigation
facilities. The actual landowning groups are The Pandya rulers created a number of irrigation
described as the Bumiputtirar, otherwise called sources. On either side of the rivers Vaigai and
the vellalar. Historically they were locals and Tamiraparani, channels leading to the irrigation
hence they were referred to as nattu-makkal. tanks were built. In southern Tamilnadu,
The communal assembly of this group is like the Cholas, Pandyas introduced the new
Cittira Meli Periyanattar. irrigation technology. Irrigation works were
done by local administrative bodies, local chiefs
Royal Officials and officials. Repairs were mostly undertaken
by local bodies. Sometimes, traders also dug out
A band of officials executed the royal orders.
tanks for irrigation.
The prime minister was uttara-mantri. The
historical personalities like Manickavasagar, Religion
Kulaciraiyar and Marankari worked as
Pandyas extended patronage to vedic practices.
ministers. The royal secretariat was known
Velvikkudi copper plates as well as inscriptional
as eluttu-mandapam. The most respected
sources mention the rituals like Asvameda yaga,
officials were maran-eyinan, sattan-ganapathy,
Hiranya garbha and Vajapeya yaga, conducted
enathi-sattan, tira-tiran, murthi-eyinan and
by every great Pandya king. The impartiality of
others. The titles of military commanders
rulers towards both Saivism and Vaishnavism
were palli-velan, parantakan-palli-velan,
is also made known in the invocatory portions
maran-adittan and tennavan-tamilvel.
of the inscriptions. Temples of both sects were
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patronised through land grant, tax-exemption Trade

and renovation.
Arab settlements on the west coast of southern
The great Saiva and Vaishnava saints India, from 7th century, had led to the
(Nayanmaras and Alwars) combined expansion of their trade connection to the
contributed to the growth of Tamil literature east coast because the governments of the east
and spiritual enlightenment. The period was coast pursued a more liberal and enlightened
marked by intense religious conflict. The Bhakti policy towards overseas traders. Their charters
movement of the time prompted the heterodox exempted traders from various types of port
scholars for a debate. Many instances of the dues and tolls. In Kayal, there was an agency
defeat of Buddhists and Jains in such debates established by an Arab chieftain by name Malik-
are mentioned in Bhakti literature. The Pandya ul-Islam Jamal-ud-din. This agency facilitated
kings of the period supported and promoted availability of horses to Pandya kings.
Tamil and Sanskrit.
In 13th and 14th centuries, horse trade
Temples became brisk. Marco Polo and Wassaff state
that the kings invested in horses as there was
Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did
a need of horse for ceremonial purposes as well
not build any new temples but maintained
as for fighting wars. Those who were trading in
the existing temples, enlarging them with
horses were called kudirai chetties. They were
the addition of gopuras, and mandapas. The
active in maritime trade also. The busiest port
monolithic mega size ornamented pillars are
town under the Pandyas was Kayal Pattinam
the unique feature of the medieval Pandya style.
(now in Thoothukudi district) on the east coast.
The sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa
Gold coins were in circulation as the trade was
and Subramanyar are the best specimens in
carried through the medium of gold. It was
these temples. Pandyas specially patronised the
variously called kasu, kalanchu and pon.
historic Meenakshi temple at Madurai and kept
expanding its premises by adding gopuras and
The vast trade in horses of that
mandapas.
time has been recorded by Wassaff. He
writes: ‘…as many as 10,000 horses were
imported into Kayal and other ports of
India of which 1,400 were to be of Jamal-
ud-din’s own breed. The average cost of
each horse was 220 dinars of “red gold’.
Summary
The Cholas and Pandyas are well known
Tamil monarchs.
Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty.
Meenakshi Temple, Madurai
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UNIT Early Tamil Society and

Culture
3
Learning Objectives
The objectives of this lesson are to familiarize yourself with
Tamil literary, archaeological, epigraphic and non-Tamil text

sources for the study of the early Tamil society.
Thinai-based life in the society
Literature, polity, society, economy and urbanization during the period
Introduction Sources for the study

3.1 of early Tamil society
Tamil civilization, as we have seen, The sources for reconstructing the
begins atleast three centuries before the history of the ancient Tamils are:
Common Era (CE). As seafaring people,
Tamil traders and sailors established 1. Classical Tamil literature
commercial and cultural links across 2. Epigraphy (inscriptions)
the seas and merchants from foreign 3. Archaeological excavations and
territories also visited the Tamil region. material culture
The resulting cultural and mercantile
4. Non-Tamil and Foreign Literature
activities and internal developments
led to urbanization in this region.
Towns and ports emerged. Coins and The Classical Sangam Tamil
currency came into circulation. Written Literature
documents were produced. The Tamil- The Classical Sangam corpus
Brahmi script was adopted to write the (collection) consists of the Tholkappiyam,
Tamil language. Classical Tamil poems the Pathinen Melkanakku (18 Major
were composed. works) and the Pathinen Kilkanakku (18
In the unit one, we studied the minor works) and the five epics.
cultural developments in the Tamil
region from the prehistoric period to the Tholkappiyam
beginning of the Iron Age. In this lesson, Tholkappiyam, attributed to
we will learn about the development of Tholkappiyar, is the earliest written
Tamil culture in the Early Historic Period work on Tamil grammar. Apart from
also known as the Sangam Age. elaborating the rules of grammar, the
third section of Tholkappiyam also
3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 44
IX_History Unit-3.indd 44
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describes poetic conventions that provide stone, copper plates, and other media such
information on Tamil social life. as coins, rings, etc. The development of
The texts of Pathinen Melkanakku script marks the beginning of the historical
include Pathupaattu (ten long songs) period. The period before the use of
and Ettuthogai (the eight anthologies). written script is called prehistoric period.
These texts are the oldest among the Tamil-Brahmi was the first script used
classical Tamil texts. The texts of Pathinen for writing in Tamil Nadu. Inscriptions in
Kilkanakku belong to a later date. Tamil-Brahmi are found in caves and rock
shelters, and on pottery and other objects
The Ettuthogai or the eight anthologies (coins, rings and seals).
are
(1) Nattrinai (2) Kurunthogai Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions
(3) Paripaadal (4) Pathittrupathu
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions have been
(5) Aingurunuru (6) Kalithogai
found in more than 30 sites in Tamil Nadu
(7) Akanaanuru (8) Puranaanuru
mostly on cave surfaces and rock shelters.
Pathupattu collection includes ten long These caves were the abodes of monks,
songs mostly Jaina monks. The natural caves were
(1) Thirumurugatrupadai converted into residence by cutting a drip-
(2) Porunaratrupadai line to keep rain water away from the cave.
(3) Perumpanatruppadai Inscriptions often occur below such drip-
(4) Sirupanatrupadai lines. The sites have smooth stone beds carved
(5) Mullaipaattu on rock surface for monks who led a simple
(6) Nedunalvaadai life and lived in these shelters. Merchants and
(7) Maduraikanchi kings converted these natural formations as
(8) Kurinjipaattu habitation for monks, who had renounced
(9) Pattinappaalai worldly life. Mangulam, Muttupatti, Pugalur,
(10) Malaipadukadam Arachalur and Kongarpuliyankulam and
Jambai are some of the major sites of such
Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) caves with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Around
The Pathinen Kilkanakku comprises Madurai many such caves with Tamil-Brahmi
eighteen texts elaborating on ethics and inscriptions can still be seen. Many of them
morals. The pre-eminent work among are located along ancient trade routes.
these is the Thirukkural composed by
Thiruvalluvar. In 1330 couplets Thirukkural
considers questions of morality, statecraft
and love.
The Five Epics
The epics or Kappiyams are long narrative
poem of very high quality. They are,
(1) Silappathikaaram (2) Manimekalai
(3) Seevaka Chinthamani
(4) Valaiyapathi (5) Kundalakesi
Epigraphy
A drip-line at a rock
Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. cave with Tamil-Brahmi inscription,
Inscriptions are documents scripted on
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an important source of wealth, raiding

cattle owned by adjoining tribes and clans
was common practice in a pastoral society.
During the Sangam Age, the Mullai
landscape followed the pastoral way of
life. Tribal chieftains plundered the cattle
wealth of enemies whose warriors fought
to protect their cattle. Many warriors died
The Tamil-Brahmi inscrption in such battles and were remembered as
at Arachalur martyrs. Memorial stones were erected
in their honour. Sangam literature vividly
portrays these battles and clashes, and
describes such hero stones as objects of
worship. Tholkappiyam describes the
procedures for erecting hero stones.
Hero stones of the Sangam Age
with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions can be
Estampage copy of the found at Pulimankombai and Thathapatti
above inscription in Theni district and Porpanaikottai in
Pulimankombai Hero stone

Pulimankomba is a village in the Vaigai
river valley in Theni district. In 2006,
rare hero stone inscriptions in Tamil-
Brahmi script were discovered in this
village.
One of the inscriptions from
Pulimankombai reads
“Kudalur Akol pedu tiyan antavan kal”
A rock bed at K. Puliankulam It means "The stone of Tiyan
Antavan who was killed in a cattle raid
at the village of Kudalur".
Note: You will notice that among the
old inscriptions, people (both local
and tourists) have marked their names
thereby destroying some of the ancient
inscriptions. Such acts of destruction of
heritage property or property belonging
to others are called vandalism.
Hero Stones
Hero stones are memorials erected for
those who lost their lives in the battles and
in cattle raids. As cattle were considered Hero stone-Pulimankombai
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Pudukkottai district. Those of the Sangam Prakrit Prakrit was the language used by
Age discovered till now do not have images the common people in the Northern part
or sculptures. of India during the Mauryan period.
Hero stones of the
post-Sangam Age and the Archaeology and Material Culture
Pallava period occur in Archaeology is the study of the past by
large numbers in pastoral interpretation of the material cultural
regions especially around remains. Such remains are unearthed
the Chengam region near by the systematic excavation of old
Thiruvannamalai district. inhabitation sites called archaeological
These hero stones have inscriptions and sites. Archaeological sites have mounds
the images of warriors and names of which are an accumulation of soil, pottery,
heroes. building and organic remains and objects.
In many parts of Tamil Nadu they are
Inscriptions called Nattam, Kottai and Medu. Such
sites provide evidence of how people lived
Pottery vessels from the Early in the past.
Historic Period have names of people
engraved on them in Tamil-Brahmi
script. Potsherds have been discovered in Archaeological
Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam, Kodumanal, Sites
Keezhadi, and many other sites in Tamil Archaeological
Nadu. Pottery inscribed with names in excavation refers
Tamil-Brahmi script have also been found to systematically
in Berenike and Quseir al Qadhim in Egypt digging a site to
and in Khor Rori in Oman indicating that recover material
early Tamils had trade contacts with West evidence for
Asia and along the Red Sea coast. People exploring and
etched their names on pottery to indicate interpreting A ring well at
ownership. Many of the names are in societies of the Arikkamedu
Tamil while some are in Prakrit. past.
Archaeological excavations at
the early historic sites are the source of
evidence of the activities of the Sangam
Age people. Excavations at Arikkamedu,
Azhagankulam, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram,
Kaveripoompattinam, Korkai,
Vasavasamudram, Keezhadi, Kodumanal
in Tamil Nadu, and Pattanam in Kerala
provide the evidence we have of this
period.
Arikkamedu, near Puducherry,
is a Sangam Age port, excavated by the
A motif of a ship on pottery Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
from Azhagankulam British archaeologist, Robert Eric
Mortimer Wheeler, French Archaeologist,
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J.M. Casal, and Indian archaeologists, A.

Ghosh and Krishna Deva, excavated this
site. They found evidence of a planned
town, warehouse, streets, tanks and ring
wells
The Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) is a Central government
agency that manages archaeological sites Punch-marked coins
and monuments in India. The Government
of Tamil Nadu has its own department for
archaeology called the Tamil Nadu State
Department of Archaeology. The Indian
Treasure Trove Act (1878), the Antiquities
and Art Treasures Act (1972), the Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Sites and
Remains Act (1958) are legislation related
to the preservation of archaeological
remains in India. Roman Coins - Pudukkottai
Material Culture
Age. The coins of the Cheras, the Cholas
Archaeologists have found and the Pandyas, punch-marked coins,
evidence of brick structures and and Roman coins form another important
industrial activities, as well as artefacts source of evidence from the Sangam Age.
such as beads, bangles, cameos, intaglios, Punch-marked coins have been found at
and other materials in these sites. Tamil- Kodumanal and Bodinayakkanur. Roman
Brahmi inscriptions on pottery and coins coins are concentrated in the Coimbatore
have also been unearthed. Evidences region, and are found at Azhagankulam,
of the various arts, Karur, and Madurai. They were used
crafts and industries as bullion for their metal value and as
together help us ornaments.
reconstruct the way
of life of the people Bullion means precious metal available in
of those times. From the form of ingots.
this we learn and
understand how
An intaglio- Punch-marked coins are the earliest
they might have
Pattanam, Kerala coins used in India. They are mostly made
lived.
of silver and have numerous symbols
Cameo – an ornament made in precious punched on them. Hence, they are known
stone where images are carved on the surface. as punch-marked coins
Intaglio – an ornament in which images Non-Tamil Sources (Foreign

are carved as recess, below the surface. Accounts)
Non-Tamil literary sources also offer
Coins information on early Tamil society. The
Coins as a medium of exchange were presence of the non-Tamil sources reveals
introduced for the first time in the Sangam the extensive contacts and interactions of
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the early Tamil society with the outside Pliny laments the loss of Roman wealth
world. due to Rome’s pepper trade with India
– an indication of the huge volume and
Arthasastra value of the pepper that was traded.
Arthasastra, the classic work on
economy and statecraft authored by Ptolemy’s Geography
Chanakya during the Mauryan period,
Ptolemy’s Geography is a gazetteer
refers to Pandya kavataka. It may mean
and atlas of Roman times providing
the pearl and shells from the Pandyan
geographical details of the Roman
country.
Empire in the second century CE.
Kaver ip o omp att inam (K hab er is
Mahavamsa Emporium), Korkai (Kolkoi),
Mahavamsa, the Sri Lankan Buddhist Kanniyakumari (Komaria), and Muciri
chronicle, composed in the Pali language, (Muziris) are some of the places
mentions merchants and horse traders mentioned in his Geography.
from Tamil Nadu and South India.
Chronicle is a narrative text presenting Peutingerian table
the important historical events in Peutingerian table is an illustrated
chronological order. map of the Roman roads. It shows the
areas of ancient Tamilagam and the port
Periplus of Erythrean Sea of Muziris.
Periplus of Erythrean Sea is an ancient
Greek text whose author is not known.
The term Periplus means navigational
guide used by sailors. Erythrean Sea
refers to the waters around the Red Sea.
It makes references to the Sangam Age
ports of Muciri, Thondi, Korkai and
Kumari, as well as the Cheras and the
Pandyas.
Map of Peutingerian table,
Pliny’s Natural History
Pliny the Elder, was a Roman who Note: Taprobane refers to Sri Lanka
wrote Natural History. Written in as Island. Muziris refers to the port of
Latin, it is a text on the natural wealth Muchiri.
of the Roman Empire. Pliny speaks
about the pepper trade with India and Vienna Papyrus
he states that it took 40 days to reach
India, from Ocealis near North East Vienna papyrus, a Greek document
Africa, if the south west monsoon wind datable to the second century CE,
was favourable. He also mentions that mentions Muciri’s trade of olden days.
the Pandyas of Madurai controlled the It is in the Papyrus Museum attached to
port of Bacare on the Kerala coast. The the Austrian National Library, Vienna
current name of Bacare is not known. (Austria). It contains a written agreement
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between traders and mentions the name and refers to a habitat or eco-zone with
of a ship, Hermapollon, and lists articles specific physiographical characteristics.
of export such as pepper and ivory that Sangam poems are set in these specific
were shipped from India to the Roman eco-zones and reveal that human life has
Empire. deep relationships with nature.
Papyrus, a paper produced out of the The themes of the poems are
papyrus plant used extensively for writing broadly defined as akam (interior) and
purposes in ancient Egypt. puram (exterior). Akathinai refers to
various situations of love and family life,
while Purathinai is concerned with all
3.2 The Sangam Age others aspects of life and deals particularly
The Sangam Age or the Early Historic with war and heroism.
period is an important phase in the history Ainthinai: The Five Thinais or landscapes.
of South India. This period is marked out
from prehistory, because of the availability Tamilagam was divided into five
of textual sources, namely Sangam landscapes. Each region had distinct
literature and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. characteristics – a presiding deity,
Sangam text is a vast corpus of literature occupation, people and cultural life
that serves as an important source for according to its specific environmental
the study of the people and society of the conditions. This classification has been
relevant period. interpreted by scholars to reflect real life
situations in these landscapes.
Chronology The five landscapes are Kurunji, Mullai,
There is considerable debate among Marutham, Neythal and Paalai.
scholars about the age and chronology Kurunji refers to the hilly and
of Sangam society. The Sangam texts are mountainous region.
generally dated to between third century Mullai is forested and pastoral region.
BCE and the third century CE. The Marutham is the fertile riverine valley.
references in Greco-Roman texts, Tamil-
Neythal is coastal region.
Brahmi inscriptions and the references
to the Cheras, Cholas and the Pandyas in Paalai is sandy desert region.
the Ashokan inscription corroborate this
date. It is generally agreed that the Sangam Sangam Age Polity:
poems were composed in the early part of 3.3 Political Powers of
the historical period, but were compiled
into anthologies in the later period.
Tamilagam
Ashokan Brahmi - the script used in The Sangam Age has its roots in the Iron
Ashokan edicts or inscriptions. Age. In the Iron Age people were organised
into chiefdoms. From such communities
The Thinai of Iron Age emerged the Vendhars of the
early historic period and the Velirs of the
The concept of Thinai is presented in Sangam Age were chieftains.
the Tamil Grammar work of Tholkappiyam
and this concept is essential to understand The Mauryan emperor, Asoka,
the classical Tamil poems. Thinai is a poetic conquered Kalinga (Odisha) and parts of
theme, which means a class or category Andhra and Karnataka regions. Ashokan
inscriptions found in present day Odisha,
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Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh

are not seen in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Therefore, we may conclude that the Tamil
rulers were independent of Mauryan
authority.
The Muvendhar
Among the political powers of the A Chera coin with bow and arrow,
Sangam Age, the Cheras, the Cholas and the and an elephant goad on the obverse
Pandyas occupied pre-eminent positions. and elephant on the reverse
They were known as Muvendhar (the three
kings). The muvendhar controlled the major
towns and ports of the Sangam period.
The Cheras
The Cheras, referred to as
Keralaputras in the Ashokan inscriptions,
controlled the region of present-day
Kerala and also the western parts of Tamil Chola Coins with a tiger on the
Nadu. Vanci was the capital of the Cheras obverse, elephant and the sacred
while Muciri and Thondi were their port symbols on the reverse
towns. Vanci is identified with Karur in
Tamil Nadu while some others identify
it with Thiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala.
Pathirtruppathu speaks about the Chera
kings and their territory. The Cheras
wore garlands made from the flowers of
the palm tree. The inscriptions of Pugalur
near Karur mention the Chera kings of Sangam Age Pandya coin
three generations. Coins of Chera kings with fish symbol
have been found in Karur.
The Silappathikaram speaks about
Cheran Senguttuvan, who built a temple of Bengal. Pattinappaalai
for Kannagi, the protagonist of the epic. is a long poem about
The bow and arrow was the symbol of Kaveripoompattinam
the Cheras. Legend has it that Ilango who composed by the
composed the Silappathikaram, was the poet Ka d iy a lu r
brother of Cheran Senguttuvan. U r u t h i r a n k a n n a n a r.
Silappathikaram describes
the trading activities at Kaveripoompattinam.
The Cholas Karikalan is notable among the Chola kings
The Cholas ruled over the Kaveri delta and is credited with bringing forestlands
and northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Their under the plough and developing irrigation
capital was Uraiyur and their port town facilities by effectively utilising the water
was Kaveripoompattinam or Pumpuhar, from the river Kaveri. The foundation for the
where the river Kaveri drains into the Bay extensive harnessing of water for irrigation
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purposes, which reached its zenith in later a tribal community ruled by a chief to a
Chola times (10th to 13th centuries) was laid larger kingdom ruled by a king
in his time. Karikalan fought battles with
the Pandyas, Cheras and other chieftains.
Composition of the Society
The Chola emblem was the tiger and they
issued square copper coins with images of a Social stratification had begun to take
tiger on the obverse, elephant and the sacred root in Tamil society by the Sangam times.
symbols on the reverse. There were several clan-based communities
including groups such as Panar, Paratavar,
The Pandyas Eyinar, Uzhavar, Kanavar, Vettuvar and
Maravar. The Vendhars, chiefs, and their
The Pandyas who ruled the southern associates formed the higher social groups.
part of Tamil Nadu are referred to in the There were priests who were known as
Ashokan inscriptions. Madurai was the Antanars. There were artisan groups
Pandya’s capital. Tamil literary tradition specialising in pottery and blacksmithy.
credits Pandyan rulers with patronizing The caste system we find in northern India
Tamil Sangams (academies) and did not take root in Tamil country as social
supporting the compilations of poems. groups were divided in to five situational
The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription types (tamil) and related occupational
mentions the king Nedunchezhiyan. patterns.
Nediyon, Mudathirumaran, Palayagasalai
Mudukudumipperuvazhuti were some of Even though Sangam society was
the important rulers of the dynasty. The characterized by limited consumption
Pandyan symbol was the fish. of commodities, the kings, chiefs
and merchants led a prosperous life.
People at the margins lived in poverty.
Velirs / Chieftains Panars depended on their patrons for
Apart from the Vendhars, there were their livelihood. The development of
Velirs and numerous chieftains who occupied agriculture and pastoral ways of life
territories on the margins of the muvendhar. might have harmed the eco-system
The velirs were the seven chiefs Pari, Kari, and the naturally available forest and
Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ai and Athiyaman. wild animals. It is possible that some of
Sangam poems write extensively about the the hunter-gatherers might have been
generosity of these velirs. These chiefs had pushed to the forest areas and a few
intimate relations with the poets of their time might have taken up the occupation of
and were known for their large-heartedness. manual labourers. The development
These chieftains had alliance with one or of agriculture in the wet-land region
other of the muvendhar and helped them in depended on the use of certain groups of
their battles against the other Vendhars. people as labourers.
Women
3.4 Society in Sangam Age
Women are frequently referred to
Many of the communities of the Iron in Tamil texts as mothers, heroines, and
Age society were organised as tribes, and foster-mothers. Women from Panar
some of them were Chiefdoms. The Sangam families, dancers, poets, and royal women
Age society was a society in transition from were all portrayed in Sangam literature.
There are references to women from all five
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eco-zones. For example, Vennikkuyathiyar

is identified as a poetess from the village
of Venni. There are references to women
protecting Thinai fields from birds and
Umanar women selling salt showing
that women were involved in primary
production. Instances where women
preferred to die along with their husbands
also occur in the literature of the times.
3.5 Economy
Paddy grains collected from Porunthal
The economy was mixed as elaborated excavations
in the Thinai concept. People practiced
agriculture, pastoralism, trade and
money exchange, hunting-gathering, and
fishing depending upon the eco-zones in
which they lived.
Primary Production
Agriculture was one of the main
sources of subsistence. Crops like paddy,
sugarcane, millets were cultivated. Both Different types of pottery from
wet and dry land farming were practiced. Porunthal excavations.
In the riverine and tank-irrigated areas,
paddy was cultivated. Millets were
cultivated in dry lands. Varieties of rice
such as sennel (red rice), vennel (white
rice), and aivananel (a type of rice) are
mentioned in the literature. Rice grains
were found in burial urns at excavations
in Adichanallur and Porunthal. People
in the forest adopted punam or shifting Russet coated painted pottery with
cultivation. wavy line decoration
Pastoralism – nomadic people earning
livelihood by rearing cattle, sheep, and goat.
ndustries and Crafts of the

I Pottery
Sangam Age Pottery was practised in many
settlements. People used pottery produced
Craft production and craft by Kalamceyko (potters) in their daily
specialization were important aspects of activities and so they were made in large
urbanization. In the Sangam Age there numbers. Black ware, russet-coated
were professional groups that produced painted ware, black and red ware potteries
various commodities. The system of were the different types of pottery used.
production of commodities is called
industry.
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Iron Smelting Industry

Iron manufacturing was an important
artisanal activity. Iron smelting was
undertaken in traditional furnaces and such
furnaces, with terracotta pipes and raw ore
have been found in many archaeological
sites. For instance evidence of iron smelting
has been found in Kodumanal and Guttur.
Sangam literature speaks of blacksmiths, and
their tools and activities. Iron implements
were required for agriculture and warfare Iron Swords from Puducherry
(swords, daggers, and spears).
While the poor wore ornaments made

Stone Ornaments of clay, terracotta, iron, and leaves and
Sangam Age people adorned flowers, the rich wore jewellery made of
themselves with a variety of ornaments. precious stones, copper, and gold.
Carnelian Beads of Carnelian beads with

Sangam Age etched designs of
Sangam Age
A terracotta seal with rice husk

impression, Keezhadi Gold
pendant,
Porunthal
Gold
ornament axe
A map of major Sangam

Age sites Gold ornaments, Pattanam
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Quartz, amethyst (sevvantikkal)

and carnelian (semmanikkal) were some
of the semi-precious stones used for
making ornaments. Diamond drills were
used to pierce holes in the hard stones and
etched carnelian beads have been found in
the megalithic monuments. A bronze tiger with
carnelian stones,
Gold jewellery Kodumanal A bronze
Gold ornaments were well known vessel from
in this period. Gold coins from Roman a megalithic
was used to make jewellery. Evidence of burial
gold smelting has been found at Pattanam Auroville,
in Kerala. Gold ornaments have been Puducherry
unearthed at the megalithic sites of
Suttukeni, Adichanallur and Kodumanal,
and towns of Arikkamedu, Keezhadi and Glass beads from
Pattanam in Kerala. Porunthal excavations
Glass Beads
The presence of glass beads at the
sites reveals that people of the Sangam
Age knew how to make glass beads. Glass
material (silica) was melted in a furnace
and drawn into long tubes which were then
cut into small beads. Glass beads came in
various shapes and colour. Arikkamedu
and Kudikkadu, near Cuddalore show Textile and
evidence of glass beads industry. It is spindle whorls
possible that people who could not afford A spindle whorl, from Kodumanal
precious stones used glass beads instead. Pattanam
Pearl Fishery and Shell Bangle

The Pamban coast is famous for
pearl fishery. A pearl has been discovered
in recently excavated Keezhadi site.
Shell bangles were very common in the
Sangam Age. The Parathavars collected
conch shells from the Pamban Island,
which were cut and crafted into bangles
by artisans. Whole shells as well as
fragments of bangles have been found at
many sites. Sangam literature describes Shell wastes of
women wearing shell bangles. bangle craft production
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Textiles
Textile production was another Akanaanuru poem 149 describes
important occupation. Evidence of spindle the trading at the port of Muciri as
whorls and pieces of cloth have been follows:
found at Kodumanal. Literature too refers “the well crafted ships of the
to clothes called kalingam and other fine Yavana came with gold returned
varieties of textiles. Periplus also mentions with pepper at the wealthy port of
the fine variety of textiles produced in the Muciri”
Tamil region.
Spindle whorls were used for making

thread from cotton.
Exchange, Trade, Merchants, and

Trade Routes
We saw the primary production (not to scale)
of grains, cattle wealth, and various

The trade route from
commodities. These goods were not
Tamilagam to Rome.
produced by everybody and were not
produced in all settlements. Resources
and commodities were not available in all Kalam, Pahri, Odam, Toni, Teppam, and
regions. For example, the hill region did not Navai are also mentioned in Tamil literature.
have fish or salt and the coastal regions could
not produce paddy. Therefore trade and Barter and Coins
exchange was important for people to have Barter was the primary mode of
access to different commodities. Specialised exchange. For instance, rice was exchanged
groups called vanikars (traders) travelled for fish. Salt was precious and a handful of
in groups trading goods and commodities it would fetch an equal amount of rice. The
between regions. extensive availability of coin hoards of the
Sangam Age of the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas,
Traders and Malayaman indicates that they were used
widely.
The terms vanikan and nigama (guild)
appear in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.
There were different types of merchants: Tamilagam and Overseas
gold merchants, cloth merchants, and salt Interactions
merchants. Salt merchants were called
Tamil country had connections with
Umanars and they travelled in bullock carts
countries overseas both in the east and
along with their family.
west. Roman ships used monsoon winds
to cross the Western Sea or the Arabian
Means of Transport Sea to connect Tamilagam with the
Western world. Spices including pepper,
Bullock carts and animals were used to
ivory, and precious stones were exported.
transport goods by land. Trade routes linked
Metal including gold, silver and copper
the various towns of Tamilagam. Various types
and precious stones were imported.
of water crafts and sea-going vessels such as
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Yavanar referred to the Westerners, At Quseir al Qadhim, another port

including the Greeks, Romans and West located north of Berenike on the Red Sea
Asian people. Yavana derives from the Coast, three Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions,
Greek region of Ionia. Panaiori, Kanan, and Cattan, have been
found on pottery discovered here.
Tamil Nadu to Red Sea Coast A stone with the name
“Perumpatankal” has been found at Khuan
An Indian jar with 7.5 kg of pepper,
Luk Pat, Thailand. Southeast Asia was
teak wood, a potsherd with Tamil-Brahmi
known as Suvarna Bhumi in Tamil literature.
inscription and Indian pottery have been
This stone was used by a person called
discovered at Berenike, a port on the Red
Perumpattan, probably a goldsmith. It was
Sea coast of Egypt.
a touchstone used to test the purity of gold.
Emergence of towns
3.6
and ports
The Sangam Age saw the first
urbanization in Tamilagam. Cities
developed and they had brick buildings,
roof tiles, ring wells and planned towns,
streets, and store houses. The towns
worked as ports and artisanal centres.
Arikkamedu, Kaveripoompattinam,
Ceramic Jars from Tamilagam with Azhagankulam and Korkai on the east
preserved pepper, Berenike, Egypt coast and Pattanam in Kerala were port
centres. Kanchipuram, Uraiyur, Karur,
Madurai and Kodumanal were inland
trade centres.
Many goods and commodities
were produced in these centres and were
exported to various regions. Though
few in number, large towns appeared in
the Sangam Age. Small villages however
were found in many areas. Bronze vessels,
beads, shell bangles, glass beads, pottery
Pottery with the name “Cattan” with names of people written in Tamil-
Brahmi script were found at these sites.
What is an urban centre?

A planned town with brick architecture
and a proper layout. Urban centres
have a larger population involved in
non-agrarian, commercial and political
Perumpatankal, Kuan occuptations. Various industrial
Luk Pat, Thailand activities are seen in these towns.
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Pattanam, Kerala
Pattanam is located near North
Paravur in Vadakkekara village
of Ernakulam district of Kerala.
It was an ancient port town that
had overseas connections with the
western and eastern worlds. Turquoise glazed
pottery, West Asia
Pottery sherds from West Asia Cameo blanks in Carnelian
Canoe excavated at Pattanam Gold ornaments from Pattanam
Kodumanal, Tamil Nadu

Kodumanal is located near Erode in Tamil Nadu and is identified with the
Kodumanam of Pathitrupattu. Evidence of iron, stone bead and shell work, as
well as megalithic burials have been discovered at this site. More than 300 pottery
inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi have also been found.
Excavated Iron objects (horse

Megalithic Burial equipment) from
at Kodumanal Kodumanal
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Shell bangle bragments and a Carnelian beads, Kodumanal

conch, Kodumanal
Human
skeleton
from
Kodumanal
Jar with writing in Brahmi
Keezhadi near Madurai, Tamil Nadu

Keezhadi is located near Silaimaan east of Madurai, on the highway to Rameswaram.
In a large coconut garden, called Pallichandai Tidal, the Archaeological Survey
of India excavated an ancient town dating to the Sangam Age. Archaeological
excavations have produced evidence for brick buildings, drainage, Tamil-Brahmi
inscription on pottery, beads of glass, carnelian and quartz, pearl, iron objects,
games pieces, and antimony rods. Further excavation may shed light on the nature
of the craft production and the cultural activities undertaken at this settlement.
Various objects and

ornaments from
Keezhadi
Brick Structures at
Keezhadi
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Faith and Belief

3.7
System
Like the diverse nature of the society

and economy, the belief system of the
Sangam Age was also diverse. It consisted
of animism, ancestor worship, hero worship
and worship of several deities.
Tholkappiyam lists the presiding
deities of Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham,
Crystal ear ornaments, Neythal and Paalai landscapes, as Murugan,
Keezhadi Thirumal, Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai,
respectively.
However, people also worshipped
natural forces and dead heroes, and
ancestors. The force of anangu is
mentioned in the literature which
indicates the prevalence of animistic
beliefs.
Jainism was present as evidenced by
A brick structure, Keezhadi the caves with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.
Performance of Yagna is also evidenced.
Buddhism was also present in certain
centres. Different groups practiced various
forms of worship
3.8 Culture of Arts
Various art forms too existed in the

Furnace, Keezhadi Sangam Age. Performances of ritual
dances called Veriyatal are referred
to in the literature. Composition of
poems, playing of music instruments
and dances were also known. The
literature mentions the fine variety of
cuisine of the Sangam Age. People took
care of their appearance and evidence
of antimony rods (kohl sticks) made of
copper has been found in archaeological
A brick built tank, Keezhadi sites. They were used by women for
decorating their eyebrows.
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UNIT State and Society in

Medieval India
3 From the Cholas to the Mughals
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge of
Successive dynasties and the resultant political outcomes from the
times of the Cholas to the Mughals
Influence of Islam and Islamic state on the socio-cultural life of the
people
Institutional and administrative changes during Chola, Pandya
and Vijayanagara periods in the south
Right and Left Hand Caste conflicts and changes in religious spheres on account of
advent of European Missions
Development of literature, art and architecture
Transformation in agriculture and manufacturing sector
Progress in maritime trade, commerce and urbanization
Introduction in defining different periods of Indian

We begin this chapter by defining the history. For instance, the historian Burton
term ‘medieval’. The periodization of Stein, uses the term ‘classical’ to describe
history into ‘ancient/classical’, medieval’ the period up to the Gupta empire, and
and ‘modern’ is conventionally used with dates the ‘medieval’ period from the
reference to European history. In the 7th century A.D.(CE) till the beginning
context of Indian history, the use of these of Mughal rule in the 16th century. The
terms is more problematic. Therefore, Mughal era, from the 16th to 18th century
historians have debated their relevance is referred to as the early modern peroid.
30 State and Society in Medieval India

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The political scenario in all Major Political Changes

parts of India underwent momentous, The expansion of the Chola empire
definitive changes which transformed from the time of Rajaraja which
the social and economic fabric and eclipsed the Pandyan and Pallava
development of the country. Historians kingdoms, extending north till Orissa.
have now moved away from thinking
of history as a linear narrative of From the twelfth century, the beginning
kings and dynasties, and the events – of several centuries of Muslim rule in
mainly wars and military campaigns – Delhi, extending throughout north
which happened during their rule. History India and the spread of Islam to
is now thought of inter-disciplinary different parts of the country.
terms to comprise social and economic By the end of the 13 th century the
change. Nevertheless, such change does eclipse of the great empire of the
not happen autonomously without any Cholas and the consequent rise of
reference to changes in the political many Religious kingdoms in south
structure. This is especially true for the India. This ultimately culminated in
period covered in this chapter. the rise of the Vijayanagar empire
IMPORTANT PLACES OF
INDIA IN THE LATE
Kabul
KASHMIR 14th & 15th CENTURIES
N
lum ab
us
Jhe
Ind
en
Ch
Ravi W E
Lahore
j
tle Ferozepore S
Su
Delhi
Ga
Ya
Bikaner tra
mu
ng
SIND Amber Agra map

u
a
na
Brah
Aymer JAUNPUR
Jodhpur Jaunpur
bal
o
wa
MEWAR
am
Banaras
Bet
n
So
Ch
Ahmedabad MALWA
GUJARAT Narmadha
SH
I N D I A BENGAL
KHA NDE Ma
Tapti Burhanpur han
adh
i
Devagiri
BAHAMANI
Godavari
Ahmadnagar
Warangal
Bidar
ARABIAN Gulbarga Golconda
Bijapurrishna
SEA K
Raichur BAY OF BENGAL
Doob
VIJAYANAGAR
Dyarasa
An
da
a v mudra
m an
L a ks h a d w e e p i s l a
e ry
a nd nic o b ar
(I N DI A )
Madurai
(I N DI A )
i sl a
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s
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s
I N D I A N O C E A N Map not to scale
State and Society in Medieval India 31

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which exercised authority over all of commander, Malik Kafur, was sent on
south India and came to be considered military expeditions further south in the
the bastion of Religious rule in the first decade of the 1300s A.D. (C.E.).
south. The Tughlaq kings who came after
The consolidation of Muslim rule Alauddin also sent their armies to the
under the Mughals in the north, south. As a result, the generally more
beginning in 1526 A.D. (C.E.) with the isolated southern part of the country came
defeat of the Ibrahim Lodi by Babur. into the orbit of the rulers of the north.
At its height, the Mughal empire Governors were appointed in various
stretched from Kabul to Gujarat to provinces in the Deccan region, and a
Bengal, from Kashmir to south India. Sultanate was even established in Madurai.
The coming of the Europeans, beginning
with the Portuguese who arrived on the
west coast of India in 1498.
3.1 Political Changes
(1000–1700)
3.1(a) North India: The Advent
of Islam
Muslim rule was established in Delhi at
the end of the 12th century by Muhammad
Ghori, but did not expand much beyond Muhammad bin Tughlaq
this core region for another hundred years. During the reign of Muhammad bin
Muslim merchants and rulers were known in Tughlaq, there was a revolt in Daulatabad.
India for several centuries even prior to this. Alauddin Bahman Shah set up the Bahmani
Arab Muslim merchants had been trading sultanate in 1347 A.D. (C.E.), with his
in the ports of the west coast, especially capital in Bidar. The Bahmani kingdom
Kerala, as early as the 9th century. Similarly, survived for nearly a century and a half,
Muslim invaders from west Asia had set up mainly due to the able administration
Sultanates in Gujarat and Sind since the 8th of Mahmud Gawan, a great statesman
century. However, these contacts did not and loyal minister. After his death, many
lead to any widespread exposure to Islam or viceroys declared their independence, and
Muslim rule in the rest of the country. by the end of the fifteenth century, five
The impact of Muslim rule was sultanates came up in the Deccan: Bijapur,
felt during the reign of Alauddin Khalji Golkonda, Ahmednagar, Berar, and Bidar.
(1296-1316 A.D. (C.E.)) who sent military Bijapur and Golkonda were the largest of
campaigns to the south. The primary these sultanates and the region entered a
objective was to plunder the wealth, rather phase of considerable economic growth
than to expand his territory. Devagiri and expansion of trade. The Deccan
(near Aurangabad) was captured by sultanates were conquered by Aurangzeb
Alauddin Khalji. Renamed Daulatabad, it in the 1660s A.D. (C.E.), and the entire
was the second stronghold of his growing region, as far south as Madras (Chennai)
kingdom. Alauddin Khalji’s slave and became a part of the Mughal empire.

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3.1 (b) The Chola Empire in the kings like Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan
South ruled at the end of the 13 thcentury.
Further to the north was the Hoysala
The territorial expansion of the Chola kingdom, with its capital at Belur and
empire began under Rajaraja I. The later Halebidu. This kingdom extended
Pallava kingdom had already been through much of the present day state
assimilated into the Chola kingdom. The of Karnataka. The Kakatiyas ruled from
Pandya kingdom remained independent, Warangal (Telangana) while the Yadavas
but was subservient to the Cholas. The ruled in Devagiri until Devagiri fell to
empire expanded further under Rajendra I Alauddin Khalji’s forces at the end of the
who had successfully taken his armies as 13th century. These states did not exist in
far to the northeast as the river Ganges. peaceful cooperation, and the region was
He had also sent naval expeditions against beset by many internal wars and conflicts.
the Sailendra Kingdom of Sri Vijaya
(in Indonesia), Kadaram (Kedah) and
Ceylon. This earned him the title “the
Chola who had conquered the Ganga and
Kadaram” (gangaiyum kadaramum konda
cholan). Ceylon remained a province of
the Chola empire for a few decades. The
empire was further consolidated through
marriage with the eastern Chalukyas
under Rajendra’s grandson Kulottunga I,
and extended up to the border of Orissa.
Maritime trade with south-east Asia Hampi
and China expanded greatly during the The establishment of the kingdom
Chola period. The continued interaction (subsequently empire) of Vijayanagar was
with Tamil merchants resulted in the the most momentous development in the
spread of the influence of Indic culture history of south India in the medieval period.
and art into south-east Asia, as seen in The kingdom was established by Harihara
the magnificent temples of Angkor Wat in and Bukka, two brothers. They were the
Cambodia. first rulers of the Sangama dynasty. They
founded a new capital city on the southern
3.1 (c) Vijayanagar and South banks of Tungabhadra which they named
Vijayanagara (city of victory). Harihara was
India after the Cholas
crowned in 1336 A.D. (C.E.). The Sangama
The Chola Empire began to decline after dynasty ruled Vijayanagar for nearly one
the middle of the 13th century. The last and a half centuries. This was followed by
known Chola emperor was Rajendra III. the Saluva dynasty which was in power only
The empire died out in 1279 A.D. (C.E.). for a brief period. The Tuluva dynasty then
Several power centres came up after this succeeded as rulers. Krishnadeva Raya, the
in the region. Further greatest ruler of Vijayanagar, belonged to
to the south, the Pandya this family.
kings again sought to
regain the glory they had
lost under the Cholas.
Many brilliant Pandya

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region of Kerala and southern Tamilnadu

Kingdom: a country ruled by a king or were not directly under Mughal rule.
queen. Empire: a group of countries
controlled by one ruler.
3.1(e) The Arrival of the
Europeans
As the empire expanded, kingdoms
to the south, such as the Hoysalas and the During the fifteenth century the Europeans
Tamil region, were also assimilated into were pre-occupied with trying to find a
Vijayanagar. The rulers of Vijayanagar direct sea route to India, bypassing the
were almost continuously at war with overland route through west Asia and
the Bahmani sultanate as well as with the the Mediterranean. The spice trade from
Religous based kingdoms of Kondavidu India was controlled by Muslims up to
and Orissa. Finally, the combined forces Alexandria. By gaining direct access
of the five Deccani Sultanates defeated to India the Europeans could exercise
Vijayanagar in 1565 A.D. (C.E.) at the more direct control over the spice trade
Battle of Talikota. The Vijayanagar and obtain the spices at more favourable
emperors then shifted their capital further prices. In 1498 A.D. (C.E.), Vasco da
south to Penugonda, and eventually to Gama landed on the Kerala coast having
Chandragiri near Tirupati. The empire (or sailed around the Cape of Good Hope in
what remained of it) finally withered away South Africa. Barely five years later, the
in the middle of the seventeenth century. Portuguese built their first fort at Cochin
in 1503 A.D. (C.E.). Goa was captured in
1510 A.D. (C.E.) and became the centre
3.1(d) The Mughals (1526–1707
of the Portuguese state in India. Because
A.D. (C.E.)) of their naval superiority, the Portuguese
The Mughal empire was founded by Babur were able to conquer many ports from east
in 1526 A.D. (C.E.) after he defeated Africa up to Malacca, and could effectively
Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat. The first six control the maritime trade over the entire
Mughal emperors are referred to as the region.
‘Great Mughals’. Aurangzeb was the last
of the great Mughals. Akbar consolidated
the Mughal empire through conquests and
through a policy of conciliation with the
Religious based kingdoms of Rajasthan.
The Mughal empire though began to
disintegrate after Aurangzeb, continued to
exist nominally till 1857 A.D. (C.E.) when Trade in Masulipattinam
the British finally ended the virtually non- Other European nations soon
existent empire. followed the Portuguese, most notably the
A new power centre rose in Dutch, English and French. The activities
Maharashtra in the seventeenth century, and of the latter were carried on through the
the Marathas under the leadership of Shivaji respective East India Companies. While
seriously undermined the authority of the these were all private trading enterprises,
Mughals in western India. At its height, the they all had a strong political agenda.
empire stretched over most of the Indian During the seventeenth century, when
sub-continent. Only the south-western Mughal authority was still powerful, the
European companies were able to trade

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in the Mughal empire, but could not issues and disputes; and for collecting the
have their own territorial base within taxes due to the government.
the boundaries of the empire. In South While the Chola state did not
India, however, political authority was intervene in this fundamental system of local
fragmented and much less cohesive, administration, they introduced innovations
and they had their own enclaves over in revenue administration by creating
which they exercised complete authority. new revenue divisions (mandalam and
The Dutch were in Pulicat (and later valanadu). Several new taxes on agriculture
Nagapatnam), the English in Madras, the and commerce were also introduced.
French in Pondicherry and the Danes in
Tarangampadi (Tranquebar). The second notable feature was
the great increase in the construction
of temples. This had two dimensions:
3.2 Impact on Polity new temples were constructed, and
existing temples became multi-functional
The above stated political developments
social and economic institutions. The
in Indian history had far-reaching
construction of great temples also was a
consequences on
reflection of the growing prosperity in the
administrative
kingdom, since the activity involved great
institutions, society
expenditure. The temple was no longer
and the economy
a mere place of worship, but became an
across the sub-
important economic entity as an employer,
continent.
consumer and land-owner.
The CHOLA
PERIOD was an The establishment of Islamic Rule
enterprising period in Delhi made a big impact on Indian
when trade and the society. Initially, Islam did not cause
economy expanded, any social tension. Arab merchants, for
accompanied by instance, when they came and settled on
urbanization. The Kerala coast, married local women and
administrative led a peaceful life. The situation changed
machinery was re- when Islam became a state power. For
organised during a medieval ruler one way of asserting
Chola rule. The imperial authority was to demolish the
basic unit of local place of worship of the enemies. Otherwise
Islam as a monotheistic religion had
King Raja Raja Chola administration was its positive impact in Indian society. It
the village (ur),
followed by the sub-region (nadu) and played a decisive role in the evolution of a
district (kottam). Tax-free villages granted composite culture.
to Brahmins were known as brahmadeya. Muslim kingdoms in Delhi, as well
Marketing centres and towns were known in the Deccan, also attracted migrants
as nagaram. The ur, nadu, brahmadeya and from Persia and Arabia who moved to
nagaram each had its own assembly. They India and took up service in these states
were responsible for the maintenance and and many became important and well-
management of the water resources and known statesmen. This also opened up
land; the local temples; resolving local Indian society to steady interaction with
west Asia resulting in the transfer of

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cultural and technical influences. Muslim (C.E.) and 1550 A.D. (C.E.) in Madurai,
merchants and craftsmen also migrated Tanjavur and Gingee (Senji). These
from the north of India to the south in the nayakas had formal roles in court
wake of the military expeditions. Society ceremonials at Vijayanagar. This became
became more heterogeneous and hybrid the new political order in Tamilnadu
in character. A new composite culture during the sixteenth century. The nayaka
evolved. This could be seen most vividly chieftains as well as the three nayaka
in the Deccan sultanates of Bijapur and kings were all strong supporters of Hindu
Golkonda whose rulers were extremely temples. The three capitals became great
broad-minded and secular in outlook. cultural centres under the patronage of
A notable development was the the nayaka rulers who promoted literature
profusion of contemporary historical and the performing arts.
accounts of the Muslim Sultanates by Arab
and Persian historians. Al beruni, Ibn Batuta,
and Ferishta are among the best known of the
Muslim historians. These historians provide
valuable information about the rulers and
events of the medieval period. They also
provide an alternate historical point of view
of Islamic rule in India as seen through the
eyes of Muslim writers.
The establishment of the
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE changed the
administrative and social institutional
structure of south India, especially in
the Tamil country. Perhaps because the
new kingdom was threatened from the
beginning by the hostility of the Bahmani
sultanate in the north, Vijayanagar evolved
as a militaristic state. This empire needed
two kinds of resources to feed its military
establishment – revenue and men. This
was achieved through re-organizing Rani Mangammal
the administration of the conquered
territories, especially in the Tamil region. Resources realized from the
Military officers, known as ‘nayakas’, were land were transferred to the empire by
appointed as chiefs of various localities the nayakas not as tax revenue, but as
in Tamilnadu and received land grants tribute. Thus, the resources of the core
from the emperor. There were also lesser regions, especially in the Tamil region,
military leaders known as palayakkarar were utilized for military purposes. This
who essentially supplied the manpower administrative set-up effectively destroyed
for the army. Many forts were also built the decentralized, local institutions
which were under Brahman commanders. which managed local resources, temples
Three major nayaka kingdoms, and affairs which had come up during
owing allegiance to the Vijayanagar Chola rule. The appointment of Telugu
emperor, came up between 1500 A.D. nayakas also resulted in the migration of

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Telugu-speaking people from the north. other reasons. The growing presence of
These included soldiers, agriculturists, the European trading companies also
craftsmen and Brahmins. witnessed an influx of European travellers
The MUGHAL EMPIRE into India. They left exhaustive accounts
transformed the economy and society of of their travels in India, commenting on
north India. The empire was consolidated virtually all aspects of life in India. These
under Akbar through his policy of accounts are important contemporary
co-opting the Hindu Rajput rulers under sources of information on the economy,
the umbrella of Mughal rule. He also society, political developments and
reversed the policy of discriminatory institutions in India.
measures against the Hindus. He employed The Europeans came to India
Hindu administrators like Todar Mal primarily in search of spices. But soon
in key positions of authority. These there was an explosion in the demand for
initiatives earned the emperor the loyalty Indian textiles in the European markets,
and trust of the majority community. As often referred to as the ‘Indian craze’.
the empire stretched across north India, This led to a significant expansion of
the entire region was brought under a textile production in India, which was
uniform administrative structure. The accompanied by an expansion of the
political stability of the large empire led production of commercial crops like
to impressive growth of the economy cotton and indigo and other dyes.
and trade. At the height of its power the
Mughal empire was one of the largest,
richest and most powerful empires in the 3.3 Society
entire world.
3.3(a) Caste
In part due to Aurangzeb’s reversal to
orthodox Islamic principles of governance Caste is the most distinctive (and most
which alienated the Rajput rulers and the discussed) aspect of Indian society. We
Hindu subjects, the over-extended empire first need to understand two dimensions
began to collapse under its own weight by of the term ‘caste’. First, the four-fold
the beginning of the eighteenth century. division of society as specified in the
The viceroys of many Mughal provinces – religious texts, referred to as varna.
Bengal, Awadh (Oudh), Hyderabad, There was a considerable proportion of
Arcot – became independent rulers of the population which was outside the
the successor states after the death of varna system. The number of such people
Aurangzeb. These states became centres of increased significantly by the medieval
distinctive local cultures, including styles period. This was partly because more and
of cooking like Luckhnavi and Hyderabadi more pastoral and forest land was being
cuisines. reclaimed for cultivation, and the people
who lived in these lands were evicted.
The ARRIVAL OF THE They had to work as landless labourers
EUROPEANS in India ultimately for their living, and were often tied to the
culminated in the establishment of land like serfs.
colonial rule in India under the British,
and this is what is considered foremost In reality, caste was a complex
when discussing the impact of the phenomenon. It combined economic and
European presence. But the coming of social dimensions and has to be understood
the Europeans was important for many under the more common term of jati.

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The different jatis were not necessarily to establish its origins; this was used to
at different levels of ranking in a vertical justify the claim for the right to a higher
hierarchy, but each still retained a separate status in the hierarchy. These genealogies
identity. The persons who worked in any are found in many of the manuscripts
specific occupation or profession considered collected by Colin Mackenzie.
themselves as part of a distinct caste. These A singular and unusual feature of the
occupations could be service related or caste system existed in most of south India:
artisanal crafts like weaving, metal work, groups of castes were vertically divided into
woodwork etc. In most cities persons right (valankai) and left hand (idankai)
working in the same occupation often lived castes. Each group included castes at different
in their own segregated quarters. In general, levels in the caste hierarchy, like merchants,
occupations were hereditary. Technology land-owning castes and professional castes
and knowledge about production processes down to agricultural labourers. This division
were transferred orally from generation to was found throughout south India, but we
generation. have more comprehensive information on
We have extensive information the right and left hand castes in the Tamil
about occupational castes for south India, region because their conflicts are extensively
especially Tamilnadu. The occupational documented in the English records.
caste groups are sometimes referred to as Primarily, the conflicts between
guilds. They functioned under a leader the two groups were extremely violent.
or small group of leaders who were the Generally, these conflicts arose from the
deciding authority on all matters pertaining claims by each group to indicators of
to the caste. Theoretically, any person who superior ceremonial status, which was
worked in a particular occupation could another manifestation of the constant
become a member of the group (as was striving for improving social status in the
the case in guilds in Europe). In practice, caste hierarchy.
however, there are virtually no instances
of outsiders becoming a member of an
3.3(b) Religion
occupational caste. Muslim craftsmen or
weavers could thus not become members Diverse institutions with different ideologies
of a Hindu group. came up within the bhakti movement
during the medieval period. Mathas or
Improving the status of their jati
mutts were established under different gurus
was a major pre-occupation for all caste
or religious leaders like Vidyaranya; Saivite
groups. This is particularly evident after the
movements came up like the Tamil Saiva-
fourteenth century when the traditional
siddhanta, and the Virasaivas in Karnataka;
local assemblies which controlled the
in Maharashtra the Varkarisampradaya
resources and social interactions began to
(tradition) of the devotees of Vithoba arose
weaken. In traditional society many castes
in the 14th century.
were denied various social rights and
privileges. Therefore, caste groups often Buddhism had faded out in India.
petitioned the local ruler for permission Jainism also lost ground in most parts of
to use various symbols of higher status, India due to emergence of bhakti movement
like the right to wear footwear, the right under Sankara and Ramanuja. However,
to carry umbrellas, the right to use certain it continued to thrive in parts of Gujarat
decorations at funerals and so on. Each and Marwar, especially among the trading
caste also created a mythical genealogy communities. Islam spread throughout

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the country as Islamic sultanates were set best known classical poet, Kamban, wrote
up eventually entering south India. With Ramayana in Tamil which was formally
regard to Christianity, there were a small presented (Arangetram) in the temple at
number of Christian Srirangam. Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam, similarly
groups in Kerala was presented at the temple in Chidambaram.
claiming their origins to Among the other great works of the period
the time of St Thomas, is Kalingattup-parani and Muvarula. It was
the disciple of Jesus. But also a period when great religio-philosophical
Christianity took roots treatises like the Sankara-bhasyam and Sri-
when the Portuguese bhashyam were produced.
arrived in Kerala and set Roberto de Nobili
themselves up in Goa. In
Goa itself the local population was under
great pressure to convert to Christianity,
especially under the oppressive conditions
of the Inquisition. But Jesuit missionaries
were also active in other areas, especially
among the fishing communities on the
Pandyan coast. The best known among the
Jesuit missionaries was St Francis Xavier
who was instrumental in making the Darasuram Temple
fishing community to take to Christianity The monumental architecture of
in the Tuticorin region. Another notable the Cholas is visible in the great temple
Jesuit was Roberto de Nobili, a scholar, of Tanjavur, Gangai-konda-cholapuram
who was based in Madurai. and Darasuram, to name only a few. Stone
In the north a new religion, Sikhism, images were sculpted on the temple walls
was founded by Guru Nanak, who lived and pillars. Bronze images of great beauty
during 15th and 16th century. Sikhism grew and artistry were made by the ‘lost wax’
in strength in spite of severe repression process. The best known of them is the
by Aurangzeb. Thus, by the beginning of iconic representation of Siva as Nataraja,
the eighteenth century, many religions performing the cosmic dance.
co-existed across India. Foreign religions A distinct Islamic cultural tradition
also came to India when Jews and developed in India with the establishment
Zoroastrians (Parsis) migrated to India. of Muslim rule. The sultans built forts,
The Parsis, who fled Persia to escape tombs, mosques and other monuments
persecuation, settled in Gujarat, while the in Delhi as well as in south India which
Jews lived in Kerala. Parsi merchants were came under their rule. The Mughal period
among the richest and most prominent particularly was a brilliant epoch in the
in the port of Surat, and subsequently, in cultural history of India. The Mughals
Bombay under the British. were well-known for their aesthetic
values, and were great patrons of the arts.
3.4 Culture They left behind numerous monuments,
in addition to constructing entire cities
Literature, Art and Architecture like Shahjahanabad (Delhi) and Fatehpur
The Chola period was an era of remarkable Sikri, gardens, mosques and forts.
cultural activity. These were the centuries Decorative arts – especially jewellery set
when major literary works were written. The
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with precious and semi-precious gems for nayakas and the Vijayanagar rulers.
items of personal use – flourished under Telugu literature flourished under royal
the patronage of the royal household support. A new style of Tamil literature
and urban elites. The art of painting also called Prabandham emerged during this
flourished in the Mughal period. Primarily period. The great commentaries of the epic
known as Mughal miniatures, they were Silappadikaram and Tirukkural were also
generally intended as book illustrations or written during this period. Venkatamakhi,
were single works to be kept in albums. A son of Govindha Dikshidar who codifying
large volume of literature was produced, the ragas of Carnatic music had lived in
especially in Persian, and also in Urdu, this period.
Hindi and other regional languages. In
the performing arts, like Hindustani the 3.5 Economy
name of Tansen is well-known indicating
the patronage extended to classical music 3.5 (a) Agriculture
under Akbar. India was predominantly
an agricultural country,
and a very large proportion
of the population lived in
rural areas and depended on agriculture
for their livelihood. Both in the north
and the south, agriculture depended
heavily on irrigation. Canals and wells
added to the water sources in addition to
rainfall and rivers. The state was actively
involved in the construction of canals for
increasing the availability of water. The
Fatehpur Sikri Fort
biggest network of canals known in India
In south India, the Vijayanagar until the nineteenth century was created
rulers and their military chiefs actively in the fourteenth century by Firuzshah
supported temple construction. Many new Tughluq in the Delhi area. Construction
temples were built by them. Besides this, of lakes, tanks and reservoirs with sluices
new structures like pavilions and halls to let out the water as well as the use of
with many pillars were added extensively check dams all increased the availability of
to existing temples, with elaborately water for irrigation. Cultivators were also
carved pillars. Art historians point to the encouraged to dig wells. Lift irrigation
distinctive style of the temple sculptures was used to draw the water. In the north,
of the Vijayanagar period. The intricately the Persian wheel was used for lifting
carved lofty towers or gopurams at the water from wells. In the Tamil region, the
entrance to temples were all added during Cholas had created a network of canals
the Vijayanagar period. The walls of the for irrigation connecting the tributaries of
temples were embellished with paintings. Kaveri. Lakes and tanks also added to the
A large volume of religious water sources.
literature, especially in Sanskrit, was
produced under the patronage of the

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There is more data for north India

especially with respect to crop yields.
The data for the thirteenth to fourteenth
centuries, as well as the sixteenth century
indicate that the productivity per unit of
land was as high then as it was at the end
of the nineteenth century. There was less
population pressure on land in the earlier
centuries, so it can be argued that even
productivity per capita was higher than
it was in more recent times. By and large,
the evidence indicates that land was still
Persian Wheel plentifully available in north and south
India. Rural population were known
An important feature of Indian
to abandon a settlement and move to a
agriculture was the large number of crops
new location in protest against excessive
that were cultivated. The peasant in India
demands by the rulers. People moved to
was more knowledgeable about many
the more arid, black soil regions of western
crops as compared to peasants in most of
and southern Tamilnadu in the context of
the world at the time. A variety of food
decline of Vijayanagar empire and began
grains like wheat, rice, and millets were
to cultivate these lands.
grown apart from lentils and oilseeds.
Many other commercial crops were also The economic condition of the bulk
grown such as sugarcane, cotton and of the peasantry, however, was poor. They
indigo. Other than the general food crops, generally lived only at a very basic level
south India had a regional specialization of subsistence. There are many instances
in pepper, cinnamon, spices and coconut. in south India in the seventeenth century
when poor peasants sold themselves and
In general, two different crops were
their families into slavery. The shipping
grown in the different seasons, which
lists of the Dutch East India Company
protected the productivity of the soil.
regularly mention men and women
Maize and tobacco were two new crops
slaves who were transported to the spice
which were introduced after the arrival
producing islands of Indonesia to work on
of the Europeans. Many new varieties of
the plantations.
fruit or horticultural crops like papaya,
pineapple, guava and cashew nut were also
introduced which came from the west, 3.5 (b) Non Agricultural
especially America. Potatoes, chillies and Production
tomatoes also became an integral part of Up to the end of the seventeenth century,
Indian food. India was one of the largest manufacturing
Sericulture (silk production by countries in the world though the
breeding the mulberry silkworm) was economy was primarily agricultural. Non-
introduced in the fourteenth and fifteenth agricultural production refers to both
centuries. By the seventeenth century, processed agricultural products and craft
Bengal had become one of the largest production. Primarily the products can
silk-producing regions in the world. be grouped under: processed agricultural
In addition, other varieties of silk (like products like sugar, oil, textiles; metal
tassar) were also produced. work; precious gems and jewellery; ship

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building; ornamental wood and leather not absorb dyes without a preparatory
work; and many other minor products. process using mordants, which was not
The organization of production known in the rest of the world. Indigo
basically depended on the nature of the was the most important dye crop that was
market for which it was produced. A large grown in India, but other dye crops (like
part of the production was intended for the chay root for red colour) were also
local use in the village, or at most a rural grown in India. Dye woods and resins like
region. These goods were basic utilitarian lac were imported. In addition, a range of
goods like pots and pans, implements colours were produced by using flowers
like ploughs, basic woodwork and coarse and fruits, and products like turmeric in
textiles. Generally the producer marketed various combinations.
the product himself, and exchange was
probably conducted on barter.
In economic terms, what was
important was specialized production by
skilled craftsmen for an external market,
especially in demand among the high
income rural and urban upper classes.
Such craft production was generally
located in cities, or in rural settlements
close to the cities. Craftsmen generally Textile Production
worked on an individual or family basis
from their homes or workshops though Textile production involved several
larger manufacturing units (karkhanas) stages and craftsmen in the spinning of
employing many craftsmen were set up yarn, weaving and dyeing and printing.
under the Mughal state. Each was a specialized occupation. Yarn
was traditionally spun by women and
was a home-based occupation. Indian
3.5(c) Textiles textiles were in great demand in the Asian
Nearly all the cloth that was produced markets, and were the chief export from
was of cotton, though silk weaving had India. During the seventeenth century,
developed in Bengal where silk was the Dutch and the English realized that
produced, and in Gujarat. Each region they could procure spices from the spice
of India produced a range of highly islands of Indonesia most profitably in
specialized local varieties of cotton cloth exchange for cloth from India. There was
ranging from the coarse to the superfine, also a growing demand for many varieties
but all were intended for an external of Indian cloth like muslin, chintz and so
market. Dyed and printed/patterned on for personal wear and furnishings in
cloth involved the use of vegetable the European market. This resulted in a
dyes. India had two natural advantages sudden expansion of demand for Indian
in cotton weaving. The first was that cloth, thereby impacting on agricultural
cotton grew in almost all parts of India, sector also.
so that the basic raw material was easily
available. Second, the technology of 3.5(d) Commerce
producing a permanent colour on cotton The large manufacturing sector essentially
using vegetable dyes was known from produced goods for exchange, and not
very early times in India. Cotton does

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for self-use. Therefore, India had an Gujarat, Masulipatnam in the Golkonda

extensive network of trade for marketing kingdom, Chittagong in Bengal, Pulicat
these goods. The village was the basic (Pazhaverkadu) and Nagapatnam on the
geographical unit of production, and was Coromandel Coast, and Calicut in Kerala
essentially a subsistence economy and were all major ports in Asiatic trade.
barter was the medium of exchange. At India was also a major exporter
the next level, the producer (agricultural of textiles, pepper, precious and semi-
or non-agricultural) produced a surplus precious gems – especially diamonds
which he marketed himself, usually in which were then found only in India –
regional weekly markets. At the most and iron and steel which were greatly
advanced level, the producer was de-linked in demand in the entire Asian region.
from marketing, which was undertaken Textiles accounted for nearly 90 per cent
by merchant intermediaries. All three of the total exports from India. The major
kinds of markets co-existed in India, in imports from China and the east were silk,
an “ascending scale in the overlapping Chinese ceramics, gold, spices, aromatic
circuits of exchange”. woods and camphor. Silk, drugs, dye
Big cities were usually major woods and sugar were the main imports
commercial centres, with bazaars and shops. from Persia, while gold, ivory and slaves
They were also intermediate points in inter- were brought in from east Africa.
regional trade since they were connected by Until the fourteenth century, in south
a network of roads to other centres in other India, international trade was carried on by
parts of the country. In addition to such merchants who belonged to the corporate
overland trade, smaller ships and boats were group of a guild. Two such guilds are well-
used in coastal trade along both the western known: Ainnurruvar (the Five Hundred)
and eastern coasts of the country. Itinerant who had their headquarters in Aihole,
merchants, usually nomadic banjaras, and the Manigramam. These guilds were
carried supplies for the large armies which heterogeneous agglomerations of many
were on the move. Finally, the major ports merchant groups and corporate assemblies
(Surat, Masulipatnam, Calicut etc.) were like nagarams. After the thirteenth century
the nodal points in international, maritime when the local assemblies of villages and
trade. towns which had hitherto managed the
temples had begun to weaken, the merchant
Maritime trade across the Indian
guilds took it on themselves to raise taxes
Ocean, extending from China in the east
from their members and make joint
to Africa in the west, had flourished for
donations to temples. There are no references
many centuries. India was an integral part
to the merchant guilds after the fifteenth
of this maritime. This was partly due to
century and individual rich merchants took
its geographical location in the middle
over maritime trade.
of the Indian Ocean. Till the seventeenth
century, ships from China rarely ventured A large network of merchants was
further west beyond the ports of the Kerala needed to manage and channel trade across
coast, while ships from the west did not India. Merchants operated at different levels.
sail beyond Malacca (in Malaysia) to the The petty traders and shopkeepers, single
east. Thus ports like Malacca, Calicut commodity merchants and brokers on the
etc. were ‘entrepots’ or intermediate one hand and the richest and most powerful
points in this regionally segmented trade. merchants who were involved in exports
In the seventeenth century, Surat in and imports at the apex of the pyramid on

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the other had to source the goods for their small as a proportion of the total, but it
trade, especially textiles, from a very large had an economic and cultural significance
hinterland. In order to meet this need they which was much greater than its actual
employed local merchants and brokers to size.
procure the textiles and other products What were the factors which
which they exported. Trade on such a facilitated urbanization? It has been
large scale could function only with the observed that cities and towns fulfilled
availability of financial and banking services. diverse and overlapping roles in the
Bankers and money changers operated in all economy. The large cities were centres of
the big cities, and bills of exchange or hundis manufacturing and marketing, banking
(similar to cheques or bank drafts) were and financial services. They were usually
used to transfer money from one city to located at the intersection of an extensive
another. Gujarati merchants were found in network of roads which connected
all the ports of the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, them to other parts of the country.
while the Coromandel merchants operated Smaller towns were marketing centres
from Malacca and other ports in Siam and in local trade connecting the immediate
Burma. rural hinterland. Cities also served as
The European trading companies political and administrative centres,
realized that they could not function in both in the capital region (for instance,
India without the services of these rich Agra and Delhi) and in the provinces
and influential merchants. They entered (Patna, Ahmedabad, Lucknow). Major
into contracts with them to supply the pilgrimage centres like Varanasi also grew
goods that they wanted and also to lift into cities, because the regular inflow of
the imports which they brought in from pilgrims provided a market that attracted
Europe. The Indian merchants benefited manufacturing and trade.
from the business opportunities offered by In South India, especially the
the European companies. But this scenario Tamil region, urbanization went hand in
began to change from the beginning of the hand with temples. Temples were large
eighteenth century. The Indian merchants economic enterprises requiring a variety
were under contract to the Europeans to of goods and services to function. They
supply textiles and other goods. But by needed and employed a large number of
then the local resources were not enough people to man the religious services, the
to produce the quantities required and kitchens and for other work. Devotees
political disturbances also disrupted all coming to worship at the temple needed
economic activity. This resulted in most many services and goods, so that temple
merchants being bankrupted diminishing towns also became marketing centres. The
the economic vitality of the merchant pace of urbanization increased during the
community. Vijayanagar period when there was a great
increase in the construction of temples
3.6 Urbanization across Tamilnadu.
Travellers coming to India in the medieval It must be remembered that the
period noted that there were a number of distinction between rural and urban was
urban centres of various sizes, from cities not as marked as it is in the present day.
to small market towns throughout India, Most urban centres also displayed rural
though the country was primarily rural. characteristics. For instance, it was not
The urban population was probably quite uncommon to find fields with crops within

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a city. But it is interesting to note that most Conclusion

of the large cities and market centres which The medieval period covering more than
existed in the medieval period are still to seven hundred years of Indian history was
be found in north and south India, even a time when momentous changes took
though their relative importance might have place in the political landscape which
changed over the centuries. also transformed the social and economic
fabric of the country.
SUMMARY
Major political changes commencing from the establishment of Muslim Rule in
Delhi, are dealt with.
The enterprising period of Cholas and the significance of Vijayanagar Empire in
the south are analysed.
The economy and the society during the Sultanate and the Mughal rule are
highlighted.
Occupational castes and conflict between Right and Left Hand Castes are explained.
Progress in art, literature and music are discussed.
Conditions of agriculture, trade, commerce and urbanization are examined.
GLOSSARY
watershed – சிறப்புமிக்க
awe-inspiring – மலைப்புத் தருகிற
bastion – அரண்
genealogy – பரம்பரை வரலாறு; வம்சாவளி
aesthetic value – அழகியல் தன்மை
assimilate – உள்வாங்கு
commentaries – விளக்கவுரை
alienate – அந்நியப்படுத்து
concomitant – த�ொடர்ந்து வரக்கூடிய
agglomeration – கூட்டமைப்பு
embellish - மெருகூட்டு
45 State and Society in Medieval India State and Society in Medieval India 45
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Lesson
Later Cholas and Pandyas
11
Learning Objectives
The objectives of the lesson are to enable students to acquire knowledge of

I Cholas
The achievements of Chola rulers
Cultural developments in the Chola region
Emergence of well-developed agrarian structure and irrigation system
Role of temples in medieval Tamil society
Maritime trade during Chola rule
II Pandyas
Rise of Pandyas with Madurai as their capital
Malik Kafur’s invasion and its fallout
Succession dispute inviting the attention of Sultan Alauddin Khalji
Agriculture, irrigation and trade during the Pandya rule
Religion and culture in southern Tamil Nadu
Introduction monarchical states. The Cholas were one

The Cholas belonged to one of the three among them.
mighty dynasties that ruled the Tamizh The river valleys facilitated the
country in the early historical period. expansion of agriculture leading to
Described as the Muvendhar in the the emergence of powerful kingdoms.
Sangam literature, they were known for the The agricultural boom resulted in the
valour and for their patronage of the Tamil production of considerable surplus of
language. Many songs were composed in predominantly food grains. But this
high praise of their glories. However, after surplus in production resulted in unequal
the Sangam period until about the ninth distribution of wealth. Society gradually
century CE, there are no records about became highly differentiated unlike in the
them. Changes that overtook Tamizhagam earlier period. Institutions and ideas from
in the intervening period brought about a the north of India, such as the temple
major transformation of the region and and the religion it represented, emerged
enabled the emergence of big, long-lasting as a new force. The Bhakti movement
184
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led by the Nayanmars and Azhwars mentioned as the progenitor. The names
popularised the ideology and the faith they of Killi, Koc-cengannan and Karikalan are
represented. Similarly, political ideas and mentioned as members of the line in these
institutions that originated in northern copper plates.
India soon found their way to the south Vijayalaya’s illustrious successors
as well. The cumulative result of all the starting from Parantaka I (907–955) to
new developments was the formation of a Kulothunga III (1163–1216) brought glory
state, which in this case was a monarchy and fame to the Cholas. Parantaka Chola
presided over by the descendants of the set the tone for expansion of the territory
old Chola lineage. and broadened the base of its governance,
After the eclipse of the Chola and Rajaraja I (985–1014), the builder of
kingdom, Pandyas, who began their rule the most beautiful Brihadishvarar temple
in the Vaigai river basin at Madurai, at Thanjavur, and his son Rajendra I
wielded tremendous power during the (1012–1044),whose naval operation
14th century. Like the Cholas, the Pandyas extended as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated
also realised substantial revenue from the advances made by their predecessors
agriculture as well as from trade. Trade and went on to establish Chola hegemony
expansion overseas continued in the in peninsular India.
Pandya rule. Tirunelveli region, which was
part of the Pandyan kingdom, exported
Sources
grain, cotton, cotton cloth and bullocks to
the Malabar coast and had trade contacts More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved
with West and Southeast Asia. Pandya on copper and stone form the primary
kings produced a cultural heritage by sources for the study of Chola history.
synthesising the religious, cultural and The inscriptions mainly record the
political elements, and it differed totally endowments and donations to temples
with the assumed homogeneity of classical made by rulers and other individuals. Land
age of Guptas. transactions and taxes (both collections
and exemptions) form an important part of
their content. Later-day inscriptions make
I CHOLAS
a mention of the differentiation in society,
Origin of the Dynasty giving an account of the castes and sub-
Records available to us after the Sangam castes and thus providing us information
Age show that the Cholas remained as
subordinates to the Pallavas in the Kaveri
region. The re-emergence of Cholas began
with Vijayalaya (850–871 CE) conquering
the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar. He
built the city of Thanjavur and established
the Chola kingdom in 850. Historians,
therefore, refer to them as the Later
Cholas or Imperial Cholas. In the copper
plate documents of his successors that are
available, the Cholas trace their ancestry
to the Karikala, the most well-known of
the Cholas of the Sangam age. In their
genealogy an eponymous king ‘Chola’ is Big temple inscriptions
Later Cholas and Pandyas 185

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on the social structure. Besides stone of the Tamizh country, Pandinadu or the
inscriptions, copper plates contain the southern portions of the Tamizh country,
royal orders. They also contain details of Gangaivadi or portions of southern
genealogy, wars, conquests, administrative Karnataka and Malaimandalam, the Kerala
divisions, local governance, land rights territory. The Cholas ventured overseas
and various taxes levied. Literature conquering the north-eastern parts of Sri
also flourished under the Cholas. The Lanka, bringing it under their control and
important religious works in Tamil include they called it Mummudi-Cholamandalam.
codification of the Saivite and Vaishnavite
canons. The quasi-historical literary works
Kalingattupparani and Kulotungancholan 11.1.1 Empire Building
Pillai Tamizh were composed during Rajaraja I is the most celebrated of the Chola
their reign. Muvarula, and Kamba kings. He engaged in naval expeditions and
Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this emerged victorious in the West Coast, Sri
period. Neminatam, Viracholiyam and Lanka and conquered the Maldives in the
Nannul are noted grammatical works. Indian Ocean. The military victory of Raja
Pandikkovai and Takkayagapparani are Raja I over Sri Lanka led to its northern and
other important literary works composed eastern portions coming under the direct
during this period. control of the Chola authority. Rajaraja
I appointed a Tamil chief to govern the
Territory annexed regions and ordered a temple to be
built. It is locally called Siva Devale (shrine
Traditionally, the area under the Chola of Siva). The Chola official appointed in
dynasty in the Tamizh country is known
as Chonadu or Cholanadu. Their core
kingdom was concentrated in the
Kaveri-fed delta called Cholamandalam.
This term came to be corrupted as
“Coromandel” in the European languages,
which often referred to the entire eastern
coast of South India. The Chola kingdom
expanded through military conquests
to include present-day Pudukkottai–
Ramanathapuram districts and the Kongu
country of the present-day western Tamil
Nadu. By the 11th century, through
invasions, Cholas extended their territory
to Tondainadu or the northern portion
Karantai Copper plate inscriptions Rajaraja I with his mentor

of Rajendra Chola I Karuvur Devar
186 Later Cholas and Pandyas

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Sri Lanka built a temple in a place called assumed the titles such as Mudikonda
Mahatitta. The temple is called Rajarajesvara. Cholan (the crowned Chola),Gangaikondan
Even as he was alive, Rajaraja I (conqueror of the Ganges), Kadaramkondan
appointed his son, Rajendra I, as his (conqueror of Kadaram) and Pandita
heir apparent. For two years, they jointly Cholan (scholarly Cholan).
ruled the Chola kingdom. Rajendra I
took part in the military campaigns of his 11.1.2 Chola Adminstration
father, attacking the Western Chalukyas.
King
Consequently, the boundary of the Chola
Empire extended up to Tungabhadra Historians have debated the nature of the
river. When Rajaraja I attacked Madurai, Chola state. Clearly, it was presided over
the Pandyas escaped with their crown and by a hereditary monarchy. The king is
royal jewels and took shelter in Sri Lanka. presented in glowing terms in the literature
Thereupon, Rajendra I conquered Sri and inscriptions of the period. Venerated
Lanka and confiscated the Pandya crown on par with god. The kings were invariably
and other royal belongings. addressed as peruman or perumagan (big
Rajendra I conducted the most man), ulagudaiyaperumal (the lord of the
striking military exploit after his accession in world) and ulagudaiyanayanar (the lord of
1023 by his expedition to northern India. He the world). Later, they adopted the titles such
led the expedition up to the Godavari river as Chakkaravarti (emperor) and Tiribhuvana
and asked his general to continue beyond Chakkaravarti (emperor of three worlds).
that place. The Gangaikonda Chozhapuram At the time of coronation, it was a practice
temple was built to commemorate his to add the suffix deva to the name of the
victories in North India. crowned kings. The kings drew legitimacy
by claiming that they were a comrade of god
During the Chola reign, the naval (thambiran thozhar).
achievements of the Tamils reached its
peak. The Cholas controlled both the Chola rulers appointed Brahmins
Coromandel and Malabar coasts. The Chola as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus (the
navy often ventured into Bay of Bengal for kingdom’s guide). Rajaraja I and Rajendra I
some decades. Rajendra’s naval operation mention the names of rajagurus and
was directed against Sri Vijaya. Sri Vijaya Sarva-sivas in their inscriptions. Patronising
kingdom (southern Sumatra) was one of Brahmins was seen to enhance their prestige
the prominent maritime and commercial and legitimacy. Chola kings therefore
states that flourished from c. 700 to c. granted huge estates of land to Brahmins as
1300 in South-east Asia. Similarly, Kheda brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams
(Kadaram), feudatory kingdom under Sri (pronounced chatur-vedi-mangalam).
Vijaya, was also conquered by Rajendra.
The Chola invasions of Western Provinces
Chalukya Empire, undertaken in 1003 by As mentioned earlier, the territories of the
Rajaraja I and 1009 by Rajendra I, were Chola state had been expanding steadily
also successful. Rajendra sent his son to even from the time of Vijayalaya. At the
ransack and ravage its capital Kalayani. time of conquest, these areas were under
The dwarapala (door keeper) image he the control of minor chiefs described
brought from Kalayani was installed at the by historians as “feudatories”. Rajaraja I
Darasuram temple near Kumbhakonam, integrated these territories and appointed
which can be seen even today. Rajendra I “viceroys” in these regions: Chola-Pandya
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in Pandinadu, Chola-Lankeswara in Sri were relatively autonomous organisations of

Lanka, which was renamed as Mummudi- the respective groups. They are considered
cholamandalam, and Chola-Ganga in the the building blocks using which the edifice
Gangavadi region of southern Karnataka. of the Chola state was built.
In other less prominent regions, the
territories of chiefs such as the Irukkuvels,
Urar
Ilangovels or Mazhavas or Banas were
made part of the Chola state and their With the expansion of agriculture,
chiefs were inducted into the state system numerous peasant settlements came up
as its functionaries. in the countryside. They were known as
ur. The urar, who were landholders in
the village, acted as spokesmen in the ur.
Army
The urar were entrusted with the upkeep
Cholas maintained a well-organised of temples, maintenance of the tanks and
army. The army consisted of three managing the water stored in them. They
conventional divisions: infantry, cavalry also discharged administrative functions
(kudirai sevagar) and the elephant corps of the state such as collection of revenue,
(anaiyatkal). There were also bowmen maintenance of law and order, and
(villaligal), sword-bearers (valilar) and obeying the king’s orders.
spearmen (konduvar). Two type of ranks in
the army are also mentioned: the upper and
Sabhaiyaar
the lower (perundanam and cirudanam).
According to a Chinese geographer of If the ur was a settlement of land holders,
the 13th century, the Chola army owned largely consisting of peasants of vellanvagai,
“sixty thousand war elephants that, when the brahmadeya was a Brahmin settlement.
fighting, carried on their backs houses, The Sabha looked after the affairs of the
and these houses are full of soldiers who settlement, including those of the temples at
shoot arrows at long range, and fight with the core of brahmadeya and its assets. It was
spears at close quarters”. The overseas also responsible for maintaining irrigation
exploits of the Cholas are well known tanks attached to the temple lands. Like the
and it led historians to refer to their ur, the Sabha also functioned as the agents
navy “with numberless ships”. Generally, of the state in carrying out administrative,
soldiers enjoyed padaipparru (military fiscal and judicial functions.
holding) rights. Cantonments, which
were established in the capital city, were Nagarattaar
known as padaividu. Military outposts
in the conquered territory were called Nagaram was a settlement of traders.
nilaipadai. The captain of a regiment was However, skilled artisans engaged in masonry,
known as nayagam and later he assumed ironsmithing, goldsmithing, weaving and
the title of padaimudali. The commander- pottery also occupied the settlement. It
in-chief was senapati and dandanayagam. was represented by the Nagarattaar, who
regulated their association with temples,
which needed their financial assistance.
Local Organisation In the reign of Rajaraja I, Mamallapuram
Various locality groups functioned actively in was administrated by a body called
the Chola period. These were bodies such as Maanagaram. Local goods were exchanged
Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar and Nattar. They in nagarams. These goods included silk,

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porcelain, camphor, cloves, sandalwood and 11.1.3 Economy

cardamom according to Chinese accounts.
In order to promote trade, inland and sea Agriculture
way, Kulotunga revoked the collection of toll
One of the major developments in this
fee (sungam). Hence he was conferred the
period was the expansion of agriculture.
title Sungam Thavirtha Chozhan.
People settled in fertile river valleys,
and even in areas where there were no
Nattar rivers, and arrangements were made for
Nadu was a grouping of several urs, irrigation by digging tanks, wells and
excluding brahmadeyas formed around canals. This led to the production of food
irrigation sources such as canals and tanks. grain surplus. Society got differentiated
Nattar (literally those belonging to the in a big way. The Chola state collected
nadu) were the assembly of landholders of land tax out of the agrarian surplus
vellanvagai villages (urs) in nadu. Nattar for its revenue. There was an elaborate
functioned as pillars of the state structure “department of land revenue” known as
under the Cholas. They discharged puravuvari-tinaikkalam, with its chief
many of the administrative, fiscal and called puravuvari-tinaikkalanayagam.
judicial responsibilities of the state. They
held hereditary land rights and were Land Revenue and Survey
responsible for remitting the tax from the
For the purposes of assessing tax, the
respective nadu to the state. Landholders
Cholas undertook extensive land surveys
of the nadu held the honorific titles
and revenue settlements. Rajaraja
such as asudaiyan (possessor of land),
I (1001), Kulotunga I (1086) and
araiyan (leader) and kilavan (headman).
Kulotunga III (1226) appointed people
There were functionaries such as the
for land survey so that the land could be
naattukanakku and nattuviyavan,
classified and assessed for the purposes
recording the proceedings of the Nattar.
Local Elections and Uttaramerur Inscriptions

Two inscriptions (919 and 921) from a
Brahmadeya (tax-free land gifted to Brahamans)
called Uttaramerur (historically called
Uttaramallur Caturvedimangalam) give details
of the process of electing members to various
committees that administered the affairs of a
Brahmin settlement. This village was divided
into 30 wards. One member was to be elected
from each ward. These members would become
members of different committees: public works committee, tank committee, garden committee,
famine committee and gold committee. The prescribed qualifications for becoming a ward
member were clearly spelt out. A male, above 35 but below 75, having a share of property and
a house of his own, with knowledge of Vedas and bhasyas was considered eligible. The names
of qualified candidates from each ward were written on the palm-leaf slips and put into a pot
(kudavolai).The eldest of the assembly engaged a boy to pull out one slip and would read the
name of the person selected.

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of taxation. Like other functionaries of harnessing rain water in the Kavery delta.
the state, the surveyors of the land called Vati runs in the north–south direction while
naduvagaiseykira too hailed from the vaykkal runs in the east–west direction.
landholding communities. Various units Technically, vati is a drainage channel and
of the land measurement such as kuli, a vaykkal is a supply channel. The water
ma, veli, patti, padagam, etc. are known, running through vaykkal to the field was
with local variations. Generally, taxes to be drained out to vati and to another
were collected in different forms. The vaykkal. Rain water would flow from where
taxes collected included irai, kanikadan, the natural canal started. Many irrigation
iraikattina-kanikadan and kadami. An canals are modifications of such natural
important category of tax was kudimai. canals. The harnessed water was utilised
Kudimai was paid by the cultivating alternately through vati and vaykkal. Here
tenants to the government and to the the mechanism designed was such that
landlords, the bearers of honorific titles water was distributed to the parcelled out
such as udaiyan, araiyan and kilavar. The lands in sequel.
tax rates were fixed depending on the Many canals were named after
fertility of the soil and the status of the the kings, queens and gods. Some
landholder. Opati were levied and collected examples of the names are Uttamachola-
by the king and local chiefs. Temples and vaykkal, Panca-vanamadevi-vaykkal and
Brahmins were exempted from paying the Ganavathy-vaykkal. Ur-vaykkal was owned
taxes. The tax paid in kind was referred to jointly by the landowners. The nadu level
as iraikattina-nellu. All these were mostly vaykkal was referred to as nattu-vaykkal. The
realised from the Kavery delta but not turn system was practiced for distributing
widely in the outskirts of the kingdom. the water. Chola inscriptions list some big-
At the ur (village) level, urar (village size irrigation tanks such as Cholavaridhi,
assembly) were responsible for collecting Kaliyaneri, Vairamegatataka created by
the taxes and remitting them to the the Pallavas, Bahur big tank and Rajendra
government. At the nadu level, the nattar Cholaperiyaeri. For the periodical or seasonal
were responsible for remitting taxes. maintenance and repair of irrigation works,
conscripted labour was used.
Irrigation
Cholas undertook measures to improve the
irrigation system that was in practice. As the
The irrigation work done by Rajendra
state was drawing most of its revenue from
Chola I at Gangaikonda Chozhapuram
agriculture, the Cholas focused their efforts was an embankment of solid masonry
on managing water resources. Vativaykkal, 16 miles long. Rajendra described it as
a criss-cross channel, is a traditional way of his jalamayam jayasthambham, meaning
“pillar of victory in water”. The Arab
traveller Alberuni visited the place a
Paddy as tax was collected by a unit called hundred years later. On seeing them he
kalam (28 kg). Rajaraja I standardised the was wonder-struck and said: ‘“Our people,
collection of tax. He collected 100 kalam when they see them, wonder at them, and
from the land of one veli (about 6.5 acres), are unable to describe them, much less
the standard veli being variable according construct anything like them”, records
to fertility of the soil and the number of Jawaharlal Nehru in The Glimpses of World
crops raised. History.

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Water Management the water through the head channel and

Different kinds of water rights were sluice from the rivers or tanks. A group of
assigned. These rights regulated the share people who were in charge of kulam was
of water from the tanks and wells; it called kulattar. In later period, temples
also entailed the right of deepening and were entrusted with the upkeep of the
broadening the channels and repairing irrigation sources.
the irrigation system. The allotment
of water is described as nirkkiintavaru 11.1.4 Society and its
(share of water as allotted).The water Structure
was released through kumizh (sluice) or
talaivay (head-channel). Royal orders In the predominantly agrarian society
warned the people against the violation prevailing during the Chola period,
of water rights and encroachment of landholding was the prime determinant of
water resources gifted to the brahmadeya social status and hierarchy. The Brahmin
settlements. Commonly owned village landholders called brahmadeya-kilavars at
tank was called enkalkulam (our tank). the top brahmadeya settlements with tax
Land transaction in the form of donation exemption were created, displacing (kudi
and endowment were accompanied by neekki) the local peasants. Temples were
water rights as well. For the periodical gifted land known as devadana, which were
and seasonal maintenance and repair of exempted from tax, as in brahmadeyams.
the irrigation tanks, rendering free labour The temples became the hub of several
was in practice. Vetti and amanji were activities during this period.
the forms of free labour related to public The landholders of vellanvagai
works at the village level. villages were placed next in the social
hierarchy. Ulukudi (tenants) could not
own land but had to cultivate the lands
of Brahmins and holders of vellanvagai
villages. While landholders retained
melvaram (major share in harvest), the
ulukudi got kizh varam (lower share).
Labourers (paniceymakkal) and slaves
(adimaigal) stayed at the bottom of social
hierarchy.
Outside the world of agrarian
society were the armed men, artisans and
Kavinattu Kanmai with Chola inscription traders. There are documents that make
Village assemblies under the Cholas mention of cattle-keepers who apparently
collected a tax called eriayam, which was constituted a considerable section of the
utilised for repairing irrigation tanks. population. There certainly were tribals
Sometimes local leaders like araiyan and forest-dwellers, about whom our
repaired and renovated irrigation tanks knowledge is scanty.
destroyed in a storm. There were instances
of the water from a tank shared by Religion
villagers and the temples. Special groups Puranic Hinduism, represented by the
known as talaivayar, talaivay-chanrar and worship of Siva, Vishnu and associated
eri-araiyarkal were in charge of releasing deities, had become popular by the time
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of the Cholas. A large number of temples The representation of Nataraja or Adal

dedicated to these deities were built. The Vallan (king of dance) in the form of
temples were provided vast areas of land idol was the motif of Tamil music, dance
and a considerable section of population and drama with hymns composed by
came under their influence. Nayanmars, the Saiva saints. These hymns
Chola rulers were ardent Saivites. sang the praise of Siva and extolled the
Parantaka I and Uttama Chola (907–970) deeds of god. They held great appeal to the
made provisions and gifted the lands to devotees from different social sections.
promote religion. In a fresco painting The Saiva canon, the Thirumurai,
in which Rajaraja I is portrayed with his was codified after it was recovered by
wives worshiping Lord Siva in Thanjavur Nambi Andar Nambi. Oduvars and
Brihadishvarar temple. One of the titles of Padikam Paduvars were appointed to sing
Rajaraja I is Siva Pada Sekaran, i.e. one in the temples to recite Thirumurai daily
who clutches the foot of Lord Siva. in the temple premises. The singers of
Siva was the preeminent god for hymns were known as vinnappamseivar.
the Cholas and he was represented in The players of percussion instruments also
two forms. The iconic form of Siva was were appointed. Girls were dedicated for
Lingodhbhava, and the Nataraja idol was the service of god. Musicians and dance
the human form. A trace of the locations masters also were appointed to train them.
of temple centres in Kavery delta could A highly evolved philosophical
provide us the map of an agrarian-political system called Saiva Siddhanta was founded
geography spatially and temporally. The during this period. The foundational text
repeated representation of Tripurantaka of this philosophy, Sivagnana Bodham,
(the destroyer of three mythical cities was composed by Meikandar. Fourteen
of asura) form of Siva in sculpture and texts, collectively called Saiva Siddhantha
painting gave him a warrior aspect and Sastram, form the core of this philosophy.
helped in gaining legitimacy for the ruler. In later times, many Saiva monasteries
emerged and expounded this philosophy.
The devotion of Chola rulers to
Saivism became a strong passion in due
course of time. Kulothunga II, for instance,
exhibited such a trait. The theological
tussle was fierce between state religion,
Saivism, and Vaishnavism so much so that
Vaishnavism was sidelined to the extent
of its apostle Sri Ramanujar leaving the
Chola country for Melkote in Karnataka.
Builders of Temples
The Cholas built and patronised
innumerable temples. The royal
temples in Thanjavur, Gangaikonda
Chozhapuram and Darasuram are the
repositories of architecture, sculpture,
Lingodhbhava, Brihadishvarar Temple paintings and iconography of the Chola

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is said that singing hymns in temple premises

promoted oral literacy. Traditional dance
items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu
were portrayed in the form of sculptures
and paintings in the temples in Kilapalivur,
Tiruvorriyur. Nirutya and karna poses are
shown in sculptural forms in the Thanjavur
big temple. Traditional Tamil musical
instruments also were portrayed in this way.
The pastoral group, as a mark of
devotion, donated livestock of specified
number to the temples so as to maintain
the perpetual lamp to be lit in the temple.
To record their gift, their names were
engraved in the inscriptions of royal
Dancing woman accompanied by musician, temple. Thus, they earned royal affinity. The
Brihadishvarar temple
oil pressers called Sankarapadiyar supplied
arts. The temples became the hub of oil to the temple and became part of the
social, economic, cultural and political functionaries of the temples. In times of
activities. The paraphernalia of the famine, some of them sold themselves to
temples including temple officials, the temple as servants.
dancers, musicians, singers, players of Temples functioned as banks by
musical instruments and their masers advancing loans and by purchasing and
headed by the priests worshipping the receiving endowments and donations.
gods reflect the royal court. In the initial They also became educational centres as
stages, architecturally, the Chola temples training was imparted in Vedas, music
are simple and modest. Sepulchral and the arts. Sculpture and metal work
temples (pallip-padai) also were built too were promoted. Temple accounts
where the kings were buried. were audited and the auditor was called
koyilkanakku.
Temple as a Social Institution
Chola temples became the arena of social
Gangaikonda Chozhapuram
celebrations and functioned as social
institutions. They became the hub of In commemoration of his victory
societal space in organising social, political, in North India, Rajendra I built
economic and cultural activities. The Gangaikonda Chozhapuram on the model
prime temple officials were koyirramar, of Brihadisvarar temple in Thanjavur.
koyilkanakku (temple accountant), deva- He built an irrigation tank called Chola-
kanmi (agent of god), srivaisnavar, cantesar gangam near the capital called Jala-stambha
(temple manager) and others. They (water-pillar). It became the coronation
promoted the development of learning, centre, which was a Chola landmarks. The
dance, music, painting and drama. A play sculptures of Ardhanariswarar, Durga,
called Rajarajanatakam, based on the life of Vishnu, Surya, Cantesa Anugrahamurty
Rajaraja I, was performed in the Thanjavur are the best pieces of the idols of gods
temple. The festivals of Chithirai Tiruvizha, placed in the niches of the outer wall of
Kartigai and Aippasivizha were celebrated. It sanctum.

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Brihadishvarar Temple
The Grand Temple of Thanjavur, known as Rajarajisvaram and Brihadishvarar Temple, stands as
an outstanding example of Chola architecture, painting, sculpture and iconography. This temple
greatly legitimised Rajaraja’s polity. The sanctum with a vimana of 190 feet is capped with a stone
weighing 80 tons. The figures of Lakshmi, Vishnu, Ardhanarisvara and Bikshadana, a mendicant
form of Siva, on the outer walls of the
sanctum are some unique features.
The fresco paintings and the miniature
sculptures of the scenes from puranas
and epics in the temple walls reveal the
religious ideology of the Chola rulers.
Dancing girls, musicians and music
masters were selected from different
settlements cutting across the nadu
divisions and were attached to this
temple. Singers had been appointed to
recite the bhakti hymns in the temple
premises.
Darasuram Temple Uraiyur, Kovilpatti, Piranmalai and others.

Darasuram Temple, built by Rajaraja II In due course, both groups merged and
(1146–1172), is yet another important got incorporated under the banner of
contribution of the Cholas to temple ainutruvar, disai-ayirattu-ainutruvar and
architecture. Incidents from the valanciyar functioning through the head
Periyapuranam, in the form of miniatures, guild in Ayyavole in Karnataka. This
are depicted on the base of the garbha- ainutruvar guild controlled the maritime
griha (sanctum sanctorum) wall of the
temple.
Trade
Increased production in agriculture as
well as artisanal activities led to trade and
growing exchange of goods for goods. This
trade activity involved the notions of price,
profit and market, which were not known in
South India in the earlier period. Two guild-
like groups are known: anjuvannattar and
manigramattar. Anjuvannattar comprised
West Asians, including Jews, Christians
and Muslims. They were maritime traders
and were settled all along the port towns of
the west coast. It is said that manigramattar
were busy with trade in the hinterland. They Anugrahamurthy
settled in interior towns like Kodumbalur, Gangai Konda Chozhapuram

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CHOLA EMPIRE Vangadesam

(palas)
Odda Pagan
N
Kalyani
(Western chalukyas) (Burmese)
Kalinga W E
S
Pegu
Vengl BAY
OF
ARABIAN
BENGAL
SEA Champa
An
Kanchipuram (Khmer)
(siam)
m an da
Gangaikonda cholapuram
Nagapattinam
a n d n i c ob a r
Thanjavur
( IN D I A )
(Chaiya)
isl
an
Lanka
ds
Kadaram
(Kedah)
I N D I A N O C E A N
Panai
Trade routes
Chola terrirory
Chola inﬂuence Srivijaya
(Palembang)
Map not to scale
trade covering South-east Asian countries. college at Ennayiram (South Arcot district).
Munai-santai (Pudukkottai), Mylapore and There were 340 students in this Vaishnava
Tiruvotriyur (Chennai), Nagapattinam, centre, learning the Vedas, Grammar and
Vishakapattinam and Krishnapattinam Vedanta under 14 teachers. This example
(south Nellore) became the centres of the was later followed by his successors and, as a
maritime trade groups. In the interior, goods result, two more such colleges were founded,
were carried on pack animals and boat. The at Tribuvani near Pondicherry in 1048 and
items exported from the Chola land were the other at Tirumukudal, Chengalpattu
sandalwood, ebony, condiments, precious district, in 1067. In Sanskrit centres, subjects
gems, pepper, oil, paddy, grains and salt. like Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, religion and
Imports included camphor, copper, tin, philosophies were taught. Remuneration was
mercury and etc. Traders also took interest given to teachers in land as service tenure.
in irrigation affairs. Valanciyar, a group of
traders, once dug an irrigation tank called
ainutruvapperari in Pudukottai. The End of Chola Rule
The Chola dynasty was paramount in South
11.1.5 Cholas as Patrons of India from the ninth to the thirteenth
centuries. By the end of the twelfth
Learning century, local chiefs began to grow in
Chola kings were great patrons of prominence, which weakened the centre.
learning who lavished support on Sanskrit With frequent invasions of Pandyas, the
education by instituting charities. From the once mighty empire, was reduced to the
inscriptions, we see that literacy skills were status of a dependent on the far stronger
widespread. The great literary works Kamba Hoysalas. In 1264, the Pandyan ruler,
Ramayanam and Periyapuranam belong to Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, sacked
this period. Rajendra I established a Vedic the Chola’s capital of Gangaikonda
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Sambuvarayars
Sambuvarayars were chieftains in the North Arcot and Chengalpattu regions during the reign
of Chola kings, Rajathiraja and Kulothunga III. Though they were feudatories, they were found
fighting sometimes on the side of their overlords and occasionally against them also. From the late
13th century to the end of Pandya ascendency, they wielded power along the Palar river region.
The kingdom was called Raja Ghambira Rajyam and the capital was in Padaividu. Inscriptions of
Vira Chola Sambavarayan (1314–1315CE) have been found. Sambuvarayars assumed high titles
such as Sakalaloka Chakravartin Venru Mankonda Sambuvarayan (1322–1323 CE) and Sakalaloka
Chakravartin Rajanarayan Sambuvarayan (1337–1338 CE). The latter who ruled for 20 years was
overthrown by Kumarakampana of Vijayanagar. It is after this campaign that Kumarakampana
went further south, as far as Madurai, where he vanquished the Sultan of Madurai in a battle.
Chozhapuram. With Kanchipuram lost historically Madurai and Kudal have been
earlier to the Telugu Cholas, the remaining concurrently used.
Chola territories passed into the hands of
Sources
the Pandyan king. 1279 marks the end of
Chola dynasty when King Maravarman The history of the Pandyas of the Sangam
Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last period, circa third century BCE to third
king Rajendra Chola III and established century CE, has been reconstructed from
the rule by Pandyas. various sources such as megalithic burials,
inscriptions in Tamil brahmi, and the Tamil
II PANDYAS
poems of the Sangam literature. The Pandyas
established their supremacy in South Tamil
Pandyas were one of the muvendars that Nadu by the end of the sixth century CE. A few
ruled the southern part of India, though copper plates form the source of our definite
intermittently, until the pre-modern knowledge of the Pandyas from the seventh
times. Ashoka, in his inscriptions, to the ninth century. The Velvikkudi grant of
refers to Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and Nedunjadayan is the most important among
Satyaputras as peoples of South India. them. Copper plates inform the essence of
Korkai, a town historically associated royal orders, genealogical list of the kings,
with pearl fisheries, is believed to have their victory over the enemies, endowments
been their early capital and port. They and donations they made to the temples
moved to Madurai later. and the Brahmins. Rock inscriptions give
Many early Tamil inscriptions of information about the authors of rock-cut
Pandyas have been found in Madurai and cave temples, irrigation tanks and canals.
its surroundings. Madurai is mentioned as Accounts of travellers such as Marco
Matirai in these Tamil inscriptions, whereas Polo, Wassaff and Ibn-Batuta are useful to
Tamil classics refer to the city as Kudal, which know about political and socio-cultural
means assemblage. In one of the recently developments of this period. Madurai
discovered Tamil inscriptions from Puliman Tala Varalaru, Pandik Kovai and Madurai
Kompai, a village in Pandya territory, Tiruppanimalai provide information about
Kudal is mentioned. In Pattinappalai and the Pandyas of Madurai of later period.
Maduraikkanchi, Koodal is mentioned as Though pre-Pallavan literary works
the capital city of Pandyas. It finds mention do not speak of Sangam as an academy, the
in Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies) also. So, term Sangam occurs in Iraiyanar Akapporul

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of late seventh or eighth century CE. The term had soon taken to a settled life, extending
Sangam, which means an academy, is used their patronage to Buddhists and Jains.
in late medieval literary works like Periya Kadunkon, who recovered Pandya
Puranam and Tiruvilaiyadal Puranam. territory from the Kalabhras according
to copper plates, was succeeded by two
Seethalai Saththanar, the author others. Of them, Sendan possessed warlike
of epic Manimekalai, hailed from qualities and his title Vanavan is suggestive
Madurai. of his conquest of Cheras. The next one,
Arikesari Maravarman (624–674), an
illustrious early Pandya, ascended the
Territory throne in 642, according to a Vaigai river
bed inscription. He was a contemporary of
The territory of Pandyas is called
Mahendravarman I and Narsimahvarman
Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam or
I. Inscriptions and copper plates praise
Pandynadu, which lay in the rocky, hilly
his victory over his counterparts such as
regions and mountain ranges except
Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese.
the areas fed by the rivers Vaigai and
Arikesari is identified with Kun Pandian,
Tamiraparni. River Vellar running across
the persecutor of Jains.
Pudukkottai region had been demarcated
as the northern border of the Pandya
Saivite saint Thirugnanasambandar
country, while Indian Ocean was its
converted Arikesari from Jainism
southern border. The Western Ghats
to Saivism.
remained the border of the west while the
Bay of Bengal formed the eastern border.
After his two successors, Kochadayan
11.2.1 Pandya Revival Ranadhira (700–730) and Maravarman
Rajasimha I (730–765), came Jatila Parantaka
(600–920) Nedunjadayn (Varaguna I) (756–815), the
The revival of the Pandyas seems to have donor of the Velvikkudi plates. He was also
taken place after the disappearance of the known as the greatest of his dynasty and
Kalabhras. Once hill tribes, the Kalabhras successfully handled the Pallavas and the
Impaling of Jains
Though the number of Jain people who were persecuted is questionable, the incitance of
persecution is not in doubt.

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Cheras. He expanded the Pandya territory

into Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli, Salem and Marco Polo, a Venetian (Italy) traveller who
Coimbatore districts. He is also credited visited Pandya country lauded the king for
with building several Siva and Vishnu fair administration and generous hospitality
temples. The next king Srimara Srivallabha for foreign merchants. In his travel account,
(815–862) invaded Ceylon and maintained he also records the incidents of sati and the
his authority. However, he was subsequently polygamy practiced by the kings.
defeated by Pallava Nandivarman III
(846–869). He was followed by Varaguna
II who was defeated by Aparajita Pallava
(885–903) at Sripurmbiyam. His successors,
Parantaka Viranarayana and Rajasimha
II, could not stand up to the rising Chola
dynasty under Parantaka I. Parantaka I
defeated the Pandya king Rajasimha II who
fled the country in 920CE.
Rise of Pandyas Again

(1190–1310)
In the wake of the vacuum in Chola state in the
last quarter of 12th century after the demise
of Adhi Rajendra, Chola viceroyalty became
weak in the Pandya country. Taking advantage Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan
of this development, Pandya chieftains tried
to assert and rule independently. Sri Vallaba The illustrious ruler of the second
Pandyan fought Rajaraja II and lost his son in Pandya kingdom was Sadaiyavarman
the battle. Using this situation, the five Pandyas (Jatavarman) Sundarapandyan (1251–
waged a war against Kulotunga I (1070–1120) 1268), who not only brought the entire
and were defeated. In 1190, Sadayavarman Tamil Nadu under his rule, but also
Srivallabhan, at the behest of Kulotunga I, exercised his authority up to Nellore in
started ruling the Pandya territory. He was Andhra. Under his reign, the Pandya state
anointed in Madurai with sceptre and throne. reached its zenith, keeping the Hoysalas in
To commemorate his coronation, he converted check. Under many of his inscriptions, he
a peasant settlement Sundaracholapuram as is eulogized. Sundarapandyan conquered
Sundarachola Chaturvedimangalam, a tax- the Chera ruler, the chief of Malanadu, and
exempted village for Brahmins. extracted a tribute from him. The decline
of the Chola state emboldened the Boja
After the decline of the Cholas, king of Malwa region Vira Someshwara
Pandya kingdom became the leading Tamil to challenge Sundarapandyan,
dynasty in the thirteenth century. Madurai who in a war at Kannanur defeated him.
was their capital. Kayal was their great Sundarapandian plundered his territory.
port. Marco Polo, the famous traveller from He put Sendamangalam under siege. After
Venice, visited Kayal twice, in 1288 and in defeating the Kadava chief, who ruled from
1293. He tells us that this port town was full Cuddalore and wielded power in northern
of ships from Arabia and China and bustling Tamil Nadu, Sundarapandyan demanded
with business activities. tribute. He captured the western region

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and the area that lay between present- carried was later used in Delhi by Alauddin
day Arcot and Salem. After killing the Khalji, who had then taken over the throne,
king of Kanchipuram in a battle, Pandyas to wean away the notables in the court to his
took his territory. But, by submitting side against other claimants.
to the Pandyas, the brother of the slain After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the
king got back Kanchipuram and agreed Pandyan kingdom came to be divided
to pay tribute. Along with him, there among a number of the main rulers in
were two or three co-regents who ruled the Pandya’s family. In Madurai, a Muslim
simultaneously: Vikrama Pandyan and state subordinate to the Delhi Sultan came
Vira Pandyan. A record of Vira Pandyan to be established and continued until
(1253–1256) states that he took Eelam 1335 CE when the Muslim Governor of
(Ceylon), Kongu and the Cholamandalam Madurai Jalaluddin Asan Shah threw
(Chola country). off his allegiance and declared himself
independent.
Maravarman Kulasekharan
After Sundarapandyan, Maravarman
Kulasekharan ruled successfully for a
11.2.2 State
period of 40 years, giving the country Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their
peace and prosperity. We have authentic capital. Madurai has been popularly
records about the last phase of his reign. venerated as Kudal and Tamil Kelukudal.
He ascended the throne in 1268 and ruled The kings are traditionally revered
till 1312. He had two sons, and in 1302, as Kudalkon, Kudal Nagar Kavalan,
the accession of the elder son, Jatavarman Madurapura Paramesvaran. The titles of
Sundara Pandyan III, as co-regent the early Pandyas are: Pandiyatirasan,
took place. The king’s appointment of Pandiya Maharasan, Mannar Mannan,
Sundarapandyan as a co-regent provoked Avaniba Sekaran, Eka Viran, Sakalapuvana
the other son Vira Pandyan and so he killed Chakkaravarti and others. Titles of the
his father Maravarman Kulasekharan. In later Pandyas in Sanskrit include Kodanda
the civil war that ensued, Vira Pandyan Raman, Kolakalan, Puvanekaviran, and
won and became firmly established in Kaliyuga Raman. Titles in chaste Tamil are
his kingdom. The other son, Sundara Sembian, Vanavan, Thennavan and others.
Pandyan, fled to Delhi and took refuge The Pandyas derived military advantage
under the protection of Alauddin Khalji. over their neighbours by means of their
This turn of events provided an opening horses, which they imported through their
for the invasion of Malik Kafur. connection to a wider Arab commercial
and cultural world.
Invasion of Malik Kafur
When Malik Kafur arrived in Madurai in Palace and Couch
1311, he found the city empty and Vira Royal palaces were called Tirumaligai and
Pandyan had already fled. In Amir Khusru’s Manaparanan Tirumaligai. Kings, seated
estimate, 512 elephants, 5,000 horses along on a royal couch, exercised the power. The
with 500 mounds of jewel of diamonds, naming of couches after the local chiefs
pearls, emeralds and rubies are said to have attests to the legitimacy of overlordship
been taken by Malik Kafur. The Madurai of the kings. The prominent names of
temple was desecrated and an enormous such couches are Munaiya Daraiyan,
amount of wealth was looted. The wealth he Pandiya Daraiyan and Kalinkat Traiyan.

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The king issued royal order orally while Administration and Religion:
majestically seated on the couches. It Seventh to Ninth Centuries
was documented by royal scribe called
Tirumantira Olai. An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli
district), dating to 800, provides an
account of village administration. It
5R\DO2I¿FLDOV looks similar to Chola’s local governance,
which included village assemblies and
A band of officials executed the royal committees. Both civil and military powers
orders. The prime minister was called were vested in the same person. The
uttaramantri. The historical personalities Pandya kings of the period supported and
like Manickavasagar, Kulaciraiyar and promoted Tamil and Sanskrit. The great
Marankari worked as ministers. The Saiva and Vaishnava saints contributed to
royal secretariat was known as Eluttu the growth of Tamil literature. The period
Mandapam. Akapparivara Mudalikal was marked by intense religious tussles.
were the personal attendants of the kings. The rise of the Bhakti movement invited
The most respected officials were Maran heterodox scholars for debate. Many
Eyinan, Sattan Ganapathy, Enathi Sattan, instances of the defeat of Buddhism and
Tira Tiran, Murthi Eyinan and others. Jainism in such debates are mentioned in
The titles of military commanders were Bhakti literature.
Palli Velan, Parantakan Pallivelan, Maran
Adittan and Tennavan Tamizhavel.
11.2.3 Economy
Political Divisions
Society
Pandy Mandalam or Pandy Nadu consisted
of many valanadus, which, in turn, were Kings and local chiefs created Brahmin
divided into many nadus and kurrams. The settlements called Mangalam or
administrative authorities of nadus were Chaturvedimangalam with irrigation
the nattars. Nadu and kurram contained facilities. These settlements were given royal
settlements, viz., mangalam, nagaram, names and names of the deities. Influential
ur and kudi, which were inhabited by Brahmins had honorific titles such as
different social groups. A unique political Brahmmadhi Rajan and Brahmmaraiyan.
division in Pandy Mandalam is Kulakkil,
i.e. area under irrigation tank. For instance, Trade
Madurai is described in an inscription as
It was not the Khalji’s invasion from the
Madakkulakkil Madurai.
north that brought the Muslims into
The duty of the nattar was to assess Tamil country for the first time. Arab
the qualities of land under cultivation settlements on the west coast of southern
and levy taxes. In surveying the lands, the India, from the seventh century, led to the
officials used rods of 14 and 24 feet. After expansion of their trade connection to the
the measurement, the authorities donated east coast of Tamizh country. This was
the lands. Salabogam land was assigned to because the governments of the east coast
Brahmins. The land assigned to ironsmiths pursued a more liberal and enlightened
was called tattarkani; for carpenters, it was policy towards the overseas traders. Their
known as taccu-maniyam. Bhattavriutti is charters exempted traders from various
the land donated for Brahmin group for kinds of port dues and tolls. In Kayal,
imparting education. there was an agency established by an

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Arab chieftain by name Maliku-l-Islam Parakirama Pandya Peraru. The tanks were
Jamaluddin. This agency facilitated the named Tirumaleri, Maraneri, Kaliyaneri
availability of horses to Pandya kings. and Kadaneri. On either side of the rivers
Vaigai and Tamiraparni, canals leading
to the tanks for irrigation were built. The
Horse trade of that time has been recorded Sendan Maran inscription of Vaigai river
by Wassaff. He writes: "…as many as 10,000 bed speaks of a sluice installed by him to
horses were imported into Kayal and other distribute the water from the river. Sri
ports of India of which 1,400 were to be of
Maran Srivallabhan created a big tank,
Jamaluddin’s own breed. The average cost
which is till now in use. Like Pallavas in
of each horse was 220 dinars of ‘red gold’. "
northern districts, Pandyas introduced
the irrigation technology in the southern
In the inscriptions, the traders districts of Tamil country. In building the
are referred to as nikamattor, nanadesi, banks of the tanks, the ancient architect
ticai-ayiratu-ainutruvar, ainutruvar, used the thread to maintain the level.
manikiramattar and patinen-vishyattar. Revetment of the inner side of the banks
They founded the trade guilds in with stone slabs is one of the features of
Kodumpalur and Periyakulam. The goods irrigation technique in Pandya country.
traded were spices, pearls, precious stones, In the time of the later Pandyas (around
horses, elephants and birds. In the thirteenth 1212), an official constructed a canal
and fourteenth centuries, horse trade was leading from river Pennai to the lands
brisk. Marco Polo and Wassaff state that the of Tiruvannamalai temple. In dry-zone
kings invested in horses as there was a need Ramanathupuram also, tanks were
of horses for ceremonial purposes and for created. In these areas, such irrigation
fighting wars. Those who were trading in works were done by local administrative
horses were called kudirai-chetti. They were bodies, local chiefs and officials. Repairs
active in maritime trade also. were mostly undertaken by local bodies.
The busiest port town under the Sometimes, traders also dug out tanks for
Pandyas was Kayalpattinam (now in irrigation.
Thoothukudi district) on the east coast. Iruppaikkuti-kilavan, a local chief,
Gold coins were in circulation as the trade built many tanks and repaired the tanks
was carried through the medium of gold. in disrepair. The actual landowning
It was variously called kasu, palankasu, groups are described as the Pumipittirar.
anradunarpalankasu, kanam, kalancu and Historically they were locals and hence
pon. The titular gods of the traders are they were referred to as nattumakkal.
Ayirattu Aynurruvaar Udaiyar and Sokka The communal assembly of this group is
Nayaki Amman. The periodically held Cittirameli-periyanattar.
fairs were called Tavalamin settlements
called teru where the traders lived.
Literacy
Irrigation The mission of promoting literacy was carried
The Pandya rulers created a number of on through many ways. Appointment of
irrigation sources and they were named singers to recite the Bhakti hymns in temple
after the members of the royal family. has been seen as the attempt of promoting
Some of them were Vasudeva Peraru, literacy. In theatres, plays were staged for a
Virapandya Peraru, Srivallaba Peraru and similar purpose. Bhattavirutti and salabogam

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Piston sluice installed Sluice is a device to distribute the water Sluice in Tank
during the Pandya period from the water resources like river, Srivilliputtur
in Pudukkottai Region tank and lakes. It is called Kumili,
madai and Madagu in inscriptions.
were endowments provided for promoting of this temple and three other gopurams
Sanskrit education. Brahmins studied the were plated with gold.
Sanskrit treatises in educational centres Pandyas extended patronage to
kadigai, salai and vidyastanam. From 12th Vedic practices. Palyagasalai Mudukudumi
century, monasteries came up and they were Peruvaluthi, who performed many Vedic
attached to the temples to promote education rituals, is identified with Pandyas of
with religious thrust. A copper inscription the Sangam period. Velvikkudi copper
says that an academy was set up to promote plates as well as inscriptional sources
Tamil and to translate Mahabharatam. The mention the rituals like Ashvamedayaga,
important Tamil literary texts composed in Hiranyagarbha and Vajapeya yagna,
the reign of the Pandyas were Tiruppavai, conducted by every great Pandya king. The
Tirvempavai, Tiruvasagam, Tirukkovai and impartiality of rulers towards both Saivism
Tirumantiram. and Vaishnavism is also made known in
the invocatory portions of the inscriptions.
11.2.4 Religion Some kings were ardent Saivite; some were
ardent Vaishnvavites. Temples of both
It is said that Pandyas were Jains initially sects were patronised through land grant,
and later adopted Saivism. Inscriptions tax exemption, renovation and addition of
and the sculptures in the temples attest to gopuras and spacious mandapas.
this belief. The early rock-cut cave temples
were the outcrop of transitional stage
in religion and architecture. Medieval Temples
Pandyas and later Pandyas repaired Pandyas built different models of
many temples and endowed them with temples. They are sepulchral temple (e.g
gold and land. The vimanam over the sundarapandisvaram), rock-cut cave
sanctum of Srirangam and Chidambaram temples and structural temples. Medieval
temples were covered with golden leaves. Pandyas and later Pandyas did not build any
Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan was new temples but maintained the existing
anointed in Srirangam temple, and to temples, enlarging them with the addition
commemorate it, he donated an idol of of gopuras, mandapas and circumbulations.
Vishnu to the temple. The inner walls The monolithic mega-sized ornamented
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Rock-cut cave temple, Anaimalai.c.800 CE

Jain sculptures-Kalugumalai
the temples in Sittannavasal, Arittaapatti,
Tirumalaipuram and Tirunedunkarai. A 9th
century inscription from Sittannavasal cave
temple informs that the cave was authored
by Ilam Kautamar. Another inscription
of the same period tells us that Sri Maran
Srivallaban renovated this temple. The
fresco paintings on the walls, ceilings and
pillars are great works of art. These paintings
portray the figures of dancing girls, the king
and the queen. The painting of water pool
Sittannavasal
depicts some aquatic creatures, flowers and
birds and some mammals.
pillars are the unique feature of the medieval The maritime history of India
Pandya style. The early Pandya temples would be incomplete if the history of the
are modest and simple. In these temples of Pandyas of Tamil country is skipped. The
the Pandya country, the sculptures of Siva, busiest port-towns were located all along
Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa, Subramanya, the east coast of the Tamizh country.
Surya and Brahma are best specimens. By establishing matrimonial link with
Pandyas specially patronised Meenakshi Southeast Asian dynasties, Pandyas left an
temple and kept expanding its premises by imprint in maritime trade activities.
adding gopuras and mandapas.
The prominent rock-cut cave temples Cintamani, Mylapore, Tiruvotriyur,
created by the early Pandyas are found in Tiruvadanai and Mahabalipuram are
Pillayarpatti, Tirumeyyam, Kuntrakkudi, busy coastal trading centres recorded in
Tiruchendur, Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari inscriptions.
and Sittannavasal. Paintings are found in

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History, Culture, Heritage and Socio-Political Movements in Tamil Nadu
Thirukkural
The Praise of God

A, as its first of letters, every speech maintains;
The “Primal Deity” is first through all the world’s domains
Explanation: As the letter A is the first of all letters, so the eternal God is first in the world.
No fruit have men of all their studied lore,

Save they the ‘Purely Wise One’s’ feet adore
Explanation: What Profit have those derived from learning, who worship not the good feet
of him who is possessed of pure knowledge?
His feet, ‘Who o’er the full-blown flower hath past,’ who gain
In bliss long time shall dwell above this earthly plain
Explanation: They who are united to the glorious feet of Him who passes swiftly over the
flower of the mind, shall flourish long above all worlds.
His foot, ‘Whom want affects not, irks not grief,’ who gain
Shall not, through every time, of any woes complain
Explanation: To those who meditate the feet of Him who is void of desire or aversion, evil
shall never come.
The Blessing of Rain

If clouds, that promised rain, deceive and in the sky remain, Famine, sore torment, stalks o’er
earth’s vast ocean-girdled plain
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Explanation: If the cloud, withholding rain, deceive (our hopes) hunger will long distress the
sea-girt spacious world.
If clouds their wealth of waters fail on earth to pour, The ploughers plough with oxen’s
sturdy team no more
Explanation: If the abundance of wealth imparting rain diminish, the labour of the plough
must cease.
Tis rain works all: it ruin spreads, then timely aid supplies;
As, in the happy days before, it bids the ruined rise
Explanation: Rain by its absence ruins men; and by its existence restores them to fortune.
The Greatness of Ascetics

As counting those that from the earth have passed away,
‘Tis vain attempt the might of holy men to say.
Explanation: To describe the measure of the greatness of those who have forsaken the two-
fold desires, is like counting the dead.
Things hard in the doing will great men do;

Things hard in the doing the mean eschew.
Explanation: The great will do those things which is difficult to be done; but the mean cannot
do them.
Taste, light, touch, sound and smell: who knows the way
Of all the five-the world submissive owns his sway.
Explanation: The world is within the knowledge of him who knows the properties of taste,
sight, touch, hearing and smell.
Assertion of the Strength of Virtue

It yields distinction, yields prosperity; what gain Greater than virtue can a living man obtain?
Explanation: Virtue will confer heaven and wealth; what greater source of happiness can
man possess?
To finish virtue’s work with ceaseless effort strive,
What way thou may’st, where’er thou see’st the work may thrive.
Explanation: As much as possible, in every way, incessantly practice virtue.
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‘Tis virtue when, his footsteps sliding not through envy, wrath,
Lust, evil speech-these four, man onwards moves in ordered path.
Explanation: That conduct is virtue which is free from these four things, viz, malice, desire,
anger and bitter speech.
The Wealth of Children

Their children’s wisdom greater than their own confessed,
Through the wide world is sweet to every human breast.
Explanation: That their children should possess knowledge is more pleasing to all men of
this great earth than to themselves.
‘The pipe is sweet, the lute is sweet,’ by them not will be averred,
Who music of their infants’ lisping lips have never heard.
Explanation: “The pipe is sweet, the lute is sweet,” say those who have not heard the prattle
of their own children.
Who children gain, that none reproach, of virtuous worth,

No evils touch them, through the seven-fold maze of birth.
Explanation: The evils of the seven births shall not touch those who obtain children of a
good disposition, free from vice.
The Possession of Love

And is there bar that can even love restrain?
The tiny tear shall make the lover’s secret plain.
Explanation: Is there any fastening that can shut in love? Tears of the affectionate will publish
the love that is within.
The loveless to themselves belong alone;

The loving men are others to the very bone.
Explanation: Those who are destitute of love appropriate all they have to themselves; but
those who possess love consider even their bones to belong to others
Stay Focused
Bodies of loveless men are bony framework clad with skin;

Then is the body seat of life, when love resides within
Explanation: That body alone which is inspired with love contains a living soul: if void of it,
(the body) is bone overlaid with skin.
As sun’s fierce ray dries up the boneless things,

So loveless beings virtue’s power to nothing brings.
Explanation: Virtue will burn up the soul which is without love, even as the sun burns up
the creature which is without bone, i.e., worms.
Hospitality
Though food of immortality should crown the board,
Feasting alone, the guests without unfed, is thing abhorred.
Explanation: It is not fit that one should wish his guests to be outside (his house) even though
he were eating the food of immortality.
To reckon up the fruit of kindly deeds were all in vain;

Their worth is as the worth of guests you entertain.
Explanation: The advantages of benevolence cannot be measured; the measure (of the virtue)
of the guests (entertained) is the only measure.
With pain they guard their stores, yet ‘All forlorn are we,’ they’ll cry,
Who cherish not their guests, nor kindly help supply?
Explanation: Those who have taken no part in the benevolence of hospitality shall (at length
lament) saying, “we have laboured and laid up wealth and are now without support.”
The Utterance of Pleasant Words

The men of pleasant speech that gladness breathe around,
Through indigence shall never sorrow’s prey be found.
Explanation: Sorrow-increasing poverty shall not come upon those who use towards all,
pleasure-increasing sweetness of speech.
Stay Focused
Humility with pleasant speech to man on earth,

Is choice adornment; all besides is nothing worth.
Explanation: Humility and sweetness of speech are the ornaments of man; all others are not
(ornaments
Who sees the pleasure kindly speech affords,

Why makes he use of harsh, repellant words.
Explanation: Why does he use harsh words, who sees the pleasure which sweet speech
yields?
Gratitude
Assistance given by those who never received our aid,
Is debt by gift of heaven and earth but poorly paid.
Explanation: (The gift of) heaven and earth is not an equivalent for a benefit which is
conferred where none had been received.
Kindness shown by those who weigh not what the return may be:
When you ponder right its merit, Tus vaster than the sea.
Explanation: If we weigh the excellence of a benefit which is conferred without weighing
the return, it is larger than the sea.
Each benefit to those of actions’ fruit who rightly deem,

Though small as millet-seed, as palm-tree vast will seem.
Explanation: Though the benefit conferred be as small as a millet seed, those who know its
advantage will consider it as large as a palmyra fruit.
Impartiality
Though only good it seems to give, yet gain
By wrong acquired, not even one day retain.
Explanation: Forsake in the very moment (of acquisition) that gain which, though it should
bring advantage, is without equity.
Stay Focused
The man who justly lives, tenacious of the right,

In low estate is never low to wise man’s sight.
Explanation: The great will not regard as poverty the low estate of that man who dwells in
the virtue of equity.
To stand, like balance-rod that level hangs and rightly weighs,

With calm unbiassed equity of soul, is sages’ praise.
Explanation: To incline to neither side, but to rest impartial as the even-fixed scale is the
ornament of the wise.
The Possession of Self-Restraint

If versed in wisdom’s lore by virtue’s law you self-restrain
Your self-repression known will yield you glory’s gain.
Explanation: Knowing that self-control is knowledge, if a man should control himself, in the
prescribed course, such self-control will bring him distinction among the wise.
In his station, all unswerving, if man self-subdue,

Greater he then mountain proudly rising to the view
Explanation: Loftier than a mountain will be the greatness of that man who without swerving
from his domestic state, controls himself.
Like tortoise, who the five restrains

In one, through seven world bliss obtains.
Explanation: Should one throughout a single birth, like a tortoise keep in his five senses, the
fruit of it will prove a safe-guard to him throughout the seven-fold births.
The Possession of Decorum

Searching, duly watching, learning, ‘decorum’ still we find;
Man’s only aid; toiling, guard thou this with watchful mind.
Explanation: Let propriety of conduct be laboriously preserved and guarded; though one
knows and practice and excel in many virtues, that will be an eminent aid.
Stay Focused
The envious soul in life no rich increase of blessing gains,

So man of ‘due decorum’ void no dignity obtains.
Explanation: Just as the envious man will be without wealth, so will the man of destitute of
propriety of conduct be without greatness.
Who know not with the world in harmony to dwell,

May many things have learned, but nothing well
Explanation: Those who know not how to act agreeably to the world, though they have
learnt many things, are still ignorant.
Assertion of the Strength of Virtue

What from virtue floweth, yieldeth dear delight;
All else extern, is void of glory’s light.
Explanation: Only that pleasure which flows from domestic virtue is pleasure; all else is not
pleasure, and it is without praise.
It yields distinction, yields prosperity; what gain

Greater than virtue can a living man obtain?
Explanation:
Virtue will confer heaven and wealth; what greater source of happiness can man possess?
Not Coveting Another’s Wife

Who laws of virtue and possession’s rights have known,
Indulge no foolish love of her by right another’s own.
Explanation: The folly of desiring her who is the property of another will not be found in
those who know (the attributes of) virtue and (the rights of) property.
How great so ever they be, what gain have they of life,
Who, not a whit reflecting, seek a neighbour’s wife?
Explanation: However great one may be, what does it avail if, without at all considering his
guilt, he goes unto the wife of another?
Stay Focused
Who sees the wife, another’s own, with no desiring eye?

In sure domestic bliss he dwelleth ever virtuously.
Explanation: He who desires not the womanhood of her who should walk according to the
will of another will be praised as a virtuous house-holder.
The Possession of Patience, Forbearance

Forgiving trespasses is good always;
Forgetting them hath even higher praise;
Explanation: Bear with reproach even when you can retaliate; but to forget it will be still
better than that.
Who wreak their wrath as worthless are despised;

Who patiently forbear as gold are prized?
Explanation: (The wise) will not at all esteem the resentful. They will esteem the patient just
as the gold which they lay up with care.
With overweening pride when men with injuries assail,

By thine own righteous dealing shalt thou mightily prevail.
Explanation: Let a man by patience overcome those who through pride commit excesses.
Not Envying
As ‘strict decorum’s’ laws, that all men bind,
Let each regard unenvying grace of mind.
Explanation: Let a man esteem that disposition which is free from envy in the same manner
as propriety of conduct.
The wise through envy break not virtue’s laws,

Knowing ill-deeds of foul disgrace, the cause.
Explanation: (The wise) knowing the misery that comes from transgression will not through
envy commit unrighteous deeds.
Stay Focused
No envious men to large and full felicity attain;

No men from envy free have failed a sure increase to gain.
Explanation: Never have the envious become great; never have those who are free from
envy been without greatness.
Not Coveting
No deeds of ill, misled by base desire,
Do they, whose souls to other joys aspire.
Explanation: Those who desire the higher pleasures (of heaven) will not act unjustly through
desire of the trifling joy (in this life).
Though, grace desiring, he in virtue’s way stand strong,

He’s lost who wealth desires, and ponders deeds of wrong.
Explanation: If he, who through desire of the virtue of kindness abides in the domestic state
i.e., the path in which it may be obtained, covet (the property of others) and think of evil
methods (to obtain it), he will perish.
Good fortune draws a nigh in helpful time of need,

To him who, schooled in virtue, guards his soul from greed.
Explanation: Lakshmi, knowing the manner (in which she may approach) will immediately
come to those wise men who, knowing that it is virtue, covet not the property of others.
Not Backbiting
Though virtuous words his lips speak not, and all his deeds are ill.
If neighbour he defames not, there’s good within him still.
Explanation: Though one does not even speak of virtue and live in sin, it will be well if it be
said of him “he does not backbite”
Tus greater gain of virtuous good for man to die,

Then live to slander absent friend, and falsely praise when nigh.
Explanation: Death rather than life will confer upon the deceitful backbiter the profit which
(the treatises on) virtue point out.
Stay Focused
Tus charity, I ween, that makes the earth sustain their load.
Who, neighbours’ absence watching, tales or slander tell abroad?
Explanation: The world through charity supports the weight of those who reproach others
observing their absence.
Against Vain Speaking

Diffusive speech of useless words proclaims
A man who never righteous wisdom gains.
Explanation: That conversation in which a man utters forth useless things will say of him
“he is without virtue”.
Gone are both fame and boasted excellence,

When men of worth speak of words devoid of sense.
Explanation: If the good speak vain words their eminence and excellence will leave them.
Let those who list speak things that no delight affords,

Tus good for men of worth to speak no idle word.
Explanation:
Let the wise if they will, speak things without excellence; it will be well for them not to speak
useless things.
Duty to Society
The worthy say, when wealth rewards their toil-spent hours,
For uses of beneficence alone tis ours.
Explanation: All the wealth acquired with perseverance by the worthy is for the exercise of
benevolence.
The wealth of men who love the ‘fitting way,’ the truly wise,
Is as when water fills the lake that village needs supplies.
Explanation: The wealth of that man of eminent knowledge who desires to exercise the
benevolence approved of by the world, is like the full waters of a city-tank.
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Though by ‘beneficence,’ the loss of all should come,

‘Twere meet man sold himself, and bought it with the sum.
Explanation: If it be said that loss will result from benevolence, such loss is worth being
procured even by the sale of one’s self.
Dread of Evil Deeds

With sinful act men cease to feel the dread of ill within,
The excellent will dread the wanton pride of cherished sin.
Explanation: Those who have experience of evil deeds will not fear, but the excellent will
fear the pride of sin.
Even to those that hate make no return of ill;

So shalt thou wisdom’s highest law, ‘tis said, fulfil.
Explanation: To do no evil to enemies will be called the chief of all virtues.
Make not thy poverty a plea for ill;

Thy evil deeds will make thee poorer still.
Explanation: Commit not evil, saying, “I am poor”: if you do, you will become poorer still.
Giving
‘I’ve nought’ is ne’er the high-born man’s reply;
He gives to those who raise themselves that cry.
Explanation: (Even in a low state) not to adopt the mean expedient of saying “I have nothing,”
but to give, is the characteristic of the mad of noble birth.
‘Tis bitter pain to die, ‘Tis worse to live.

For him who nothing finds to give!
Explanation: Nothing is more unpleasant than death: yet even that is pleasant where charity
cannot be exercised.
Renown
The speech of all that speak agrees to crown
The men that give to those that ask, with fair renown.
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Explanation: Whatsoever is spoken in the world will abide as praise upon that man who
gives alms to the poor.
If men do virtuous deeds by world-wide ample glory crowned,

The heavens will cease to laud the sage for other gifts renowned.
Explanation: If one has acquired extensive fame within the limits of this earth, the world of
the Gods will no longer praise those sages who have attained that world.
If man you walk the stage, appear adorned with glory’s grace;
Save glorious you can shine, ‘there better hide your face.
Explanation: If you are born (in this world), be born with qualities conductive to fame. From
those who are destitute of them it will be better not to be born.
Compassion
They in whose breast a ‘gracious kindliness’ resides,
See not the gruesome world, where darkness drear abides.
Explanation: They will never enter the world of darkness and wretchedness whose minds
are the abode of kindness.
Gain of true wealth oblivious they eschew,

Who ‘grace’ forsakes, and graceless actions do.
Explanation: (The wise) say that those who neglect kindness and practise cruelties, neglected
virtue (in their former birth), and forgot (the sorrows which they must suffer).
When weaker men you front with threat’ning brow,

Think how you felt in presence of some stronger foe.
Explanation: When a man is about to rush upon those who are weaker than himself, let him
remember how he has stood (trembling) before those who are stronger than himself.
Abstinence from Flesh

How can the wont of ‘kindly grace’ to him be known?
Who other creatures’ flesh consumes to feed his own?
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Explanation: How can he be possessed of kindness, who to increase his own flesh, eats the
flesh of other creatures.
Like heart of them that murderous weapons bear, his mind,

Who eats of savoury meat, no joy in good can find?
Explanation: Like the (murderous) mind of him who carries a weapon (in his hand), the
mind of him who feasts with pleasure on the body of another (creature), has no regard for
goodness.
Penance
To ‘penitents’ sincere avails their ‘penitence’;
Where that is not, ‘tis but a vain pretence.
Explanation: Austerities can only be borne, and their benefits enjoyed, by those who have
practised them (in a former birth); it will be useless for those who have not done so, to
attempt to practise them (now).
That what they wish may, as they wish, be won,

By men on earth are works of painful ‘penance’ done.
Explanation: Religious dislipline is practised in this world, because it secures the attainment
of whatever one may wish to enjoy (in the world to come).
Imposture
As if a steer should graze wrapped round with tiger’s skin,
Is show of virtuous might when weakness lurks within.
Explanation: The assumed appearance of power, by a man who has no power (to restrain
his senses and perform austerity), is like a cow feeding on grass covered with a tiger’s skin.
Cruel is the arrow straight, the crooked lute is sweet,

Judge by their deeds the many forms of men you meet.
Explanation: As, in its use, the arrow is crooked, and the curved lute is straight, so by
their deeds, (and not by their appearance) let (the uprightness or crookedness of) men be
estimated.
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The Absence of Fraud

Who seeks heaven’s joys, from impious levity secure,
Let him from every fraud preserve his spirit pure.
Explanation: Let him, who desires not to be despised, keep his mind from (the desire of)
defrauding another of the smallest thing.
Tis sin if in the mind man but thought conceive;

‘By fraud I will my neighbour of his wealth bereave’.
Explanation: Even the thought (of sin) is sin; think not then of crafiily stealing the property
of another.
Veracity
You ask, in lips of men what ‘truth’ may be;
‘Tis speech from every taint of evil free.
Explanation: Truth is the speaking of such words as are free from the least degree of evil (to
others).
Falsehood may take the place of truthful word,

If blessing, free from fault, it can afford.
Explanation: Even falsehood has the nature of truth, if it confers a benefit that is free from
fault.
Speak not a word which false thy own heart knows

Self-kindled fire within the false one’s spirit glows.
Explanation: Let not a man knowingly tell a lie; for after he has told the lie, his mind will
burn him (with the memory of his guilt).
Greater is he who speaks the truth with full consenting mind.

Then men whose lives have penitence and charity combined.
Explanation: He, who speaks truth with all his heart, is superior to those who make gifts
and practise austerities.
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Not Doing Evil

Though ill to neighbour wrought should gloriously pride of wealth secure,
No ill to do is fixed decree of men in spirit pure.
Explanation: It is the determination of the spotless not to cause sorrow to others, although
they could (by so causing) obtain the wealth which confers greatness.
From wisdom’s vaunted lore what doth the learner gain,

If as his own he guard not others’ souls from pain?
Explanation: What benefit has he derived from his knowledge, who does not endeavour to
keep off pain from another as much as from himself?
Not Killing
What is the work of virtue? ‘Not to kill’;
For ‘killing’ leads to every work of ill.
Explanation: Never to destroy life is the sum of all virtuous conduct. The destruction of life
leads to every evil.
Though thine own life for that spared life the price must pay,
Take not from aught that lives gift of sweet life away.
Explanation: Let no one do that which would destroy the life of another, although he should
by so doing, lose his own life.
Renunciation
From whatever, aye, whatever, man gets free,
From what, aye, from that, no more of pain hath he!
Explanation: Whatever thing, a man has renounced, by that thing; he cannot suffer pain.
Cling thou to that which He, to Whom nought clings, hath bid thee cling,
Cling to that bond, to get thee free from every clinging thing.
Explanation: Desire the desire of Him who is without desire; in order to renounce desire,
desire that desire.
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Curbing of Desire
If desire you feel, freedom from changing birth require!
‘I’ will come, if you desire to ‘scape, set free from all desire.
Explanation: If anything, be desired, freedom from births should be desired; that (freedom
from births) will be attained by desiring to be without desire.
Desire each soul beguiles;

True virtue dreads its wiles.
Explanation: It is the chief duty of (an ascetic) to watch against desire with (jealous) fear; for
it has power to deceive (and destroy) him.
The Greatness of a King

Courage, a liberal hand, wisdom and energy: these four
Are qualities a king adorns for evermore.
Explanation: Never to fail in these four things, fearlessness, liberality, wisdom and energy,
is the kingly character.
With pleasant speech, who gives and guards with powerful liberal hand,
He sees the world obedient all to his command.
Explanation: The world will praise and submit itself to the mind of the king who is able to
give with affability, and to protect all who come to him.
Learning
So, learn that you may full and faultless learning gain,
Then in obedience meet to lessons learnt remain.
Explanation: Let a man learn thoroughly whatever he may learn, and let his conduct be
worthy of his learning.
The man who store of learning gains,

In one, through seven worlds, bliss attains.
Explanation: The learning, which a man has acquired in one birth, will yield him pleasure
during seven births.
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Like those who doat on hoyden’s undeveloped charms are they,

Of learning void, who eagerly their power of words display.
Explanation: The desire of the unlearned to speak (in an assembly), is like a woman without
breasts desiring (the enjoyment of) woman-hood.
Hearing
Wealth of wealth is wealth acquired be ear attent;
Wealth mid all wealth supremely excellent.
Explanation: Wealth (gained) by the ear is wealth of wealth; that wealth is the chief of all
wealth.
Who feed their ear with learned teachings rare?

Are like the happy gods’ oblations rich who share.
Explanation: Those who in this world enjoy instruction which is the food of the ear, are
equal to the Gods, who enjoy the food of the sacrifices.
The Possession of Knowledge

Though things diverse from divers’ sages’ lips we learn,
‘Tis wisdom’s part in each the true thing to discern.
Explanation: To discern the truth in every thing, by whomsoever spoken, is wisdom.
The wise is rich, with every blessing blest;

The fool is poor, of everything possessed.
Explanation: Those who possess wisdom, possess every thing; those who have not wisdom,
whatever they may possess, have nothing.
Seeking the Aid of Great Men

As friends the men who virtue knows, and riper wisdom share,
Their worth weighed well; the king should choose with care.
Explanation: Let a king ponder well its value, and secure the friendship of men of virtue and
of mature knowledge.
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The king with none to censure him, bereft of safeguards all,

Though none his ruin work, shall surely ruined fall.
Explanation:
The king, who is without the guard of men who can rebuke him, will perish, even though
there be no one to destroy him.
Acting after due Consideration

‘Tis ruin if man do an unbefitting thing;
Fit things to leave undone will equal ruin bring.
Explanation: He will perish who does not what is not fit to do; and he also will perish who
does not do what it is fit to do.
Plan and perform no work that others may despise;

What misbeseems a king the world will not approve as wise.
Explanation: Let a man reflect, and do things which bring no reproach; the world will not
approve, with him, of things which do not become of his position to adopt.
Selection and Confidence

How treats he virtue, wealth and pleasure? How, when life’s at stake,
Comports himself? This four-fold test of man will full assurance make.
Explanation: Let a minister be chosen, after he has been tried by means of these four things,
viz, his virtue, love of money, love of sexual pleasure, and tear of losing life.
Who trusts an untried stranger, brings disgrace,

Remediless, on all his race.
Explanation: Sorrow that will not leave even his posterity will come upon him chooses a
stranger whose character he has not known.
Cherishing Kinsmen
When wealth is fled, old kindness still to show,
Is kindly grace that only kinsmen know.
Explanation: Even when a man’s property is all gone, relatives will act towards him with
their accustomed kindness.
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Who knows the use of pleasant words, and liberal gifts can give,
Connections, heaps of them, surrounding him shall live.
Explanation: He will be surrounded by numerous relatives who manifests generosity and
affability.
Energy
The wealth of mind man owns a real worth imparts,
Material wealth man owns endures not, utterly departs.
Explanation: The possession of energy of mind is true property; the possession of wealth
passes away and abides not.
Firmness of soul in man is real excellance;

Others are trees, their human form a mere pretence.
Explanation: Energy is mental wealth; those men who are destitute of it are only trees in the
form of men.
Power of Speech
A tongue that rightly speaks the right is greatest gain,
It stands alone midst goodly things that men obtain.
Explanation: The possession of that goodness which is called the goodness of speech is even
to others better than any other goodness.
Tis speech that spell-bound holds the listening ear,

While those who have not heard desire to hear.
Explanation: The minister’s speech is that which seeks to express elements as bind his friends
to himself and is so delivered as to make even his enemies desire his friendship.
Purity in Action
Who tell themselves that nobler things shall yet be won?
All deeds that dim the light of glory must they shun.
Explanation: Those who say, “we will become better” should avoid the performance of acts
that would destroy their fame.
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Though troubles press, no shameful deed they do,

Whose eyes the ever-during vision view.
Explanation:
Those who have infallible judgement though threatened with peril will not do acts which
have brought disgrace on former ministers.
Power in Action
What men call ‘power in action’ know for ‘power of mind’
Externe to man all other aids you find.
Explanation: Firmness in action is simply one’s firmness of mind; all other abilities are not
of this nature.
Easy to every man the speech that shows the way;

Hard thing to shape one’s life by words they say!
Explanation: To say how an act is to be performed is indeed easy for any one; but far difficult
it is to do according to what has been said.
Modes of Action
With work or foe, when you neglect some little thing,
If you reflect, like smouldering fire, ‘twill ruin bring.
Explanation: When duly considered, the incomplete execution of an undertaking and
hostility will grow and destroy one like the unextinguished remnant of a fire.
Who would succeed must thus begin: first let him ask?
The thoughts of them who thoroughly know the task.
Explanation: The method of performance for one who has begun an act is to ascertain the
mind of him who knows the secret thereof.
The Land
Where spreads fertility unfailing, where resides a band,
Of virtuous men, and those of ample wealth, call that a ‘land’.
Explanation: A kingdom is that in which those who carry on a complete cultivation, virtuous
persons, and merchants with inexhaustible wealth, dwell together.
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That is a ‘land’ whose peaceful annals know,

Nor famine fierce, nor wasting plague, nor ravage of the foe.
Explanation: kingdom is that which continues to be free from excessive starvation,
irremediable epidemics, and destructive foes.
The Fortification
Fort is wealth to those who act against their foes;
Is wealth to them who, fearing, guard themselves from woes.
Explanation: A fort is an object of importance to those who march against their foes as well
as to those who through fear of pursuers would seek it for shelter.
A fort, with all munitions amply stored,

In time of need should good reserves afford.
Explanation: A fort is that which has all needful things, and excellent heroes that can help
it against destruction by foes.
Friendship
What so hard for men to gain as friendship true?
What so sure defence ‘gainst all that foe can do?
Explanation: What things are there so difficult to acquire as friendship? What guards are
there so difficult to break through by the efforts of one’s foes?
Learned scroll the more you ponder, Sweeter grows the mental food;
So, the heart by use grows fonder, Bound in friendship with the good.
Explanation: Like learning, the friendship of the noble, the more it is cultivated, the more
delightful does it become.
Investigation in Forming Friendships

Alliance with the man you have not proved and proved again,
In length of days will give you mortal pain.
Explanation: The friendship contracted by him who has not made repeated inquiry will in
the end grieve him to death.
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Who, born of noble race, from guilt would shrink with shame,
Pay any price so you as friend that man may claim.
Explanation: The friendship of one who belongs to a good family and is afraid of being
charged with guilt, is worth even purchasing.
Evil Friendship
These are alike: the friends who ponder friendship’s gain
Those who accept whatever you give, and all the plundering train.
Explanation: Friendship who calculate the profits of their friendship, prostitutes who are
bent on obtaining their gains, and thieves are all of the same character.
Those men who make a grievous toil of what they do

On your behalf, their friendship silently eschews.
Explanation: Gradually abandon without revealing before hand the friendship of those who
pretend inability to carry out what they really could do.
Unreal Friendship
To heartfelt goodness men ignoble hardly may attain,
Although abundant stores of goodly lore they gain.
Explanation: Though one’s enemies may have mastered many good books, it will be
impossible for them to become truly loving at heart.
When minds are not in unison, ‘its never; just,

In any word’s men speak to put your trust.
Explanation: In nothing whatever is it proper to rely on the words of those who do not love
with their heart.
Folly
What one thing merits folly’s special name.
Letting gain go, loss for one’s own to claim!
Explanation: Folly is one of the chief defects; it is that which makes one incur loss and forego
gain.
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Ashamed of nothing, searching nothing out, of loveless heart,

Nought cherishing, ‘tis thus the fool will play his part.
Explanation:
Shamelessness indifference to what must be sought after, harshness, and aversion for
everything that ought to be desired are the qualities of the fool.
Enmity within
Dread not the foes that as drawn swords appear;
Friendship of foes, who seem like kinsmen, fear!
Explanation: Fear not foes who say they would cut like a sword; but fear the friendship of
foes who seemingly act like relations.
The Might of Hatred

With stronger than thyself, turn from the strife away;
With weaker shun not, rather court the fray.
Explanation:
Avoid offering resistance to the strong; but never fail to cherish enmity towards the weak.
No kinsman’s love, no strength of friends has he;

How can he bear his foeman’s enmity?
Explanation: How can he who is unloving, destitute of powerful aids, and himself without
strength overcome the might of his foe?
Not Offending the Great

The chiefest care of those who guard themselves from ill,
Is not to slight the powers of those who work their mighty will.
Explanation: Not to disregard the power of those who can carry out their wishes is more
important than all the watchfulness of those who guard themselves against evil.
If men will lead their lives reckless of great men’s will,

Such life, through great men’s powers, will bring perpetual ill.
Explanation: To behave without respect for the great rulers will make them do us irremediable
evils.
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Not Drinking Palm-Wine

Drink not inebriating draught. Let him count well the cost.
Who drinks, by drinking, all good men’s esteem is lost.
Explanation: Let no liquor be drunk; if it is desired, let it be drunk by those who care not for
esteem of the great.
Sleepers are as the dead, no otherwise they seem;

Who drink intoxicating draughts, they poison quaff, we deem?
Explanation:
They that sleep resemble the deed; likewise, they that drink is no other than poison-eaters.
Gambling
Seek not the gamester’s play; though you should win,
Your gain is as the baited hook the fish takes in.
Explanation: Though able to win, let not one desire gambling; for even what is won is like
a fish swallowing the iron in fish-hook.
Gaming brings many woes, and ruins fair renown;

Nothing to want brings men so surely down.
Explanation: There is nothing else that brings us poverty like gambling which causes many
a misery and destroys one’s reputation.
Nobility
In these three things the men of noble birth fail not:
In virtuous deed and truthful word, and chastened thought.
Explanation: The high-born will never deviate from these three; good manners, truthfulness
and modesty.
The faults of men of noble race are seen by every eye,

As spots on her bright orb that walks sublime the evening sky.
Explanation: The defects of the noble will be observed as clearly as the dark spots in the
moon.
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Honour
Bow down thy soul, with increase blest, in happy hour;
Lift up thy heart, when stript of all by fortune’s power.
Explanation: In great prosperity humility is becoming; dignity, in great adversity.
It yields no praise, nor to the land of Gods throws wide the gate:
Why follow men who scorn, and at their bidding wait?
Explanation: Of what good is it for the high-born to go and stand in vain before those who
revile him? it only brings him loss of honour and exclusion from heaven.
Perfectness
The good of inward excellence they claim,
The perfect men; all other good is only good in name.
Explanation: The only delight of the perfect is that of their goodness; all other sensual
delights are not to be included among any true delights.
Submission is the might of men of mighty acts; the sage

With that same weapon stills his foeman’s rage.
Explanation: Stooping to inferiors is the strength of those who can accomplish an
undertaking; and that is the weapon with which the great avert their foes.
Courtesy
Who easy access gives to every man, they say,
Of kindly courtesy will learn with ease the way.
Explanation: If one is easy of access to all, it will be easy for one to obtain the virtue called
goodness.
Contempt is evil though in sport. They who man’s nature know,

Even in their wrath, a courteous mind will show.
Explanation: Reproach is painful to one even in sport; those therefore who know the nature
of others exhibit pleasing qualities even when they are hated.
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Shame
And is not shame an ornament to men of dignity?
Without it step of stately pride is piteous thing to see.
Explanation: Is not the modesty ornament of the noble? Without it, their haughtiness would
be a pain to others.
As home of virtuous shame by all the world the men are known,
Who feel ashamed for others, guilt as for their own?
Explanation: The world regards as the abode of modesty him who fear his own and other’s
guilt.
Farming
However they roam, the world must follow still the plougher’s team;
Though toilsome, culture of the ground as noblest toil esteem.
Explanation: Agriculture, though laborious, is the most excellent form of labour; for people,
though they go about in search of various employments, have at last to resort to the farmer.
Who ploughing eat their food, they truly live:

The rest to others bends subservient, eating what they give.
Explanation: They alone live who live by agriculture; all others lead a cringing, dependent
life.
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King Thondaiman, ruler of With the advancement of civilization

Kanchipuram, had sent him a note to the next stage through socio-economic
declaring his intention to attack Thagadur and technocratic developments, emerging
Avvaiyar spoke “Oh Thondiaman, how new ideas got stumbled by the existing
different indeed are your clean and shiny belief system and functions followed until
weapons from those of Adiyaman, always now. Albeit of these stumbling blocks, the
stained with blood and under repair.” constructive impact made by the thinkers
Thondaiman had far less experience in war and thinking is ever-lasting on the basis
and was unlikely to win — she was making of mind-capturing of the people. Ideas
this clear under the guise of praise. Another are dangerous than the technocratic
famous Avvaiyar was from the Cholas age, revolution, positively.Quite apart, pen is
around 10thCentury AD(CE), who wrote more powerful than sword.
moral universe for children and advocated
ethical principles for all. Whilst her works ACTIVITY
Aathichoodi and Konraiventhan were
"்றை குடி கூழ்அறமச்சு நட்்ரண் ஆறும்
written for young children, Mooturai and
உறைொன அரெருள் ஏறு" (குைள்: 381)
Nalvazhi were written for older children.
Thirukkural
All these classical works not only
reveal the cultural and literary traditions
of the ancient Tamils. They also serve as
Tamil
historical testimony to the nature of Tamil Identity culture
society, socio-cultural and religious beliefs, Philosophy
livelihood, vocations, professions, role and
status of women, marriage, gender, class
structure, origins of caste system, kinship,
polity, governance, ideas of justice, wars,
peace, diplomacy, naval warfare, maritime
“An army, people, wealth, a minister, friends, fort; six things
traditions, trade, commerce, shipbuilding
Who owns them all, a lion lives amid the kings”
and seafaring skills, economy, land, water
systems, agriculture, art, dance, poetry, (Kural: 381)
music, architecture and relationship with the
In your note draw three columns as given
neighbouring countries and far away places.
in the text book
Introduction POLITICS
what I know? what I want what I have
Politics intends to create change- to know? learnt?
oriented awareness in the society. It is not
necessary to adopt and follow the existing
social system which the present politics do.
This awareness can be initiated by ideas and
ideologies of society-laden thinkers.
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The definite part of thinkers is as follows: focuses on social justice. The political
ideologies in Tamil Nadu are a combination
 Being the basis for the social changes and
of all three left, Right and centre ideologies.
subsequent events including the change in
the public minds; 15.2 Ancient Political Ideas
 Having taken political decisions which had Thiruvalluvar
an impact on social turning points;
 Serving as best brains behind the major
political decisions which has benefitted the
diversified communities;
 To convert social ideas into common which
assisted people’s advancement belonging
to various communities
New political ideas are supported by
the activities of the political thinkers which
kindles interest and rational thinking of the
common people. The interaction of those
thinkers with the contemporary society makes
a new framework for the entire system.New
political decisions which intend to create great In Arathupal of Thirukkural, Valluvar
changes for the emerging generations were was a great enunciator of morals; In
undertaken.The day-to-day life of common Inbathupal, he has become a poet and
people may be engulfed with many changes by in Porutpal, he is known to be a political
the political decision of the thinkers.At world philosopher. The political philosophy of
level these kind of thinkers made changes
Thiruvalluvar is applicable across times
in the socio-political systems. Such great
even today.
thinkers made their extra-ordinary presence
throughout the past centuries in India in Seven Parts in Porutpal
general and Tamilnadu in particular.
Porutpal consists of 7 parts, further it
National political thinkers, Tamil political has 70 verses / couplets. They are Politics-25,
thinkers, Socialist thinkers, Thinkers of social Ministry-10, Defence-2, Wealth-1, Army-2,
justice are the different parts of modern
Friendship-17, and citizens-13 respectively.
categorization. In this part we can discuss
about different political thinkers of Tamilnadu “்றை குடி கூழ்அறமச்சு நட்்ரண் ஆறும்
who made out-standing contribution for the உறைொன அரெருள் ஏறு“ (குைள்: 381)
social changes.
“An army, people, wealth, a minister, friends, fort; six things
Political ideologies in Tamilnadu is rich Who owns them all, a lion lives amid the kings”
with ideas, beliefs, opinions and attitudes (Kural: 381)
towards society, polity and economy. This
is evident from the ancient political ideas Thus, in porutpal, at the first verse itself
of Thiruvalluvar, where as Bharathiyar is a valluvar differentiated the six categories
nationalist and Singaravelar is a communist. essential for a state. Thus, different parts
According to periyar, Dravidian ideology
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of government are ministry, army, wealth, words of Valluvar regarding government

people, friendship and citizens, which and state is applicable and suitable to all
determines the rule of a king. Moreover, over the period as well as every organization
these components are categorized for king in the world.
in a separate way, thus contributing a lot
Welfare state and King
of ideas regarding administration of a state
and assets for a king. To put it in simple words, Valluvar’s
political system is based on welfare state.
Nature of a king – 25 Chapters
For instance, in Iraimatchi (Qualities of a
In porutpal, Valluvar mentioned ruler), he says
about nature of a king in detailed manner
முறைசெய்து காப்பாற்றும் மன்னவன் மக்கட்கு
in 25 chapters starting from Qualities of
இறையென்று வைக்கப் படும். (குறள்: 388)
ruler (Iraimatchi – chapter 39) to idukkan
azhaiyaamai (Unfazed in the face of trouble ho guards the realm and justice strict maintains,
W
– chapter 63) in 25 chapters, in the name That king as god over subject people reigns.
of “Arasar”, “Vender”, “Nilan Aandavar” (Kural: 388)
“Mannavar” he has indicated 46 times about
If a king delivered justice by doing the
the king.
duties honestly, he may be regarded as a
The King must possess the leadership God. Ideal path and welfare – arrived kings
qualities such as, Education (40), Listening can be respected and kept on par with divine.
Ability (42), Wisdom (43), Fending off This kind of view is not only applicable to
Faults (44), Seeking the company of great monarchical period but it also applicable to
men (45), Avoiding mean–minded (46) present democratic period.
Rationality (47), Priority for time for action
Features of State
(51), Assessing and Assigning tasks (52),
Embracing the Kin (53), Doing duty without The characteristics of a state is to
forgetting (54), Justice (55), Knowing the maintain ethics, the eradication of wrong
right place (50), Refraining from Terrifying doing activity, mandating impartiality of
Deeds (57), Compassion (58), Espionage justice and protection of honour.
(59), Spirit (60), To avoid laziness (61),
அறனிழுக்கா தல்லவை நீக்கி மறனிழுக்கா
Perseverance (62) and Determination (63)
மானம் உடைய தரசு (குறள்: 384)
which should be the requisites of a king.
These above-mentioned qualities may also Kingship, in virtue failing not, all vice restrains,
be possessed by good people. In courage failing not, it honour’s grace maintains.
(Kural: 384)
Ideas on Democracy
Valluvar lived in the period of King’s path is the peoples’ path, king
monarchy. However, his ideas and ideals should act as a guide for his subjects, if he
are also applicable for the present leaders of does harm or evil activities, it may influence
democracy. He also indicated the nature of all. It is because of his position as a leader,
state and government in the king’s rule. The his discipline and private life will spread
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to all in the kingdom. Moral and ethical indefinite agonies among the people. Those
life is quite essential for the ruling kings. tears are most powerful and may annihilate
Indicating “Respect” in a broad manner the entire kingdom.
relating it with nation, Valluvar gave priority
அல்லற்பட்டு ஆற்றாது அழுதகண் ணீரன்றே
for great honour which may be equated with
செல்வத்தைத் தேய்க்கும் படை (குறள் 555)
the courage. He stressed that king must be
loyal to the nation, it is the honour of nation. His people’s tears of sorrow past endurance, are not they
Sharp instrument to wear the marches wealth away.
Ideal State and Welfare of people
(Kural: 555)
In the monarchical rule, the integrity
Sad tears of suffering citizens may
and ideal governance for all periods were
dethrone and destroy the entire government,
advocated by Valluvar. People of all regions
says Thiruvalluvar. Tears were equated with
expect rain for their growth; likewise,
army, thus Valluvar’s visualization stands
citizens of a nation expect integrity and
unique among others.
ideal rule of the king.
Autocrats and Dictators like Hitler,
வான�ோக்கி வாழும் உலகெல்லாம் மன்னவன்
Mussolini and Czar were the negative
க�ோல்நோக்கி வாழுங் குடி. (குறள்: 542)
players for whom, Thirukkural served as a
All earth looks up to heaven where raindrops fall; funeral sound.
All subjects look to king that ruleth all.
Government’s Budget
(Kural: 542)
A king should be an able handed
In this couplet Valluvar indicates “Kol”
administrator in increasing the income of
as ideal rule which not only applies for
government. Further he should be an expert
monarchy but also for democracy.
in handling the budget.
குடிதழீஇக் க�ோல�ோச்சும் மாநில மன்னன்
In Iraimatchi, he said,
அடிதழீஇ நிற்கும் உலகு. (குறள் 544)
Whose heart embraces subjects all, lord over mighty land இயற்றலும் ஈட்டலும் காத்தலும் காத்த
Who rules, the world his feet embracing stands. வகுத்தலும் வல்ல தரசு. (குறள் 385)
(Kural: 544)
A king is be who treasure gains, stores up, defends,
This means that for a King, who protects And duly for his kingdom’s weal expends.
his citizens with love and affection, his feet (Kural: 385)
will be embraced by his subjects with love.
This is an everlasting phrase propounded by At first point, a king should search for
Valluvar related to good governance. the different sources of income. For this,
he calls it as “Iyatral”. Then, the second
Against Tyranny
point is that, all such resources should
In the chapter “Kodungonmai”, (Cruel be put together, which is called as “Ettal”.
Scepter) Valluvar explained it in negative Third, the resources thus collected must be
words. The suppressive and exploitative protected with all precautionary measures
rule of evil king may kindle unknown and which is called as “Kaathal”
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Fourth one, is most important (i.e) “People’s-welfare” is the basic foundation of

allotting the resources to various sectors for his contribution.
the welfare of the people, this he called it as
To put it in a different way, Valluvar’s
“Vagutthal”. Thus iyatral, eetall, kaathal and
contribution to politics is applicable to
vaguthal are the four ways of utilizing the
the present democratic governance for the
income to be expertise by the king of nation.
welfare of all the people.
It is a primary duty of the king.
The qualities that were indicated by
These innovative and practical ideas
Valluvar for a king may also apply to the
were accepted by political and as well as
citizens. Thus, he used the words “Idukkan
economic exponents as the basic idea of
Ariyamai”, “Kalvi” for “Vazhum Uyirku”,
socialistic society.
“Maandharkku” which is for all the people.
Relevance of Thiruvalluvar
The political ideas advocated by
The Educational qualities that are indicated Valluvar in porutpal highly circumvent
by Valluvar for a king may also apply to the around morals and noble principles.
citizens. Thus, he used the words “Idukkan “People’s-welfare” is the basic foundation of
Ariyamai”, “Kalvi” for “Vazhum Uyirku”, his contribution.
“Maandharkku” which is for all the people.
To put it in a different way Valluvar’s
The political ideas advocated by contribution to politics is majorly applicable
Valluvar in porutpal highly circumvent to the present democratic governance for
around morals and noble principles. the great welfare of all the people.
Thirukkural – A truly secular book

The very first observation about the Kural is the fact that it is a secular book.
During the days of Valluvar many religion existed in India. There were Buddhists,
Jains,Sikhs, Hindus as well as agnostics and atheists. But secularism as a concept was
unknown. Valluvar himself was a believer and he has devoted one chapter to praise
of God. He must have observed a particular religion. But in his book he advocates no
religion, he does not even refer to any religion.
The ancient Indian law-giver Manu and the ancient Greek philosophers Plato
and Aristotle maintained with absolute certainty that human begins were not born
equal. This popular view is accepted in all civilizations over centuries. Valluvar, the
philosopher poet, held a radically different view. He says:
“ All human beings are equal by birth; but differ as regards characteristics
because of the different qualities of their actions.” (Kural 972)
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Unit - 4
People’s Revolt
Learning Objectives
▶ To know the Palayakkarar (Poligar) system in Tamil Nadu
▶T
o understand the role of PuliThevar and Kattabomman in the anti-
British uprising
▶T
o know about the South Indian Rebellion
▶ To know the causes and effects of Vellore Mutiny
▶ To understand the causes and impacts of Revolt of 1857
Introduction with the consultation of his minister Ariyanatha

Mudaliyar, Viswanatha instituted Palayakkarar
The establishment of political and system in 1529. The whole country was divided
economic dominance by the British over many into 72 Palayams and each one was put under
parts of India after the Battle of Plassey, 1757 a Palayakkarar. Palayakkarar was the holder of
disrupted the political, social and economic a territory or a Palayam. These Palayams were
order of the country. This led to the divesting held in military tenure and extended their full
many landlords and chieftains of their power co-operation to be need of the Nayaks. The
and estates. Naturally, many of them revolted Palayakkarars collected taxes, of which one third
against the British. The English assumed the was given to the Nayak of Madurai another one
right of collecting the annual tribute from the third for the expenditure of the army and rest
Palayakkarar. The first resistance to the British was kept for themselves.
was offered by the Pulithevar. Since then there
had been rebellions by Palayakkarar such as Early revolts of South India
the Veerapandiya Kattabomman, Oomathurai,
Revolt of the Palayakkars
Marudu brothers and Dheeran Chinnamalai.
During the 17th and 18th centuries the
Origin of Palayam Palayakkarars played a vital role in the politics
of Tamil Nadu. They regarded themselves as
The Vijayanagar rulers appointed Nayaks
independent. Among the Palayakkarars, there
in their provinces. The Nayak of Madurai in
were two blocs, namely the Eastern and the
turn appointed Palayakkarar. Viswanatha
Western blocs. The Eastern Palayams were the
became the Nayak of Madurai in 1529. He
Nayaks ruled under the control of Kattabomman
noticed that he could not control the chieftain
and the Western palayams were the Maravas
who wanted more powers in their provinces. So
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THE REBEL CONFEDERACY 1799 - 1800 N

W E
S
Vellore Madras
Sangagiri
Erode
Chennimalai
Odanilai
Coimbatore
Tiruchirapalli
Dindigul
Virupakshi Nagore
Naam Pudukoai
Tiruppaur
Madurai Kalaiyar kovil
Sivagangai
Tondi
Ramnad
Sivagiri
Nerkaaanseval Kadalkudi
Eayapuram Nagalapuram
Kayaar
Panchalamkurichi
Nanguneri
Not to Scale
ruled under the control of Pulithevan. These Pulithevar

two palayakkarars refused to pay the kist Pulithevar was the pioneer in Tamil
(tribute) to the English and rebelled. Nadu, to protest against the English rule
The early struggle between the in India. He was the Palayakkarar of the
Palayakkaras and the East India Company had Nerkattumseval, near Tirunelveli. During his
a strong political dimension. By the Carnatic tenure he refused to pay the tribute neither
treaty of 1792, consolidated the English power to Mohammed Ali, the Nawab of Arcot nor
over the Palayakkars. The English got the right to the English. Further he started opposing
to collect taxes. The result was the outbreak of them. Hence, the forces of the Nawab of Arcot
the revolt of Palayakkars. and the English attacked Pulithevar. But the
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combined forces were defeated by Pulithevar at Kattabomman met Jackson

Tirunelveli. Pulithevar was the first Indian king In 1798, Colin
to have fought and defeated the British in India. Jackson, the collector of
After this victory Pulithevan attempted to form Ramanathapuram wrote
a league of the Palayakkars to oppose the British letters to Kattabomman
and the Nawab. asking him to pay the tribute
In 1759, Nerkattumseval was attacked arrears. But Kattabomman
by the forces of Nawab of Arcot under the replied that he was not in
leadership of Yusuf Khan. Pulithevar was a position to remit the tribute due to the
defeated at Anthanallur and the Nawabs forces famine in the country. Colin Jackson got
captured Nerkattumsevval in 1761. Pulithevar angry and decided to send an expedition to
who lived in exile recaptured Nerkattumseval in punish Kattabomman. However, the Madras
1764. Later, he was defeated by Captain Campell government directed the collector to summon
in 1767. Pulithevar escaped and died in exile the Palayakkarar at Ramanathapuram and
without fulfilling his purpose, although his hold a discussion.
courageous trail of a struggle for independence
in the history of South India. In 1798, Kattabomman and his
minister Siva Subramaniam met the Collector
Virapandya Kattabomman at Ramanathapuram. Upon a verification of
The Ancestors of accounts, Colin Jackson was convinced that
Kattabomman belonged Kattabomman had cleared most of the arrears
to Andhra. They migrated leaving only 1080 pagodas as balance. During
to Tamil country during this interview Kattabomman and his Minister,
the 11th century. As a Sivasubramaniam, had to stand before the
feudatory under Pandyas, arrogant collector for three hours. The
Jagaveerapandiaya Collector insulted them and tried to arrest
Kattabomman ruled Kattabomman and his minister. Kattabomman
V i r a p a n d y a p u r a m . Virapandya Kattabomman tried to escape with his minister. Oomathurai
Panchalankurichi was suddenly entered the fort with his men and
its capital. He later became a Poligar during helped the escape of Kattabomman. But
the rule of Nayaks. He was succeeded by his unfortunately Sivasubramaniam was taken as
son Veerapandya Kattabomman. His wife was prisoner.
Jakkammal and his brothers were Oomathurai
Edward Clive and Kattabomman
and Sevathaiah.
After his return to Panchalamkuruchi,
Nawab of Arot
Kattabomman wrote a letter to the Madras
After the decline of the Vijayanagar Council narrating the behaviour of the Collector
empire, the mughals established their Colin Jackson. Edward Clive, the Governor
supremacy in the south. The Nawabs acted of Madras Council ordered Kattabomman
as their representatives in Karnataka. to surrender. The Madras Council directed
Panchalamkuruchi palayam was acted as an ally Kattabomman to appear before a Committee.
to the Nawab of Arcot. Hence it paid tribute to Meanwhile, Edward Clive dismissed the
the Nawabs. But in 1792, the political condition Collector for his misbehaviour and released
had completely changed. Based on the Carnatic SivaSubramania. Kattabomman appeared
treaty of 1792, the company gained the right before the Committee, and found Kattabomman
to collect taxes from Panchalamkuruchi. The was not guilty. S.R. Lushington was appointed
collection of tribute was the main cause for the collector in the place of Colin Jackson, who was
rivalry between the English and Kattabomman. eventually dismissed from service.
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The confederacy of Palayakkarars near Dindigul. During

During that time, Marudu Pandyan of this period she organised
Sivaganga formed the South Indian Confederacy an army and employed her
of rebels against the British, along with the intelligent agents to find
neighbouring Palayakkarars. This confederacy where the British stored
declared a proclamation which came to be known their ammunition. She
as Tiruchirappalli Proclamation. Kattabomman arranged a suicide attack
was interested in this confederacy. He tried to by a faithfull follower
establish his influence over Sivagiri,who refused Kuyili, a commander Velu Nachiyar
to join with alliance of the rebels. Kattabomman of Velu Nachiar. She
recaptured Sivagangai and was again crowned
advanced towards Sivagiri. But the Palayakkar
as queen with the help of Marudu brothers. She
of Sivagiri was a tributory to the Company.
was the first queen to fight against the British
So the Company considered the expedition of
colonial power in India. She is known by Tamils
Kattabomman as a challenge to their authority.
as Veeramangai and also known as ‘Jhansi Rani
So the Company ordered the army to march to
of South India’.
Panchalamkuruchi.
Marudu Brothers
Fall of Panchalamkuruchi
Marudu brothers
Major Bannerman moved his army to were the sons of
Panchalamkuruchi on 5th September. They Mookiah Palaniappan
cut of all the communications to the Fort. In and Ponnathal. The elder
a clash at Kallarpatti, Siva Subramaniyam was brother was called Periya
taken as a prisoner. Kattabomman escaped to Marudu (Vella Marudhu)
Pudukottai. Vijaya Ragunatha Tondaiman, Raja and the younger brother
of Pudukottai, captured Kattabomman from Chinna Marudu. Chinna
the jungles of Kalapore and handed over to the Marudu was more
Company. After the fall of Panchalamkuruchi, Marudu Brothers
popular and was called
Bannerman brought the prisoners to an assembly Marudu Pandiyan. Chinna Marudu served
of the Palayakkarars and after trial sentenced under Muthu Vaduganatha Peria Udaya Devar
them to death. Sivasubramania was executed at (1750-1772) of Sivaganga. In 1772 the Nawab
Nagalapuram. On the 16th October ViraPandya of Arcot laid seige of Sivaganga and captured
Kattabomman was tried before an assembly of it. Muthu Vaduganatha Peria Udaya Devar,
Palayakkarar, summoned at Kayathar. On 17th died in battle. However after a few months
October 1799, Kattabomman was hanged at the Sivaganga was re-captured by Marudu Brothers
fort of Kayathar. Kattabomman’s heroic deeds and Periya Marudu was enthroned as the ruler.
were the subject of many folk ballads which Chinna Marudu acted as his adviser. Due to
kept his memory alive among the people. the terrorist activities against British, he was
called as “Lion of Sivaganga”. In the later half
Velu Nachiyar
of the eighteenth century the rebellion against
Velu Nachiyar was a queen of Sivagangai. the British was carried by Marudu Brothers in
At the age of 16, she was married to Muthu South India.
Vaduganathar, the Raja of Sivagangai. In 1772, the
Causes for the conflict
Nawab of Arcot and the British troops invaded
Sivagangai. They killed Muthu Vaduganathar in Kattabomman was hanged to death
Kalaiyar Koil battle. Velu Nachiyar escaped with and his brother Umaithurai and others
her daughter Vellachi Nachiyar and lived under fled to Sivaganga, where Marudu Pandya
the protection of Gopala Nayaker at Virupachi gave protection to them. The merchants of
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Sivaganga did not like the interference of English annexed Sivagangai

the company in their internal politics. The In May 1801, English attacked the rebels
company waged war against Sivaganga for in Thanjavur and Tiruchi areas. The rebels
these two causes. went to Piranmalai and Kalayarkoil. They were
again defeated by the forces of the English. In
The South Indian Rebellion (1800-1801)
the end, the superior military strength and the
In February 1801 the brothers of able commanders of the British army won the
Kattabomman, Oomathurai and Sevathaiah battle. The rebellion failed and English annexed
escaped from Palayamkottai prison and reached Sivagangai in 1801. The Marudu brothers
Kamudhi. Chinna Marudu took them to were executed in the Fort of Tirupathur in
Siruvayal, his capital. They reconstructed their Ramanathapuram District on 24 October 1801.
ancestral fort at Panchalamkurichi. The British Oomathurai and Sevathaiah was captured
troops under Conlin Macaulay retook the fort and beheaded at Panchalamkuruchi on 16
in April and the Palayakkarar brothers sought November 1801. Seventy three rebels were
shelter in Sivaganga. The English demanded sentenced to Penang in Malaya, then called the
Marudu Pandyas to hand over the fugitives, the Prince of Wales Island. Though they fell before
latter refused. Conlonel Agnew and Colonel the English, they were the pioneers in sowing
Innes marched against them. the seeds of nationalism in the land of Tamil.
The Palayakkarar War assumed a much Thus the South Indian Rebellion is a land
broader character than its predecessor. It was mark in the history of Tamil Nadu. Although the
directed by a confederacy consisting of Marudu 1800-1801 rebellion was to be categorized in the
Pandiar of Sivaganga, Gopala Nayak of Dindugal, British records as the Second Palayakkarar War.
Kerala Varma of Malabar and Krishnappa Under the terms of the Karnataka Treaty on 31
Nayak and Dhoondaji of Mysore. The English July 1801, the British assumed direct control
declared war against the confederacy. over Tamil Nadu. The Palayakkarar system was
abolished.
The Tiruchirappalli Proclamation (1801)
The Marudu Pandyas issued a Dheeran Chinnamalai
proclamation of Independence called Dheeran Chinnamalai was born at
Tiruchirappalli Proclamation in June 1801. Melapalayam in Chennimalai near Erode.
The Proclamation of 1801 was the first call to His original name was Theerthagiri. He was a
the Indians to unite against the British. A copy palayakkarar of Kongu country who fought
of the proclamation was pasted on the walls of the British East India Company. The Kongu
the Nawab’s palace in the fort of Tiruchi and country comprising Salem, Coimbatore, Karur
another copy was placed on the walls of the and Dindigul formed a part of the Nayak
Vaishnava temple at Srirangam. Thus Marudu kingdom of Madurai but had been annexed by
brothers spread the spirit of opposition against the Wodayars of Mysore. After the fall of the
the English everywhere. As a result many Wodayars, these territories along with Mysore
Palayakkarars of Tamil Nadu went on a rally were controlled by the Mysore Sultans. After the
to fight against the English. Chinna Marudu third and fourth Mysore wars the entire Kongu
collected nearly 20,000 men to challenge the region passed into the hands of the English.
English army. British reinforcements were Dheeran Chinnamalai was trained by
rushed from Bengal, Ceylon and Malaya. French military in modern warfare. He was along
The rajas of Pudukkottai, Ettayapuram and the side Tippu Sultan to fight against the British
Thanjavur stood by the British. Divide and rule East India Company and got victories against the
policy followed by the English spilt the forces of British. After Tippu Sultan’s death Chinnamalai
the Palayakkarars. settled down at Odanilai and constructed a fort
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there to continue his struggle against the British. Causes for the revolt
He sought the help of Marathas and Maruthu � The strict discipline, new weapons, new
Pandiyar to attack the British at Coimbatore in methods and uniforms were all new to the
1800. British forces managed to stop the armies sepoys.
of the allies and hence Chinnamalai was forced
� The sepoys were asked to shave the beard
to attack Coimbatore on his own. His army was
defeated and he escaped from the British forces. and to trim the moustache.
Chinnamalai engaged in guerrilla warfare � The wearing of religious mark on the
and defeated the British in battles at Cauvery, forehead and the use of ear-rings were also
Odanilai and Arachalur. During the final battle, banned.
Chinnamalai was betrayed by his cook Nallapan � The English treated the Indian sepoys as
and was hanged in Sankagiri Fort in 1805. their inferior. There was the racial prejudice.
Immediate Cause
Vellore Revolt (1806)
In June 1806, military General Agnew
The family members
introduced a new turban, resembling a
of Tippu were imprisoned at
European hat with a badge of cross on it. It
Vellore fort after the fourth
was popularly known as ‘Agnew’s turban’.
Mysore war. Some three
Both the Hindu and Muslim soldiers opposed
thousand ex-servants and
it. So the soldiers were severely punished by
soldiers of Hyder and Tippu
the English.
had also been moved to the
vicinity of Vellore and their property in Mysore Course of the Revolt
confiscated. It was quite natural that they were The Indian soldiers were waiting for
all unhappy and they hatred the English. an opportunity to attack the English officers.
Tippu’s family also took part. Fettah Hyder, the
elder son of Tippu, tried to form an alliance
against the English. On July 10th in the early
morning the native sepoys of the 1st and 23rd
Regiments started the revolt. Colonel Fancourt,
who commanded the garrison, was their first
Vellore Fort victim. The fort gates were closed. Meantime,
the rebels proclaimed Futteh Hyder, as their new
The Vellore fort consisted of large
ruler. The British flag in the fort was brought
majority of Indian troops, a good part of it
down. The tiger-striped flag of Tippu Sultan was
recently been raised in Tirunelveli after the
hoisted on the fort of Vellore.
Palayakarar uprising of 1800. Many of the
trained soldiers of the various Palayams were Suppression of the Revolt
admitted into the English army. Thus the Vellore Major Cootes who was outside the
fort became the meeting ground of the rebel fort rushed to Ranipet and informed Colonel
forces of South India. Gillespie. Col. Gillespie reached Vellore fort.
In 1803, William Cavendish Bentinck He made an attack on the rebel force. The revolt
became Governor of Madras. During his period was completely suppressed and failed. Peace
certain military regulations were introduced was restored in Vellore. On the whole, 113
in 1805-06 and were enforced by the Madras Europeans and about 350 sepoys were killed in
Commander-in-Chief Sir John Cradock. But the uprising. The revolt was suppressed within a
the sepoys felt that these were designed to insult short period. It was one of the significant events
them. in the history of Tamil Nadu.
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Effects of the Vellore Revolt � The conversion activities of Christian

� The new methods and uniform regulations
missionaries were looked upon with
were withdrawn. suspicion and fear. The priests and the
maulavis showed their discontent against
� The family of Tippu as a precautionary
the British rule.
measure was sent to Calcutta.
� Abolition of practices like sati, female
� William Cavendish Bentinck was removed
infanticide, support to widow remarriage
from his service.
and female education were seen by many as
Causes for the failure of the Revolt
interference in their Indian culture by the
� There was no proper leadership to guide the Europeans.
soldiers properly. � The Indian sepoys were looked upon as
� The rebellion was also not well organised. inferior beings and treated with contempt by
� Divide and Rule policy of the English, split their British officers. They were paid much
the unity of the Indians. less than the British soldiers. All avenues of
V.D. Savarkar calls the Vellore revolt of the promotion were closed to them as all
1806 as the prelude to the first War of Indian the higher army posts were reserved for the
Independence in 1857. British.
The Revolt of 1857 Immediate cause

The immediate cause was the
The early uprisings did
introduction of new Enfield Riffles in the army.
not succeed in threatening the
The top of the cartridge of this rifle was to be
British in India. It took the
removed by the mouth before loading it in the
Revolt of 1857 to bring home
rifle. The cartridges were greased by the fat of
to the Company and the
pig and the cow. The Indian sepoys believed
British thought that their rule
that the British were deliberately attempting to
was not accepted to a large
spoil the religion of both the Hindus and the
section of the population. The Revolt of 1857
Muslims because while the Hindus revered the
was a product of the character and the policies
cow, the Muslims hated the pig. The soldiers,
of colonial rule. The cumulative effect of British
therefore, determined to refuse their service
expansionist policies, economic exploitation
and, ultimately revolted. Thus, the primary and
and administrative innovations over the years
the immediate cause of the revolt was the use of
had adversely affected the positions of all rulers
the greased cartridges.
of Indian states.
Causes of the Revolt The Outbreak of the Revolt
� The most important cause of revolt 1857 was On 29 March
a popular discontent of the British policy of 1857 at Barrackpur
economically exploiting India. This hurt all (near Kolkata) Mangal
sections of society. The peasants suffered Pandey, a young Sepoy
due to high revenue demands and the strict from Bengal Regiment,
revenue collection policy. refused to use the greased
� Policies of doctrine of lapse, subsidiary cartridge, and shot
alliance and policy of Effective Control created down his sergeant. He
discontentment among people. Annexation of was arrested, tried and Mangal Pandey
Oudh proved that even the grovelling loyalty executed. When this
can't satisfy British greed for territories. news spread many sepoys revolted.
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THE REVOLT OF 1857

N
W E
S
Meerut
Delhi
Bareiley
Agra
r
pu
ad
Gwalior Luknow
n
zab
Ka
Jagdispur
Jhansi Banaras
Fai
Kalpi
Barrackpore
Not to Scale
Course of the Revolt The revolt spread quickly. There were

On 10 May 1857, the Sepoys of the third mutinies at Lucknow, Kanpur, Jhansi, Bareilly,
cavalry at Meerut openly revolted by swarming Bihar, Faizabad, and many other places in
the prisons and releasing their comrades. They north India. Many of them found that it was
were immediately joined by the men of the 11th a good opportunity to burn the papers of
and 20th Native Infantries, and they murdered their landlords. Many others whose titles and
some English officers and then marched to pensions were abolished by the British who
Delhi. The arrival of Meerut sepoys at Delhi on participated in it, inorder to take revenge.
11th May and declared of Bahadur Shah II as the The Muslim leaders and Maulvis sought the
Emperor of India. Delhi became the centre of opportunity of establishing the Muslim rule in
the Great Revolt and Bahadur Shah, its symbol. India after turning out the British.
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British Officials
In Central India the Places of
Indian Leaders who suppressed
revolt was guided Revolt
the revolt
by Rani Lakshmi
Delhi Bahadur Shah II John Nicholson
Bai of Jhansi. She
was one of the Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal Henry Lawrence
greatest patriots of India. Sir Hugh Rose Kanpur Nana Saheb Sir Colin Campbell
occupied Jhansi. Rani Lakshmi Bai fled from
Jhansi & Lakshmi Bai,
Jhansi and joined hands with Tantia Tope General Hugh Rose
Gwalior Tantia tope
who had assumed the leadership of the rebel
army at Gwalior. But the British captured Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Sir Colin Campbell
Gwalior in June 1858. Rani was killed in the Bihar Kunwar Singh William Taylor
battle. Tantia Tope fled away but was captured
and later executed. According to the British The Causes for the Failure of the Revolt
historians, present at the time of revolt, Rani
Lakshmi Bai was the best and the bravest Various causes were responsible for the
among the leaders of the Revolt of 1857. failure of the revolt.
� Lack of organisation, discipline, common
plan of action, centralised leadership,
Suppression of the Revolt modern weapons and techniques.
Lord Canning, the governor-general � The rebel leaders were no match to the
took immediate steps to suppress the revolt. British Generals. Rani Lakshmi Bai, Tantia
He collected the forces of Madras, Bombay, Sri Tope and Nana Saheb were courageous but
Lanka and Burma. On his own initiative, he they were not good generals.
called the British army which was deputed to � Non-participation of Bengal, Bombay,
China by Britain to Calcutta. He ordered the Madras, western Punjab and Rajputana.
loyal Sikh army to proceed to Delhi immediately. � The modern educated Indians did not
The British regained their lost positions very support the Revolts as they believed that
soon. only British rule could reform Indian society
and modernize it.
Delhi was recaptured by General
� The British managed to get the loyalty of the
John Nicholson on 20 September, 1857 and
Sikhs, Afghans and the Gurkha regiments.
deportation of Bahadur Shah II to Rangoon
The Gurkhas actually helped the British in
where he died in 1862. Military operations
suppressing the revolt.
with the recovery of Kanpur were closely
� The British had better weapons, better
associated with the recovery of Lucknow. Sir
generals, and good organisation.
Colin Campbell occupied Kanpur. Nana Saheb
was defeated at Kanpur and escaped to Nepal. Consequences of the Revolt
His close associate Tantia Tope escaped to � The Revolt of 1857 marked a turning point
central India, was captured and put to death in the history of India. It led to changes in
while asleep. The Rani of Jhansi had died in the system of administration and the policy
the battle-field. Kunwar Singh, Khan Bahadur of the Government.
Khan were all dead, while the Begum of Awadh � The administration of India was transferred
was compelled to hide in Nepal. The revolt was from the East India Company to the British
finally suppressed. By the end of 1859, British Crown through the ‘Queen’s Proclamation’
authority over India was fully re-established. in 1858.
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� The governor general was given the title of Recap

viceroy.
� The Vijayanager ruers appointed Nayaks in
� The Board of Directors and the Board of
their provinces.
Control were replaced by the Council of 15
members headed by the Secretary of State to � The Nayak of Madurai in turn appointed
supervise Indian affairs. Palayakkarar.
� The Indian Army was thoroughly � The English got the right to collect taxes and
reorganised. More Britishers were employed the result was the outbreak of the revolt of
in the army. Palayakkarars.
� The British military policy came to be � The collection of tribute was the main cause
dominated by the idea of ‘divide and for the rivalry between the English and
counterpoise’. Kattabomman.
Infact, the Revolt of 1857 played an � Marudu brothers were the sons of Mookiah
important role in bringing the Indian people Palaniappan and Ponnathal.
together and imparting them the consciousness � Dheeran Chinnamalai was trained by
of belonging to one country. The Revolt paved French military in modern warfare.
the way for the rise of the modern national � Tippu Sultan fought against the British East
movement. It was at the beginning of the India Company.
twentieth century that the 1857 Revolt came
� Rani Lakshmi Bai was the best and the
to be interpreted as a “planned war of national
independence”, by V.D. Savarkar in his book, bravest among the leaders of the Revolt of
First War of Indian Independence. 1857.
GLOSSARY
Beheaded hanged to death துாக்கிலிடு
Betrayed give away information about somebody காட்டிக்கொடு
Cartridge bullet த�ோட்டா
Eventually in the end முடிவாக
Infantry an army unit consisting of soldiers who fight on foot காலாட்படை
Tribute payment made periodically by one state கப்பம்
Swarm crowd கூட்டம்
Evaluation 2. Which of the following Palayakkarar of

Tamil Nadu was the pioneer against the
English rule
I. Choose the correct a) Pulitevan
answer b) Yusuf Khan
1. The Palayakkarar c) Kattabomman
system was instituted d) Marudhu brothers
in
3. C olin Jackson was the collector of
a) 1519 b) 1520
a) Madurai b) Tirunelveli
c) 1529 d) 1530
c) Ramanathapuram d) Tuticorin
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Unit - 6
Early Revolts
against British Rule
in Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
Palayakkarar system and the revolts of Palayakkarars against the
British
Velunachiyar, Puli Thevar, Kattabomman and Marudhu Brothers in
the anti-British uprisings
Vellore Revolt as a response to British pacification of south India
Introduction Palayakkarars (Poligar

is how the British
After defeating the French and their referred to them)
Indian allies in the three Carnatic Wars, the in Tamil refers to
East India Company began to consolidate the holder of a little
and extend its power and influence. However, kingdom as a feudatory
local kings and feudal chieftains resisted this. to a greater sovereign.
The first resistance to East India Company’s Under this system,
territorial aggrandisement was from Puli palayam was given
Thevar of Nerkattumseval in the Tirunelveli for valuable military Viswanatha Nayaka
region. This was followed by other chieftains services rendered by any individual.
in the Tamil country such as Velunachiyar, This type of Palayakkarars system was in
Veerapandiya Kattabomman, the Marudhu practice during the rule of Prataba Rudhra
brothers, and Dheeran Chinnamalai. Known of Warangal in the Kakatiya kingdom.
as the Palayakkarars Wars, the culmination The system was put in place in Tamilnadu
of which was Vellore Revolt of 1806, this by Viswanatha Nayaka, when he became
early resistance to British rule in Tamilnadu the Nayak ruler of Madurai in 1529, with
is dealt with in this lesson. the support of his minister Ariyanathar.
Traditionally there were supposed to be 72

Resistance of Palayakkarars.
6.1 Regional Powers The Palayakkarars were free to collect
against the British revenue, administer the territory, settle
disputes and maintain law and order. Their
(a) Palayams and Palayakkarars
police duties were known as Padikaval
The word “palayam” means a domain, or Arasu Kaval. On many occasions the
a military camp, or a little kingdom. Palayakarars helped the Nayak rulers to
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restore the kingdom to them. The personal to Tirunelveli.

relationship and an understanding between Madurai easily
the King and the Palayakkarars made the fell into their
system to last for about two hundred years hands. Thereafter
from the Nayaks of Madurai, until the Colonel Heron
takeover of these territories by the British. was urged to deal
Eastern and Western Palayams with Puli Thevar
as he continued to
Among the 72 Palayakkarars, created Puli Thevar
defy the authority
by the Nayak rulers, there were two blocs,
of the Company. Puli Thevar wielded much
namely the prominent eastern and the
influence over the western palyakkarars. For
western Palayams. The eastern Palayams
want of cannon and of supplies and pay to
were Sattur, Nagalapuram, Ettayapuram, and
soldiers, Colonel Heron abandoned the plan
Panchalamkurichi and the prominent western
and retired to Madurai. Heron was recalled
palayams were Uthumalai, Thalavankottai,
and dismissed from service.
Naduvakurichi, Singampatti, Seithur. During
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Confederacy and Alliance with
Palayakkars dominated the politics of Tamil Enemies of the British
country. They functioned as independent,
Three Pathan officers, Nawab Chanda
sovereign authorities within their respective
Sahib’s agents, named Mianah, Mudimiah
Palayams.
and Nabikhan Kattak commanded the
Revenue Collection Authority to Madurai and Tirunelveli regions. They
the Company Rule supported the Tamil playakkarars against
The Nawab of Arcot had borrowed money Arcot Nawab Mohamed Ali. Puli Thevar
from the East India Company to meet the had established close relationships with
expenses he had incurred during the Carnatic them. Puli Thevar also formed a confederacy
Wars. When his debts exceeded his capacity to of the Palayakkars to fight the British. With
pay, the power of collecting the land revenue the exception of the Palayakkarars of Sivagiri,
dues from southern Palayakkarars was given all other Maravar Palayams supported him.
to the East India Company. Claiming that Ettayapuram and Panchalamkurichi also
their lands had been handed down to them did not join this confederacy. Further,
over sixty generations, many Palayakkarars the English succeeded in getting the
refused to pay taxes to the Company support of the rajas of Ramanathapuram
officials. The Company branded the defiant and Pudukottai. Puli Thevar tried to get
Palayakkarars as rebels and accused them of the support of Hyder Ali of Mysore and
trying to disturb the peace and tranquillity the French. Hyder Ali could not help Puli
of the country. This led to conflict between Thevar as he was already locked in a serious
the East India Company and the Palaykkarars conflict with the Marathas.
which are described below.
Kalakadu Battle
Palayakkarars’ Revolt
6.2 The Nawab sent an additional contingent
1755-1801 of sepoys to Mahfuzkhan and the reinforced
(a) Revolt of Puli Thevar army proceeded to Tirunelveli. Besides the
1755–1767 1000 sepoys of the Company, Mahfuzkhan
received 600 more sent by the Nawab. He also
In March 1755 Mahfuzkhan (brother of
had the support of cavalry and foot soldiers
the Nawab of Arcot) was sent with a contingent
from the Carnatic. Before Mahfuzkhan could
of the Company army under Colonel Heron
Early Revolts against British Rule in Tamil Nadu 2

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station his troops near Kalakadu, 2000 Ondiveeran

soldiers from Travancore joined the forces
of Puli Thevar. In the battle at Kalakadu, Ondiveeran led one of the army units
Mahfuzkhan's troops were routed. of Puli Thevar. Fighting by the side of
Puli Thevar, he caused much damage to
the Company’s army. According to oral
Yusuf Khan and Puli Thevar
tradition, in one battle, Ondiveeran’s hand
The organized resistance of the was chopped off and Puli Thevar was
palayakkarars under Puli Thevar gave an saddened. But Ondiveeran said it was a
opportunity to the English to interfere directly reward for his penetration into enemy’s fort
in the affairs of Tirunelveli. Aided by the causing many heads to roll.
Raja of Travancore, from 1756 to 1763, the
palyakkarars of Tirunelveli led by Puli Thevar (b) Velunachiyar (1730–1796)
were in a constant state of rebellion against the Born in 1730 to the Raja Sellamuthu
Nawab’s authority. Yusuf Khan (also known Sethupathy of Ramanathapuram, Velunachiyar
as Khan Sahib or, before his conversion to was the only daughter of this royal family.
Islam, Marudhanayagam) who had been The king had no male heir. The royal family
sent by the Company was not prepared to brought up the princess Velunachiyar,
attack Puli Thevar unless the big guns and training her in martial arts like valari, stick
ammunition from Tiruchirappalli arrived. fighting and to wield weapons. She was also
As the English were at war with the French, adept in horse riding and archery, apart from
as well as with Hyder Ali and Marathas, the her proficiency in English, French and Urdu.
artillery arrived only in September 1760. Yusuf
Khan began to batter the Nerkattumseval At the age of 16,
fort and this attack continued for about two Velunachiyar was
months. On 16 May 1761 Puli Thevar’s three married to Muthu
major forts (Nerkattumseval, Vasudevanallur Vadugar, the Raja of
and Panayur) came under the control of Sivagangai, and had
Yusuf Khan. a daughter by name
Vellachinachiar. In
In the meantime, after taking 1772, the Nawab
Pondicherry the English had eliminated the of Arcot and the
French from the picture. As a result of this Company troops
the unity of palyakkarars began to break under the command Velunachiyar
up as French support was not forthcoming. of Lt. Col. Bon Jour stormed the Kalaiyar Kovil
Travancore, Seithur, Uthumalai and Surandai Palace. In the ensuing battle Muthu Vadugar
switched their loyalty to the opposite camp. was killed. Velunachiyar escaped with her
Yusuf Khan who was negotiating with daughter and lived under the protection of
the palayakkarars, without informing the Gopala Nayakar at Virupachi near Dindigul for
Company administration, was charged with eight years.
treachery and hanged in 1764.
During her period in hiding, Velunachiyar
organised an army and succeeded in securing
Fall of Puli Thevar
an alliance with not only Gopala Nayakar but
After the death of Khan Sahib, Puli Hyder Ali as well. Dalavay (military chief)
Thevar returned from exile and recaptured Thandavarayanar wrote a letter to Sultan Hyder
Nerkattumseval in 1764. However, he was Ali on behalf of Velunachiyar asking for 5000
defeated by Captain Campbell in 1767. Puli infantry and 5000 cavalry to defeat the English.
Thevar escaped and died in exile. Velunachiyar explained in detail in Urdu all the
3 Early Revolts against British Rule in Tamil Nadu

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problems she had with East India Company. Jagavira Pandya

She conveyed her strong determination to fight Kattabomman.
the English. Impressed by her courage, Hyder The Company’s
Ali ordered his Commandant Syed in Dindigul administrators,
fort to provide the required military assistance. James London and
Colin Jackson, had
Gopala Nayak, the Palayakkarar of
considered him a
Virupachi
man of peaceful Kattabomman
Gopala Nayak spearheaded the famous disposition. However, soon several events
Dindigul League, which was formed with led to conflicts between Veerapandya
Lakshmi Nayak of Manaparai and Poojai Kattabomman and the East India Company.
Nayak of Devadanapatti. He drew inspiration The Nawab, under the provisions of a treaty
from Tipu Sultan who sent a deputation to signed in 1781, had assigned the revenue of
show his camaraderie. He led the resistance the Carnatic to the Company to be entirely
against the British from Coimbatore and under their management and control during
later joined Oomaidurai, Kattabomman’s the war with Mysore Sultan. One-sixth of
brother. He put up a fierce fight at Aanamalai the revenue was to be allowed to meet the
hills where the local peasants gave him full expenses of Nawab and his family. The
support. But Gopala Nayak was overpowered Company had thus gained the right to
by the British forces in 1801. collect taxes from Panchalamkurichi. The
Company appointed its Collectors to collect
Velunachiyar employed agents for
taxes from all the palayams. The Collectors
gathering intelligence to find where the British
humiliated the palayakkarars and adopted
had stored their ammunition. With military
force to collect the taxes. This was the bone
assistance from Gopala Nayakar and Hyder Ali
of contention between the English and
she recaptured Sivagangai. She was crowned as
Kattabomman.
Queen with the help of Marudhu brothers. She
was the first female ruler or queen to resist the Confrontation with Jackson
British colonial power in India.
The land revenue
Kuyili, a faithful arrear from Kattabomman
friend of Velunachiyar, was 3310 pagodas in
is said to have led the 1798. Collector Jackson,
unit of women soldiers an arrogant English
named after Udaiyaal. officer, wanted to send
Udaiyaal was a shepherd an army to collect the
girl who was killed for not revenue dues but the Madras Government
divulging information on did not give him permission. On 18
Kuyili. Kuyili is said to Kuyili August 1798, he ordered Kattabomman
have walked into the British arsenal (1780) to meet him in Ramanathapuram. But
after setting herself on fire, thus destroying Kattbomman’s attempts to meet him in
all the ammunition. between proved futile, as Jackson refused
to give him audience both in Courtallam
(c) Rebellion of Veerapandya and Srivilliputhur. At last, an interview was
Kattabomman 1790-1799 granted and Kattabomman met Jackson in
Veerapandya Kattabomman became Ramanathapurm on 19 September 1798. It
the Palayakkarar of Panchalamkurichi at is said that Kattabomman had to stand for
the age of thirty on the death of his father, three hours before the haughty Collector

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Jackson. Sensing danger, Kattabomman of Aanamalai. Marudhu Pandiyar acted as

tried to escape, along with his minister its leader. The Tiruchirappalli Proclamation
Sivasubramanianar. Oomaithurai suddenly had been made. Kattabomman was interested
entered the fort with his men and helped in this confederacy. Collector Lushington
the escape of Kattabomman. At the gate of prevented Kattabomman from meeting the
the Ramanathapuram fort there was a clash, Marudhu Brothers. But Marudhu Brothers
in which some people including Lieutenant and Kattabomman jointly decided on a
Clarke were killed. Sivasubramanianar was confrontation with the English. Kattabomman
taken prisoner. tried to influence Sivagiri Palayakkarars, who
refused to join. Kattabomman advanced
Appearance before Madras Council towards Sivagiri. But the Palayakkarars of
On his return to Panchalamkurichi, Sivagiri was a tributary to the Company.
Kattabomman represented to the Madras So the Company considered the expedition
Council about how he was ill-treated by of Kattabomman as a challenge to their
the collector Jackson. The Council asked authority. The Company ordered the army to
Kattabomman to appear before a committee march on to Tirunelveli.
with William Brown, William Oram and
John Casamajor as members. Meanwhile, The Siege of Panchalamkurichi
Governor Edward Clive, ordered the release
of Sivasubramanianar and the suspension
of the Collector Jackson. Kattabomman
appeared before the Committee that sat
on 15 December 1798 and reported on
what transpired in Ramanathapuram. The
Committee found Kattabomman was not
guilty. Jackson was dismissed from service
and a new Collector S.R. Lushington
appointed. Kattabomman cleared almost all
the revenue arrears leaving only a balance of Panchalamkurichi Fort
1080 pagodas.
In May 1799, Lord Wellesley issued orders
from Madras for the advance of forces from
Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur and Madurai to
Tirunelveli. Major Bannerman commanded
the troops. The Travancore troops too
joined the British. On 1 September 1799,
an ultimatum was served on Kattabomman
to surrender. Kattabomman’s “evasive
Pagodas (coins) reply” prompted Bannerman to attack his
fort. Bannerman moved his entire army to
Kattabomman and the Panchalamkurichi on 5 September. They
Confederacy of Palayakkarars cut off all the communications to the fort.
In the meantime, Marudhu Pandiyar Bannerman deputed Ramalinganar to convey
of Sivagangai formed the South Indian a message asking Kattabomman to surrender.
Confederacy of rebels against the British, Kattabomman refused. Ramalinganar
with the neighbouring palayakkars like gathered all the secrets of the Fort, and on
Gopala Nayak of Dindigul and Yadul Nayak the basis of his report, Bannerman decided

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the strategy of the operation. In a clash at organised resistance against the British. After
Kallarpatti, Sivasubramanianar was taken a the death of Kattabomman, they worked along
prisoner. with his brother Oomathurai. They plundered
the granaries of the Nawab and caused damage
Execution of Kattabomman
and destruction to Company troops.
Kattabomman escaped to Pudukottai.
The British put a prize on his head. Rebellion of Marudhu Brothers
Betrayed by the rajas of Ettayapuram and (1800–1801)
Pudukottai Kattabomman was finally Despite the suppression of Kattabomman’s
captured. Sivasubramanianar was executed revolt in 1799, rebellion broke out again in
at Nagalapuram on the 13 September. 1800. In the British records it is referred to as
Bannerman made a mockery of a trial for the Second Palayakarar War. It was directed by
Kattabomman in front of the palayakarars on a confederacy consisting of Marudhu Pandyan
16 October. During the trial Kattabomman of Sivagangai, Gopala Nayak of Dindugal,
bravely admitted all the charges levelled Kerala Verma of Malabar and Krishnaappa
against him. Kattabomman was hanged Nayak and Dhoondaji of Mysore. In April
from a tamarind tree in the old fort of 1800 they meet at Virupachi and decided to
Kayathar, close to Tirunelveli, in front organise an uprising against the Company.
of the fellow Palayakkars. Thus ended The uprising, which broke out in Coimbatore
the life of the celebrated Palayakkarars of in June 1800, soon spread to Ramanathapuram
Panchalamkurichi. Many folk ballads on and Madurai. The Company got wind of it and
Kattabomman helped keep his memory alive declared war on Krishnappa Nayak of Mysore,
among the people. Kerala Varma of Malabar and others. The
Palayakars of Coimbatore, Sathyamangalam
(d) The Marudhu Brothers
and Tarapuram were caught and hanged.
In February 1801 the two brothers of
Kattabomman, Oomathurai and Sevathaiah,
escaped from the Palayamkottai prison to
Kamudhi, from where Chinna Marudhu
took them to Siruvayal his capital. The fort at
Panchalamkurichi was reconstructed in record
time. The British troops under Colin Macaulay
retook the fort in April and the Marudhu
brothers sought shelter in Sivagangai. The
English demanded that the Marudhu Pandyars
hand over the fugitives (Oomathurai and
Sevathaiah). But they refused. Colonel Agnew
and Colonel Innes marched on Sivagangai.
Marudhu Brothers
In June 1801 Marudhu Pandyars issued a
Periya Marudhu or Vella Marudhu proclamation of Independence which is called
(1748–1801) and his younger brother Chinna Tiruchirappalli Proclamation.
Marudhu (1753-1801) were able generals of
Muthu Vadugar of Sivagangai. After Muthu Proclamation of 1801
Vadugar's death in the Kalaiyar Kovil battle The Proclamation of 1801 was an
Marudhu brothers assisted in restoring the early call to the Indians to unite against
throne to Velunachiyar. In the last years of the British, cutting across region, caste,
the eighteenth century Marudhu Brothers creed and religion. The proclamation was

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pasted on the walls of the Nawab’s palace (e) Dheeran Chinnamalai

in Tiruchirappalli fort and on the walls of (1756–1805)
the Srirangam temple. Many palayakkars of Born as
Tamil country rallied together to fight against Theerthagiri in 1756
the English. Chinna Marudhu collected in the Mandradiar
nearly 20,000 men to challenge the English royal family of
army. British reinforcements were rushed Palayakottai,
from Bengal, Ceylon and Malaya. The rajas Dheeran was well
of Pudukkottai, Ettayapuram and Thanjavur trained in silambu,
stood by the British. Divide and rule policy archery, horse riding
followed by the English spilt the forces of the and modern warfare.
palayakkarars soon. He was involved in
Dheeran Chinnamalai
resolving family and
Fall of Sivagangai land disputes in the Kongu region. As this
region was under the control of the Mysore
In May 1801, the English attacked the
Sultan, tax was collected by Tipu’s Diwan
rebels in Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli. The
Mohammed Ali. Once, when the Diwan was
rebels went to Piranmalai and Kalayarkoil.
returning to Mysore with the tax money,
They were again defeated by the forces of Theerthagiri blocked his way and confiscated
the English. In the end the superior military all the tax money. He let Mohammed Ali
strength and the able commanders of the go by instructing him to tell his Sultan that
English Company prevailed. The rebellion “Chinnamalai”, who is between Sivamalai
failed and Sivagangai was annexed in 1801. and Chennimalai, was the one who took away
The Marudhu brothers were executed in the taxes. Thus he gained the name “Dheeran
Fort of Tirupathur near Ramanathapuram Chinnamalai”. The offended Diwan sent a
on 24 October 1801. Oomathurai and contingent to attack Chinnamalai and both
Sevathaiah were captured and beheaded at the forces met and fought at the Noyyal river
Panchalamkurichi on 16 November 1801. bed. Chinnamalai emerged victorious.
Seventy-three rebels were exiled to Penang Trained by the French, Dheeran
in Malaya. Though the palayakkarars fell mobilised the Kongu youth in thousands and
to the English, their exploits and sacrifices fought the British together with Tipu. After
inspired later generations. Thus the rebellion Tipu’s death Dheeran Chinnamalai built a
of Marudhu brothers, which is called South fort and fought the British without leaving
Indian Rebellion, is a landmark event in the the place. Hence the place is called Odanilai.
history of Tamil Nadu. He launched guerrilla attacks and evaded
capture. Finally the English captured him
Carnatic Treaty, 1801 and his brothers and kept them in prison in
Sankagiri. When they were asked to accept
The suppression of the Palayakkarars
the rule of the British, they refused. So they
rebellions of 1799 and 1800–1801 resulted in
were hanged at the top of the Sankagiri Fort
the liquidation of all the local chieftains of
on 31 July 1805.
Tamilnadu. Under the terms of the Carnatic
Treaty of 31 July 1801, the British assumed
6.3 Vellore Revolt 1806
direct control over Tamilagam and the
Palayakarar system came to an end with the Before reducing all palayakkarars of south
demolition of all forts and disbandment of Tamilnadu into submission the East India
their army. Company had acquired the revenue districts

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of Salem, Dindigul at the conclusion of the war sons and the family members of Tipu being
with Tipu in 1792. Coimbatore was annexed interned in Vellore Fort. The trigger for the
at the end of the Anglo-Mysore War in 1799. revolt came in the form of a new military
In the same year the Raja of Thanjavur whose regulation notified by the Commander-in-
status had been reduced to that of a vassal in Chief Sir John Cradock.
1798 gave up his sovereign rights over that According to the new regulations, the Indian
region to the English. After the suppression soldiers were asked not to wear caste marks or ear
of resistance of Kattabomman (1799) and rings when in uniform. They were to be cleanly
Marudhu Brothers (1801), the British charged shaven on the chin and maintain uniformity
the Nawab of Arcot with disloyalty and forced a about how their moustache looked. The new
treaty on him. According to this Treaty of 1801, turban added fuel to fire. The most objectionable
the Nawab was to cede the districts of North addition was the leather cockade made of animal
Arcot, South Arcot, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai skin. The sepoys gave enough forewarning by
and Tirunelveli to the Company and transfer refusing to wear the new turban. Yet the Company
all the administrative powers to it. administration did not take heed.
(a) Grievances of Indian Soldiers (b) Outbreak of the Revolt
But the resistance did not die down. The
On 10 July 1806, in the early hours, guns
dispossessed little kings and feudal chieftains
were booming and the Indian sepoys of the
continued to deliberate on the future course
1st and 23rd regiments raised their standard of
of action against the Company Government.
revolt. Colonel Fancourt, who commanded
The outcome was the Vellore Revolt of 1806.
the garrison, was the first victim. Colonel
The objective conditions for a last ditch fight
MeKerras of the 23rd regiment was killed next.
existed on the eve of the revolt. The sepoys
Major Armstrong who was passing the Fort
in the British Indian army nursed a strong
heard the sound of firing. When he stopped
sense of resentment over low salary and
to enquire he was showered with bullets.
poor prospects of promotion. The English
About a dozen other officers were killed
army officers’ scant respect for the social and
within an hour or so. Among them Lt. Elly
religious sentiments of the Indian sepoys also
and Lt. Popham belonged to His Majesty’s
angered them. The state of peasantry from
battalion.
which class the sepoys had been recruited also
bothered them much. With new experiments Gillespie’s Brutality
in land tenures causing unsettled conditions
and famine breaking out in 1805 many of the Major Cootes, who was outside the
sepoys’ families were in dire economic straits. Fort, informed Colonel Gillespie, the
The most opportune situation come with the cavalry commandant in Arcot. Gillespie
Vellore Fort

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reached the fort along with a squadron of chief Sir John Cradock, the Adjutant General
cavalry under the command of Captain Agnew and Governor William Bentinck were
Young at 9.00 am. In the meantime, the held responsible for the revolt, removed
rebels proclaimed Fateh Hyder, Tipu’s from their office, and recalled to England.
eldest son, as their new ruler and hoisted The military regulations were treated as
the tiger flag of Mysore sultans in the withdrawn.
Fort. But the uprising was swiftly crushed (d) Estimate of Revolt
by Col. Gillespie, who threw to winds all
war ethics. In the course of suppression, The Vellore Revolt failed because
according to an eyewitness account, eight there was no immediate help from outside.
hundred soldiers were found dead in the Recent studies show that the organising
fort alone. Six hundred soldiers were kept part of the revolt was done perfectly by
in confinement in Tiruchirappalli and Subedars Sheik Adam and Sheik Hamid and
Vellore awaiting Inquiry. Jamedar Sheik Hussain of the 2 nd battalion
of 23 rd regiment and two Subedars and the
(c ) Consequences of Revolt Jamedar Sheik Kasim of the 1st battalion of
Six of the rebels convicted by the Court the 1st regiment. Vellore Revolt had all the
of Enquiry were blown from the guns; five forebodings of the Great Rebellion of 1857.
were shot dead; eight hanged. Tipu’s sons The only difference was that there was no
were ordered to be sent to Calcutta. The civil rebellion following the mutiny. The
officers and men engaged in the suppression 1806 revolt was not confined to Vellore
of the revolt were rewarded with prize money Fort. It had its echoes in Bellary, Walajabad,
and promotion. Col. Gillespie was given Hyderabad, Bengaluru, Nandydurg, and
7,000 pagodas. However, the commander–in- Sankaridurg.
SUMMARY
The Palayakarar system is explained.

Prominent Palayakkarars of Tamil country and their resistance to the rule of East India Company

are discussed.
The wars waged by Puli Thevar, Velunachiyar, Veerapandya Kattabomman, followed by Marudhu

brothers of Sivagangai and Dheeran Chinnamalai against the British are elaborated.
The reasons for the Vellore Revolt and the ruthless manner in which it was suppressed by Gillespie

are detailed.

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Unit - 9
Freedom Struggle
in Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with:
Anti-colonial struggles in Tamil Nadu
Contribution of Christian missionaries to the development of education
and amelioration of the depressed classes
Challenge of the Justicites to the Congress in Tamil Nadu
Militant mass movement of the Congress in Tamil Nadu
Introduction Early Nationalist

9.1
Stirrings in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu showed the lead in resisting
colonial rule. As early as the late eighteenth By the middle of the nineteenth century
century the Palayakarars, resisted the a group of educated middle class emerged in
English attempts to establish their political Madras and began to show interest in public
hegemony in Tamil Nadu. Even after the affairs. As in other parts of India, they formed
political associations, such as the Madras
defeat of the Palayakarars, an uprising was
Native Association and the Madras Mahajana
organised by Indian sepoys and officers in
Sabha to articulate their grievances.
Vellore Fort in 1806 that had its echoes in
several cantonments in south India. Thanks
(a) Madras Native Association
to the introduction of Western education
and eventual emergence of educated Indian The Madras Native Association (MNA)
was the earliest organisation to be founded in
middle class, the struggle against the British
south India to articulate larger public rather
took the constitutional path. The freedom
than sectarian interests. It was started by
struggle in Tamil Nadu was unique, because
Gazulu Lakshminarasu, Srinivasanar and their
from the beginning it was not only a struggle associates in 1852. It consisted primarily of
for independence from the English rule but merchants. The objective was to promote the
also a struggle for independence from social interests of its members and their focus was on
disability imposed by the obnoxious caste reduction in taxation. It also protested against
system. In this lesson we shall study the role the support of the government to Christian
played by nationalists wedded to diverse missionary activities. It drew the attention of
ideologies in Tamil Nadu. the government to the condition and needs
55

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of the people. One of the (c) Madras Mahajana Sabha

important contributions
Madras Mahajana Sabha (MMS) was
of the MNA was its
the earliest organisation in south India with
agitation against torture
clear nationalist objectives. It was the training
of the peasants by revenue
ground for the first generation of nationalist
officials. These efforts led
leaders. On 16 May 1884 MMS was started
to the establishment of the
by M. Veeraraghavachari, P. Anandacharlu,
Torture Commission and
Gazalu P. Rangaiah and few others. P. Rangaiah became
the eventual abolition of the
Lakshminarasu its first president. P. Anandacharlu played
Torture Act, which justified
an active role as its secretary. The members
the collection of land revenue through
met periodically, debated public issues in
torture. However, by 1862, the Madras Native
closed meetings, conducted hall meetings and
Association had ceased to exist.
communicated their views to the government.
(b) Beginnings of the The objective of MMS was to create a consensus
Nationalist Press: The Hindu among people of different parts of the
and Swadesamitran Presidency on various issues of public interest
and to present it to the government. Its demands
included conduct of simultaneous civil services
examinations in England and India, abolition
of the Council of India in London, reduction
of taxes and reduction of civil and military
expenditure. Many of its demands were adopted
later by the Indian National Congress founded
in 1885.
T. Muthuswami G. Subramaniam
(d) Moderate Phase
The appointment of T. Muthuswami as
Provincial associations such as the Madras
the first Indian Judge of the Madras High
Mahajana Sabha led to the formation of an
Court in 1877 created a furore in Madras
all-India organisation, the Indian National
Presidency. The entire press in Madras
Congress Leaders from different parts of India
criticized the appointment of an Indian as a
attended several meetings before the formation
Judge. The press opposed his appointment
of the Congress. One such meeting was held
and the educated youth realized that the
in December 1884 in Theosophical Society. It
press was entirely owned by Europeans. The
was attended by Dadabhai Naoroji, K.T. Telang,
need for a newspaper to express the Indian
Surendranath Banerjee and other prominent
perspective was keenly felt. G. Subramaniam,
leaders apart from G. Subramaniam, Rangaiah
M. Veeraraghavachari and four other friends
and Anandacharlu from Madras.
together started a newspaper The Hindu in
1878. It soon became the vehicle of nationalist
propaganda. G. Subramaniam also started a
Tamil nationalist periodical Swadesamitran
in 1891 which became a daily in 1899. The
founding of The Hindu and Swadesamitran
provided encouragement to the starting
of other native newspapers such as Indian
Patriot, South Indian Mail, Madras Standard,
Desabhimani, Vijaya, Suryodayam and India.
Dadabhai Naoroji Gokhale
Freedom Struggle in Tamil Nadu 56

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Prominent Nationalists of Tamil

Nadu in the Moderate phase
The early nationalists believed
in constitutional methods. Their
activities consisted of conducting
hall meetings and deliberating the
problems of the country in English.
V.S. Srinivasa Sastri P.S. Sivasamy G.A. Natesan
These views were communicated
to the government in a language couched in a liberal discourse in the form of petitions, prayers,
memoranda, and as evidence in various government commissions of enquiry. When, at the time of
Partition of Bengal, Tilak and other leaders adopted popular methods such as mass public meetings,
and used vernacular languages to address the larger public, the early nationalists came to be known
as moderates. The distinguished Tamil Moderates from Madras: V.S. Srinivasa Sastri, P.S. Sivasamy,
V. Krishnasamy, T.R. Venkatramanar, G.A. Natesan, T.M. Madhava Rao, and S. Subramaniar. The
primary contribution of moderates lies in exposing the liberal claims of the British: they exposed
how the British exploited India and their hypocrisy in following democratic principles in England
and imposing an unrepresentative government in the colonies.
The first session of the Indian National 9.2 Swadeshi Movement

Congress was held in 1885 at Bombay. Out of
The partition of Bengal (1905) led to
a total of 72 delegates 22 members were from
the Swadeshi Movement and changed the
Madras. G. Subramaniam through his
course of the struggle for freedom. In various
writings advanced the cause of nationalism.
parts of India, especially Bengal, Punjab and
He ranks with Naoroji and Gokhale for his
Maharashtra popular leaders emerged. They
contribution to the understanding of the
implemented the programme of the Calcutta
economic exploitation of India by the British.
Congress which called upon the nation to
The second session promote Swadeshi enterprise, boycott foreign
of the Indian National goods and promote national education. The
Congress was held in Swadeshi movement made a deep impact in
Calcutta in 1886, with Tamil Nadu. The Congress carried on a vigorous
Dadabhai Naoroji in the campaign for boycott of foreign goods.
Chair. The third session
was held at Makkis (a) Response in Tamilnadu
Garden, now known as Badruddin Tyabji V.O. Chidambaranar, V. Chakkaraiyar,
the Thousand lights, in Madras in 1887 with Subramania Bharati and Surendranath
Badruddin Tyabji as president. Out of the 607 Arya were some of the prominent leaders
all India delegates of 362 were from Madras in Tamilnadu. Public meetings attended by
Presidency. thousands of people were
organised in various
parts of Tamilnadu.
Tamil Nadu was then part of the Madras Tamil was used on the
Presidency which included large parts of the public platform for the
present-day states of Andhra Pradesh (Coastal first time to mobilise
districts and Rayalaseema), Karnataka the people. Subaramania
(Bengaluru, Bellary, South Canara), Kerala Bharati’s patriotic songs
(Malabar) and even Odisha (Ganjam). were especially important V.O. Chidambaranar
57 Freedom Struggle in Tamil Nadu

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in stirring patriotic emotions. Many journals of four people in police firing. V.O.C. was treated
were started to propagate Swadeshi ideals. harshly in prison and was made to pull the heavy
Swadesamitran and India were prominent oil press. Others to be arrested included G.
journals. The extremist leader Bipin Chandra Subramaniam and Ethiraj Surendranath Arya.
Pal toured Madras and delivered lectures To avoid imprisonment Subramania Bharati
which inspired the youth. Students and youth moved to Pondicherry which was under French
participated widely in the Swadeshi Movement. rule. Bharati’s example was followed by many
other nationalists such as Aurobindo Ghosh and
Swadeshi Steam Navigation V. V. Subramanianar. The brutal crackdown on
Company Swadeshi leaders virtually brought the Swadeshi
One of the most Movement to a close in Tamil Nadu.
enterprising acts in pursuance
of swadeshi was the launching of (b) Revolutionary Activities in
the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Tamil Nadu
Company at Thoothukudi As elsewhere the Swadeshi movement
by V.O. Chidambaranar. He inspired the youth. Left leaderless, they turned
purchased two ships Gallia to the revolutionary path. Pondicherry provided
and Lavo and plied them between Thoothukudi a safe haven for the revolutionaries. Many of
and Colombo. However, due to cutthroat these revolutionaries in Tamil Nadu were
competition from the European company introduced and trained in revolutionary
and the blatantly partisan role played by the activities at India House in London and in Paris.
government, V.O.C’s efforts ended in failure. M.P.T. Acharya, V.V. Subramanianar and T.S.S.
Rajan were prominent among them.
Tirunelveli Uprising Revolutionary literature was distributed by
them in Madras through Pondicherry. Radical
papers such as India, Vijaya and Suryodayam
came out of Pondicherry. Such revolutionary
papers and Bharati’s poems were banned as
seditious literature. These activities in
Pondicherry intensified with the arrival of
Aurobindo Ghosh and V.V. Subramanianar in
1910. These activities continued till the outbreak
Bipin Chandra Pal Bharati of the First World War.
V.O.C joined with Subramania Siva in
organising the mill workers in Thoothukudi
and Tirunelveli. In 1908, he led a strike in the
European-owned Coral Mills. It coincided with
the release of Bipin Chandra Pal. V.O.C and
Subramania Siva, who organised a public meeting
to celebrate the release of Bipin, were arrested.
The two leaders were charged with sedition V.V. Subramanianar Aurobindo Gosh
and sentenced to rigorous imprisonment.
Initially V.O.C. was given a draconian sentence Ashe Murder
of two life imprisonments. The news of the In 1904 Nilakanta Brahmachari and
arrest sparked riots in Tirunelveli leading to others started Bharata Matha Society, a secret
the burning down of the police station, court society. The objective was to kill British officials
building and municipal office. It led to the death and thereby kindle patriotic fervour among

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the people. Vanchinathan of Senkottai, was the working classes by forming trade unions.
influenced by this organisation. On 17 June 1911 Not only did they succeed in improving their
he shot dead Robert W.D’E. Ashe, Collector of working conditions, they made them part of the
Tirunelveli in Maniyachi Junction. After this he struggle for freedom. However, with the rise of
shot himself. Divorced from the people these Gandhi as a national leader Annie Besant and
young revolutionaries, despite their patriotism, the Home Rule Leagues were eclipsed.
failed to inspire and mobilize the people.
Non-Brahmin
(c) Annie Besant and the Home
9.3 Movement and the
Rule Movement
Challenge to Congress
While the extremists and revolutionaries
were suppressed with an iron hand, the In the meanwhile, there was rapid growth
in education in the Madras Presidency. There
moderates hoped for some constitutional
was an increase in the number of educated non-
reforms. However, they were disappointed with
Brahmins. Intense political and social activity
the Minto-Morley reforms as it did not provide
discussed above politicised the educated
for responsible government. Despite this the
non-Brahmins. They raised the issue of caste
Congress extended support to the British war
discrimination and unequal opportunities in
effort in the hope of getting more reforms.
government employment and representation
Thus when the national movement was in in elected bodies, which were dominated by
its ebb, Annie Besant, an Irish lady and leader of Brahmins. Further, the Congress was also
the Theosophical Society, proposed the Home overwhelmingly composed of Brahmins.
Rule Movement on the model of Irish Home
Rule League. She started Home Rule League (a) The South Indian Liberal
in 1916 and carried forward the demand for Federation
home rule all over India. G.S. Arundale, B.P. The non-Brahmins organised themselves
Wadia and C.P. Ramaswamy assisted her in into political organisations to protect their
this campaign. They demanded home rule with interests. In 1912 the Madras Dravidian
only a nominal allegiance to British Crown. Association was founded. C. Natesanar played
She started the newspapers New India and an active role as its secretary. In June 1916 he
Commonweal to carry forward her agenda. She established the Dravidian Association Hostel for
remarked, “Better bullock carts and freedom non-Brahmin students. He also played a key role
than a train deluxe with subjection”. Under the in bridging the differences between two leading
Press Act of 1910 Annie Besant was asked to pay non-Brahmin leaders of the time, Dr. T.M. Nair
hefty amount as security. She wrote two books, and P. Thyagarayar. Both of them were earlier
How India wrought for Freedom and India: A part of the Congress and were disillusioned
Nation and a pamphlet on self-government. by how non-Brahmins were sidelined in the
organisation. On 20 November 1916 a meeting
Students joined the movement in large
of about thirty non-Brahmins was held under
numbers who were trained in Home Rule
the leadership of P. Thyagarayar, Dr. T.M. Nair
classes. They were formed into boy scouts and
and C. Natesanar at Victoria Public Hall in
volunteer troops. Annie Besant and her co-
Chennai. The South Indian Liberal Federation
workers were interned and prohibited from
(SILF) was founded to promote the interests of
making public speeches or involve in any
the non-Brahmins. They also launched three
political activity. Annie Besant was elected
newspapers: Justice in English, Dravidian in
the President of the Congress session of 1917.
Tamil and Andhra Prakasika in Telugu. Soon
Members of the Home Rule Movement such
the SILF began to be popularly known as Justice
as B.P. Wadia played a key role in organising

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Party after its English daily. The Justice Party later became the Public Service Commission,
also held several conferences throughout the enactment of Hindu Religious Endowment
Presidency to set up branches. Act and Madras State Aid to Industries Act,
Demand for Reservation abolition of devadasi system, allotment of
poromboke lands (waste government lands) to
The Non-Brahmin Manifesto was released
the poor for housing and extension of primary
outlining its objectives viz., reservation of
education to the depressed classes through fee
jobs for non-Brahmins in government service,
concessions, scholarships and mid-day meals.
and seats in representative bodies. It opposed
the Home Rule Movement as a movement of (b) Government’s Repressive
Brahmins and feared that Home Rule might Measures: Rowlatt Act
give them more power. It also criticised Given the important contribution of
the Congress as a party of the Brahmins. India (especially the soldiers who fought in
Montagu’s announcement of political reforms far-off lands in the cause of Empire) in World
in the Parliament in 1917 intensified political War I Indians expected more reforms from
discussions in Tamil Nadu. The Justice Party Britain. However, a draconian Anarchical and
demanded communal representation (i.e. Revolutionary Crimes Act, popularly known
representation for various communities in as the Rowlatt Act, after the name of Sir Sidney
society). The Madras Government was also Rowlatt, who headed the committee that
supportive of the Justice Party as the latter recommended it was passed in 1919. Under the
believed that English rule was conducive for Act anyone could be imprisoned on charges of
the development of the non-Brahmins. The terrorism without due judicial process. Indians
Act of 1919 provided reservation of seats were aghast at this. Gandhi gave voice to the
to non-Brahmins, a move criticised by the anger of the people and adopted the Satyagraha
Congress but welcomed by the Justice Party. method that he had used in South Africa.
Justice Ministry Rowlatt Satyagraha
On 18 March 1919
Gandhi addressed a
meeting on Marina Beach.
On 6 April 1919 hartal
was organised to protest
against the “Black Act”.
Protest demonstrations
were held at several parts of
Tamil Nadu. Processions
A Subbarayalu Raja of Panagal from many areas of the S. Satyamurty
The Congress boycotted the elections city converged in the
of 1920. The Justice Party won 63 of 98 Marina beach where there was a large gathering.
elected seats in the Legislative Council. They devoted the whole day to fasting and
A. Subburayalu of the Justice Party became the prayer in the Marina beach. Madras Satyagraha
first chief minister. After the 1923 elections, Sabha was formed. Rajaji, Kasturirangar,
Raja of Panagal of the Justice Party formed the S. Satyamurty and George Joseph addressed the
ministry. The Justice Party introduced various meeting. A separate meeting of workers was
measures for the benefit of non-Brahmins. addressed by V. Kalyanasundaram (Thiru. V. Ka)
They were reservation of appointments in B.P. Wadia and V.O.C. An important aspect of the
local bodies and education institutions, movement was that the working classes, students
establishment of Staff Selection Board which and women took part in large numbers.

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George Joseph branch of the Muslim

League. As a result, the
George Joseph, a Hindus and the Muslims
barrister and eloquent cooperated closely during
speaker, played a leading the course of the movement
role in organising and in Tamil Nadu. A Congress
publicising the cause of volunteer corps was set up Yakub Hasan
Home Rule League in to distribute pamphlets,
Madurai. Though born carry flags during processions and to maintain
in Chengannur (Alappuzha district, Kerala order in the meetings. They also played an
State), he chose to settle down in Madurai important part in picketing of liquor shops.
and practice as a people’s lawyer. In the course
of his long public life, he led the Vaikkom (a) No Tax Campaigns and
Satyagraha in Kerala, as he viewed it as an Temperance Movement
issue of civil rights for all citizens of India. As part of the non-cooperation movement,
He championed the cause of the “Criminal in many places, cultivators refused to pay taxes.
Tribes” of Tamilnadu. He was fondly called A no-tax campaign took place in Thanjavur.
“Rosaappu Durai” by the people of Madurai Councils, schools and courts were boycotted.
for the services he rendered to the affected Foreign goods were boycotted. There were
communities. He helped the Harvey Mill a number of workers’ strikes all over region,
workers of Madurai to set up Madurai Labour many of them led by nationalist leaders. One
Union (1918). The Union's initial struggles of the important aspects of the movement in
resulted in higher wages and reduced work Tamil Nadu was the temperance movement or
hours for the mill workers. movement against liquor. Toddy shops were
picketed. Demonstrations and hartals were
(c) Khilafat Movement
organised in all parts of the Presidency. There
Following the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre were also agitations by communities against the
General Dyer who was responsible for it was Criminal Tribes Act. In November 1921 it was
not only acquitted of all charges but rewarded. decided to organise civil disobedience. Rajaji,
After the First World War the Caliph of Turkey Subramania Sastri and EVR were arrested. The
was humiliated and deprived of all powers. visit of Prince of Wales on 13 January 1922 was
To restore the Caliph the Khilafat Movement boycotted. In the police repression two were
was started. Muslims who had largely kept killed and many injured. The Non-Cooperation
from the nationalist movement now joined it Movement was withdrawn in 1922 after the
in huge numbers. In Tamil Nadu Khilafat Day Chauri Chaura incident in which 22 policemen
was observed on 17 April 1920, with a meeting were killed.
presided over by Maulana Shaukat Ali. Another
such conference was held at Erode. Vaniyambadi (b) E.V.R. and the Constructive
was as the epicenter of Khilafat agitation. Programme
Non-Cooperation E.V.R. played an important role in Tamil
9.4 Nadu during this period. He campaigned
Movement
vigorously for the promotion and sale of khadi.
Tamil Nadu was active during the In his opposition to consumption of liquor he
Non-cooperation Movement. C. Rajaji and cut down an entire coconut grove owned by him.
E.V. Ramaswamy (EVR, later known as Periyar) He also played a key role in the satyagraha for
provided the leadership. Rajaji worked closely temple entry in Vaikom, then under Travancore.
with Yakub Hasan, founder of the Madras It was a time when the depressed classes were

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not even permitted to walk on the streets around (c) Swarajists–Justicites Rivalry
the temple or come within a certain distance
Following the withdrawal of the Non-
of the upper castes. After the major leaders of
Cooperation Movement, the Congress was
Kerala were arrested, EVR went to Vaikom and
divided between ‘no-changers’ who wanted to
galvanised the movement. He was arrested and
continue the boycott of the councils and ‘pro-
sentenced to one-month imprisonment. He
changers who wanted to contest the elections
refused to leave Vaikom even after his release.
for the councils. Rajaji along with other staunch
He was arrested again for making inspiring
Gandhian followers opposed the council entry.
speeches and was sentenced to six months
Along with Kasturirangar and M.A. Ansari,
rigorous imprisonment. When he returned to
Rajaji advocated the boycott of the councils.
Erode after his release he was arrested for his
Opposition to this led to the formation of
speeches to promote khadi. In June 1925, the
the Swaraj Party within the Congress by
ban on the roads around the temple in Vaikom
Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru. In Tamil
was lifted. For his contribution against caste
Nadu the Swarajists were led by S. Srinivasanar
discrimination and temple entry agitation in
and S. Satyamurti.
Vaikom, Periyar was hailed as ‘Vaikom Hero’.
(d) Subbarayan Ministry
Cheranmadevi Gurukulam
In the elections held
Controversy
in 1926, the Swarajists won
However, by this time E.V.R. had become the majority of the elected
increasingly dissatisfied with the Congress. seats. However, it did not
He felt it was promoting the interests of accept office in accordance
the Brahmins alone. The Cheranmadevi with the Congress policy.
Gurukulam controversy and opposition Instead they supported an
to communal representation within the independent, P. Subbarayan P. Subbarayan
Congress led E.V.R. to leave the Congress. to form the ministry. The
To further the cause of national education, a
gurukulam was established in Cheranmadevi by Agitation for Removal of Neill Statue (1927)
V.V. Subramanianar. It received funds from the James Neill of the Madras Fusiliers
Congress. However, students were discriminated (infantry men with firearms) was brutal
on the basis of caste. Brahmin and Non-Brahmin in wreaking vengeance at Kanpur
students were made to dine separately and the (‘the Cawnpur massacre’, as it was called)
food served too was different. The issue was in which many English women and children
brought to the notice of E.V.R. who questioned were killed in the Great Rebellion of 1857.
the practice and severely criticised it along with Neill was later killed by an Indian sepoy.
another leader, Dr P. Varadarajulu. A statue was erected for him at Mount Road,
Madras. Nationalists saw this as an insult to
In the Kanchipuram Conference of Indian sentiments, and organised a series of
the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee held demonstrations in Madras. Protesters came
on 21 November 1925, he raised the issue from all over the Madras Presidency and
of representation for non-Brahmins in the were led by S. N. Somayajulu of Tirunelveli.
legislature. His efforts to achieve this since 1920 Many were arrested and sentenced to prison.
had met with failure. When the resolution was Gandhi, who visited Madras during the same
defeated, he left the Conference along with time, gave his support to the agitation. The
other non-Brahmin leaders who met separately. statue was finally moved to Madras Museum
Soon E.V.R. left the Congress and started the when Congress Ministry, led by C. Rajaji,
Self Respect Movement. formed the government in 1937.

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Swarajists did not contest the 1930 elections on 12 March 1930. The Civil Disobedience
leading to an easy victory for the Justice Party. Movement was a mass movement with the
The Justice Party remained in office till 1937. participation of students, shopkeepers,
workers, women, etc. Demonstrations,
(e) Simon Commission Boycott
hartals, staging of swadeshi dramas and songs
In 1927 a statutory commission was were the order the day in both rural and
constituted under Sir John Simon to review urban areas. Tamil Nadu was in the forefront
the Act of 1919 and to suggest reforms. of the Civil Disobedience Movement. In
However, to the great disappointment of the city of Madras, shops were picketed and
Indians, it was an all-white commission foreign goods boycotted. Rajaji organised and
with not a single Indian member. So the led a salt satyagraha march to Vedaranyam.
Congress boycotted the Simon Commission. The march started from Tiruchirappalli on
In Madras, the Simon Boycott Propaganda 13 April 1930 and reached Vedaranyam in
Committee was set up with S. Satyamurti Thanjavur district on 28 April. A special song
as the president. There was widespread was composed for the march by Namakkal
campaign among the students, shopkeepers, V. Ramalinganar with the lines, “A War is
lawyers and commuters in train to boycott. ahead sans sword, sans bloodshed…Join
The arrival of Simon Commission in Madras this march.” Despite a brutal crackdown by
on 18 February 1929 was greeted with the police, the marching satyagrahis were
demonstrations and hartals. Black flags were provided a warm reception along the route.
waved against the Commission. The police On reaching Vedaranyam 12 volunteers
used force to suppress the protest. under the leadership of Rajaji broke the salt
law by picking up salt. Rajaji was arrested.
Civil Disobedience T.S.S.
Rajan, Rukmani Lakshmipathi,
9.5 Sardar Vedarathnam, C. Swaminathar and
Movement
K. Santhanam were among the prominent
(a) Towards Poorna Swaraj leaders who participated in the Vedaranyam
Salt Satyagraha.
In the 1920s, Congress with Gandhi in
leadership, was transforming into a broad-
based movement in Tamil Nadu. The Madras
session of the Indian National Congress in
1927 declared complete independence as its
goal. It appointed a committee under Motilal
Nehru to frame the constitutional reforms in
opposition to the Simon Commission. In the
1929 Lahore session of the Congress, Poorna
Swaraj (complete independence) was adopted
as the goal and on 26 January 1930 the national
flag was hoisted by Jawaharlal Nehru on
the banks of river Ravi as the declaration of Vedaranyam Salt March Memorial
independence.
(c) Widespread Agitations
(b) Salt March to Vedaranyam in Tamil Districts
When the Viceroy did not accept the The satyagrahis under the leadership of
demands put forward by Gandhi, he launched T. Prakasam and K. Nageswara Rao set up a
the Civil Disobedience Movement by setting camp at Udayavanam near Madras. However,
out on a Salt Satyagraha with a march to Dandi the police arrested them. It led to a hartal in

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Madras. The clashes with Justice Party was trounced. Congress victory in
the police in Tiruvallikeni the elections clearly indicated its popularity
which lasted for three with the people.
hours on 27 April 1930 Rajaji formed the first
left three dead. Volunteers Congress Ministry. He
who attempted to offer salt introduced prohibition
Satyagraha in Rameswaram on an experimental basis
were arrested. Similar in Salem. To compensate
Rukmani
attempts at Uvari, Anjengo, Lakshmipathi for the loss of revenue he
Veppalodai, Thoothukudi introduced a sales tax.
and Tharuvaikulam were stopped. Mill On the social question,
workers struck work across the province. C. Rajaji
he opened temples to
Woman participated enthusiastically. Rukmani the ‘untouchables’. Efforts of T. Prakasam
Lakshmipathi was the first woman to pay penalty led to the appointment of a committee to
for violation of salt laws. Police used brutal enquire into the condition of the tenants in
force to suppress the movement. Bhashyam, the Zamindari areas. However, excepting
popularly known as Arya, hoisted the national debt conciliation boards to reduce rural
flag atop Fort St. George on 26 January 1932. indebtedness, no other measure was adopted.
Satyamurti actively picketed shops selling When the British involved India in the Second
foreign clothes, organised processions and World War without consulting the elected
distributed pamphlets. N.M.R.Subbaraman Congress ministries, the latter resigned.
and K. Kamaraj also played an important role.
Martyrdom of Tirupur Kumaran A temple entry programme with

“harijans” in Madurai Meenakshiamman
On 11 January 1932 temple was organised (9 July 1939) by
a procession carrying Vaidyanathar, L.N. Gopalsamy, President
national flags and singing and Secretary of Madurai Harijana Sevak
patriotic songs was Sangh respectively. The Temple Entry
brutally beaten by the Authorisation and Indemnity Act, 1939 for
police in Tirupur. O.K.S.R. the removal of the civil and social disabilities
Kumaraswamy, popularly against the “depressed classes” was passed.
Tirupur Kumaran, fell
dead holding the national Tirupur Kumaran (e) Anti-Hindi Agitation
flag aloft. He is hailed as One of the controversial measures of Rajaji
Kodikatha Kumaran. Thus, civil disobedience was the introduction of Hindi as a compulsory
movement was one of the largest mass subject in schools. This was considered to be
movements in Tamil Nadu with participation a form of Aryan and North Indian imposition
of people from all sections of the society. detrimental to Tamil language and culture,
and therefore caused much public resentment.
(d) First Congress Ministry
E.V.R. led a massive campaign against it.
The Government of India Act of 1935 He organised an anti-Hindi Conference at
introduced Provincial Autonomy. The Council Salem. It formulated a definite programme
of Ministers, responsible to the legislature, of action. The Scheduled Castes Federation
administered the provincial subjects. However, and the Muslim League extended its support
the Governor was empowered to disregard the to the anti-Hindi agitation. Natarajan and
advice of the elected government. In the 1937 Thalamuthu, two of the enthusiastic agitators
election the Congress emerged victorious. The died in prison. A rally was organised from

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Tiruchirappalli to Madras. More than 1200 there were many instances of violence such as
protestors including E.V.R. were arrested. setting fire to post offices, cutting of telegraph
After the resignation of the Congress Ministry, lines and disrupting railway traffic.
the Governor of Madras who took over the Undying Mass Movement
reigns of administration removed Hindi as
All sections of the society participated
compulsory subject.
in the movement. There were a large
9.6 Quit India Struggle number of workers strike such as strikes in
Failure of the Cripps Buckingham and Carnatic Mills, Madras Port
Mission, war time Trust, Madras Corporation and the Electric
shortages and price rise Tramway. Telegraph and telephone lines were
created much discontent cut and public building burnt at Vellore and
among the people. On 8 Panapakkam. Students of various colleges
August 1942 the Quit India took active part in the protests. The airport
resolution was passed and in Sulur was attacked and trains derailed in
Gandhi gave the slogan Coimbatore. Congress volunteers clashed
‘Do or Die’. The entire K. Kamaraj with the military in Madurai. There were
Congress leadership was arrested overnight. police firings at Rajapalayam, Karaikudi and
K. Kamaraj while returning from Bombay Devakottai. Many young men and women also
noticed that at every railway station the police joined the INA. The Quit India Movement
waited with a list of local leaders and arrested was suppressed with brutal force.
them as they got down. Kamaraj gave the police The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny, the
the slip and got down at Arakkonam itself. negotiations initiated by the newly formed
He then worked underground and organised Labour Party Government in England
people during the Quit India Movement. Rajaji resulting in India’s independence but sadly
and Satyamurti were arrested together when with partition of the country into India and
they went about distributing pamphlets. The Pakistan has formed part of the Lesson in
movement was widespread in Tamilnadu and Unit VIII.
SUMMARY
Contributions of Madras Native Association, Madras Mahajana Sabha and the nationalist
press to the growth of nationalism in Tamil Nadu are discussed.
Swadeshi phase of the Indian National Movement in Tamil Nadu, with focus on role played
by V.O.C., Subramania Siva, Subramania Bharathi, is detailed.
Non-Brahmin Movement throwing up challenges to nationalist politics during Dyarchy is
highlighted.
Non-cooperation Movement, E.V.R.’s differences with the Congress,the birth of Swaraj Party
at the national level and the Self-Respect Movement in the Tamil region are examined.
Tamil Nadu’s participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement organised to protest the
disappointment over Simon Commission and the Round Table Conferences are dealt with.
The elections under Government of India Act, 1935 and the formation of first Congress
Ministry in Madras under Rajaji are outlined.
Resignation of Congress Ministries following the outbreak of World War II, Quit India
Movement and Tamil participation in it are described.

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Unit - 10
Social
Transformation
in Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge about the social transformation of modern
Tamil Nadu
To know the different social reform movements in Tamil Nadu
To understand the ideas of the social reformers
to counter the cultural hegemony of Europe.

Introduction
It resulted in the social and religious reform
Europeans established their political power movements in modern India. This particular
over Indian subcontinent in the latter half of the historical development is also identified as the
eighteenth century. While they were concerned Indian renaissance.
with annexing India, by the beginning of
Renaissance is an ideological and cultural
the nineteenth century they were reordering
phenomenon. It is closely tied to modernity,
Indian society. New revenue settlements were
rationalism and the progressive movement of
made. Influenced by British Utilitarian ideas
the society. Critical thinking is at its root. A new
and evangelicals they also tried to impose their
philosophical tradition centring around human
cultural superiority over the Indian people.
rationality and equality is its characteristic. The
Indigenous traditions were treated as primitive.
basic inspiration of renaissance is humanism
Indian society was portrayed as conservative
and questioning the fundamentalist religious
where human beings were discriminated on the
practices that denied humans their dignity.
basis of caste, gender, language and creed.
This ideology of humanism stimulated creative
This caused a reaction among the Indians. energy in all spheres of social life and knowledge
During the nineteenth century, educated such as language, literature, philosophy, music,
Indians from different parts of the country painting, architecture, etc.
began to feel the humiliation and responded by
seeking their socio-cultural identity from their 10.1 Tamil Renaissance
past. However, they understood some merits
in the colonial arguments and were ready to The cultural hegemony of colonialism
reform. Raja Rammohan Roy was among the and the rise of humanism brought several
pioneers in this process. Roy and many like him changes in the socio-cultural life of the
came to be known as social reformers. They Indian subcontinent. Modern Tamil Nadu too
were preparing a social and cultural sphere experienced such a historical transition. Tamil
69
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language and culture played a significant role in a student of Meenakshisundaranar, took

their identity construction. The introduction of efforts to publish the classical texts such as
printing press, linguistic research on Dravidian Civakachinthamani (1887), Paththupattu
languages, etc... underpinned the process of (1889), Chilapathikaram (1892), Purananuru
Tamil renaissance. Although religious literature (1894), Purapporul-Venpa-Malai (1895),
was taken up predominantly for publication Manimekalai (1898), Ainkurunuru (1903) and
in the early years after the advent of printing Pathitrupathu(1904). This provided the Tamil
technology, things began to change gradually. people with a revelation about their heritage.
Works that can be described as secular were Therefore, the rediscovery of ancient classics and
taken up for publishing. their publication is considered the foundation
of Tamil renaissance.
Advent of the Printing
Technology The publication of these ancient literary
texts created an awareness among the Tamil
Tamil was the first non- people about their historical tradition, language,
European language that literature and religion. Modern Tamils founded
went into print. As early their social and cultural identity on the ancient
as in 1578, Tamil book, Tamil classics, collectively called the Sangam
ThambiranVanakkam, was literature. Linguists, historians and Tamil
published from Goa. In scholars recognised the uniqueness of Tamil
1709, a full-fledged printing culture, which had a separate and independent
press had been established Ziegenbalg cultural existence before the coming of the
thanks to Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar. Thirukkural Aryans into the Tamil land.
was one of the earliest Tamil literary texts to be
published in 1812. This led the resurgence of In 1816, F.W. Ellis
interest among Tamil scholars in publishing the (1777–1819) who founded
more ancient Tamil classics around that period. the College of Fort St George,
formulated the theory that
the south Indian languages
belonged to a separate family
which was unrelated to the
Indo-Aryan family of
languages. Robert Caldwell
Robert Caldwell
(1814–1891) expanded this
argument in a book titled, A Comparative
Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian
Family of Languages, in 1856. He established the
C.W. Damotharanar U.V. Swaminathar close affinity between the Dravidian languages
in contrast with Sanskrit and also established
In the nineteenth century, Tamil scholars
the antiquity of Tamil.
like C.W. Damotharanar (1832–1901), and
U.V. Swaminathar (1855–1942) spent their Tamil intellectuals of
lifetime in the rediscovery of the Tamil classics. this period identified the
C. W. Damotharanar collected and edited fundamental differences
different palm-leaf manuscripts of the Tamil between Tamil/Dravidian/
grammar and literature. His editions included Egalitarian and Sanskrit/
such texts as Tolkappiyam, Viracholiyam, Aryan/Brahmanism. They
Iraiyanar-Akapporul, IlakkanaVilakkam, argued that Tamil was a
Kaliththokai and Culamani. U.V. Swaminathar, language of Dravidian
P. Sundaranar
Social Transformation in Tamil Nadu 70
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people, who are non-Brahmin and their V.G. Suryanarayana Sastri

social life was casteless, gender-sensitised and (Parithimar Kalaignar)
egalitarian. Tamil renaissance contributed
V.G. Suryanarayana
to the origin and growth of Dravidian
Sastri (1870-1903),
consciousness in the Tamil country. These
born near Madurai, was
ideas are exemplified in the Tamil invocation
professor of Tamil at the
song in the play, Manonmaniam written by P.
Madras Christian College.
Sundaranar (1855–1897).
He was one of the earliest
scholars to identify the
influence of Sanskrit
on Tamil, and adopted Parithimar Kalignar
a pure Tamil name for himself: Parithimar
Kalignar. He was the first to argue that Tamil
is a classical language, and demanded that the
University of Madras should not call Tamil a
vernacular language. Influenced by Western
Thiru. Vi. Ka Bharatidasan literary models, he introduced the sonnet form
Tamil renaissance questioned the in Tamil. He also wrote novels and plays, and a
cultural hegemony of Brahminism. These number of essays on science. Tragically, he died
developments were reflected in art, literature, at the young age of only 33.
religion, etc. Ramalinga Adigal (1823–1874), Maraimalai Adigal
popularly known as Vallalar, questioned Maraimalai
the existing Hindu religious orthodoxy. Adigal (1876–1950) is
Abraham Pandithar (1859–1919) gave considered the father of
prominence to Tamil music and published Tamil linguistic purism
books on the history of Tamil music. C.W. and the founder of Tani
Damotharanar, U.V. Swaminathar, Thiru Vi. Tamil Iyakkam (Pure
Kaliyanasundaram (1883–1953), Parithimar Tamil Movement). He
Kalaignar (1870-1903), Maraimalai Adigal wrote commentaries
(1876–1950), Subramania Bharathi (1882– on the Sangam texts, Maraimalai Adigal
1921), S. Vaiyapuri (1891–1956), and the Pattinappalai and
poet Bharatidasan (1891–1964), in their own Mullaipattu. As a young man, he worked in a
ways and through their writings, contributed journal, Siddhanta Deepika. Later he served as a
to the revival of Tamil literature. Meanwhile, Tamil teacher in the Madras Christian College
M. Singaravelar (1860–1946) an early pioneer for many years. He was inclined towards non-
in Buddhist revival, promoted communism Brahmin movement. His teachers such as P.
and socialism to counter the colonial power. Sundaranar and Somasundara Nayagar were
Pandithar Iyotheethassar (1845–1914) and key influences in his life.
Periyar E.V. Ramasamy (1879–1973) held high
the radical philosophy to defend the rights of Tani Tamil Iyakkam
(Pure Tamil Movement)
the socially underprivileged and marginalised
section of the people. In addition, the Maraimalai Adigal promoted the use of pure
twentieth century Tamil language movements Tamil words and removal of the Sanskrit
such as Tani Tamil Iyakkam and Tamil Isai influence from the Tamil language. The
Iyakkam, made a significant cultural impact in movement made a great impact on Tamil
creating a pure Tamil free from the influence culture especially in language and literature.
of Sanskrit. The beginnings of the movement are usually
71 Social Transformation in Tamil Nadu
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dated to 1916 even though the process of Association to support

identifying influence of foreign words in Tamil Dravidian uplift. The
and eliminating them can be dated much organisation focused
earlier to the late nineteenth century. His on educating and
daughter Neelambikai, played an important supporting non-
role in its foundation. He changed his own Brahmin graduates
name Vedachalam and took on the pure Tamil and conducting regular
name of Maraimalai Adigal. His journal meetings to share their
Jnanasagaram was renamed Arivukkadal and grievances. Meanwhile,
his institution, Samarasa Sanmarga Sangam, Natesanar founded a
Dr. C. Natesanar
was re-christened as Potu Nilaik Kalakam. The hostel, the Dravidian
movement was critical of Hindi, Sanskrit and Home, at Triplicane (Madras) in July 1916 to
the Brahminical hegemony in Tamil society. address the lack of hostels for the non-Brahmin
Neelambikai compiled a dictionary that students which hindered their educational
provided pure Tamil equivalents to Sanskrit development. In addition, the home had a
words that had crept into Tamil vocabulary. literary society for the benefit of non-Brahmin
This movement paved the way for later social students.
movements that countered Brahminical and
the Sanskrit tradition in Tamil society. South Indian Liberal
10.3
Federation (Justice Party)

Rise of the Dravidian
10.2
Movement
In India, Brahmins enjoyed a high social
status, based on their birth, and held great social
privileges. In Madras Presidency, Brahmins
dominated all the fields of society, especially
politics, education and job opportunities in
the government. The 1911 census showed
that Brahmins were slightly over 3 per cent Sir Pitti Theyagarayar T.M. Nair
of Madras Presidency’s population, and non-
Brahmins 90 per cent. Yet in the ten years
As World War I was in progress the British
from 1901 to 1911 Madras University turned
government was considering the introduction
out 4,074 Brahmin graduates compared with
of representative institutions for Indians after
only 1,035 non-Brahmin graduates. Numbers
the War. Fearing that such political reforms
for other groups, based on how the population would further strengthen the political power
came to be classified then, included Indian of Brahmins, educated non-Brahmins decided
Christian 306, Mohammedan 69 and European to organise themselves politically. On 20
and Eurasian 225. November 1916 around 30 prominent non-
In this context, the Dravidian movement Brahmin leaders including Dr. C. Natesanar,
emerged as a defence of the non-Brahmins Sir Pitti Theyagarayar, T.M. Nair and Alamelu
against the Brahmin dominance. An Mangai Thayarammal came together to
organisation called The Madras Non-Brahmin form the South Indian Liberation Federation
Association was founded in 1909 to help the (SILF). In the meantime, at a meeting held in
non-Brahmin students. In 1912 C. Natesanar, the Victoria Public Hall the Non-Brahmin
a medical doctor, founded the Madras United Manifesto was released in December 1916.
League, later renamed as Madras Dravidian The manifesto articulated the voice of the
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non-Brahmin communities and surveyed the the use of public wells

general condition of the non-Brahmins in and tanks. The Justice
Madras Presidency. Party government
The association started publishing three ordered that public
newspapers: Dravidian in Tamil, Justice in schools accommodate
English and Andhra Prakasika in Telugu, to the children of the
propagate the ideals of the Party. Depressed Classes.
Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar
The Non-Brahmin Manifesto pointed out Hostels were
that though “Not less than 40 out of the 411/2 established for the students belonging to this
millions” of the Madras Presidency were non- social group in 1923. In the meantime, the Madras
Brahmins, “in what passes for the politics in legislature under the Justice Party government
Madras they have not taken the part to which was the first to approve participation of women
they are entitled”. Arguing that a government in the electoral politics in 1921. This resolution
conducted on “true British principles of justice created space for woman and thus facilitated
and equality of opportunity” was in the best Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar to become the first
interests of India, it declared, that “we are deeply woman legislator in India in 1926.
devoted and loyally attached to British rule”.
The Justice Party worked towards legislating
provisions for communal representation –
The first election, under the Montagu-
Chelmsford Reforms, was held in 1920 after reservations for various communities. Two
the introduction of the Dyarchy form of Communal Government Orders (16 September
government in the provinces. The Justice Party 1921 and 15 August 1922) were passed to
won the election and formed the first-ever Indian ensure equitable distribution in appointments
cabinet in Madras. A. Subbarayalu became among various castes and communities as a
the Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency part of achieving social justice. The Justice
and the party formed the government during Party rule established the Staff Selection
1920–1923 and 1923–1926. In the context of Board in 1924 for the selection of government
Congress Party boycotting the legislature, the officials and encouraged all the communities
Justice Party continued to remain in office till to share the administrative powers. In 1929,
1937 elections were held. In the 1937 elections
the Government of British India adopted the
the Indian National Congress contested the
pattern and established the Public Service
elections for the first time and trounced the
Commission.
Justice Party.
Programmes and Activities The Justice Party further concentrated on
reforms in religious institutions. Tamil Nadu has
The Justice Party is the fountain head of the
a large number of temples and these commanded
non-Brahmin Movement in the country. The
huge resources. In general, the resources were
Justice Party government widened education
and employment opportunities for the majority monopolised and exploited by the dominant
of the population and created space for them caste in the society and led to mismanagement
in the political sphere. Tamil Nadu’s legacy of of public resources. The Justice Party introduced
social justice owes its existence to the formative the Hindu Religious Endowment (HRE) Act in
years of Justice Party in power. 1926 and enabled any individual, irrespective of
The Justicites removed the legal hindrances their caste affiliation, to become a member of
restricting inter-caste marriages and broke the the temple committee and govern the resources
barriers that prevented Depressed Classes from of the religious institutions.
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10.4
Self-Respect Movement Periyar E.V.R.
(Suyamariyathai Iyakkam) Periyar E.V.
Ramasamy (1879–
The Self-Respect movement, while
1973) was the founder
critiquing the then prevailing social, political
of the Self-Respect
and economic relations, introduced a
Movement. He was
programme of non-Brahmin uplift in Tamil
the son of a wealthy
Nadu. The movement was concerned with the
businessman in Erode,
marginalised sections of the society and criticised
Venkatappa and
Brahminism and the cultural hegemony of the
Chinna Thayammal.
Brahmin. It advocated a casteless society devoid Periyar E.V.R
Though possessing
of rituals and differences based on birth. The
little formal education, he engaged in critical
movement declared rationality and self-respect
discussions with scholars, who used to be
as the birthright of all human beings and
patronised by his devout father. As a young
held these as more important than self-rule.
man, he once ran away from home and spent
The movement declared illiteracy as a source
many months in Varanasi and other religious
for women’s subordination and promoted
centres. The firsthand experience of orthodox
compulsory elementary education for all. It
Hindu religion led to his disillusionment with
campaigned for the empowerment of women
religion. On his return, he took care of his
and questioned the superstitious beliefs in the
family business for some years. His selfless
society.
public service and forthrightness made him
The movement demanded women’s a popular personality. He held different
emancipation, deplored superstitions, and official positions of Erode that included
emphasised rationality. The movement also the Chairmanship of Municipal Council
advocated self-respect marriage. Race was (1918–1919).
central to self-respect concept, which argued
In the context of the rise of the non-
that the non-Brahmin Dravidian people had
Brahmin Justice Party after 1917, the
been systematically subjugated by Aryan-
Congress inducted non-Brahmin leaders
Brahmins over the course of their long
such as Periyar and P. Varadarajulu, at the
history.
initiative of C. Rajaji. Periyar resigned all the
The Self-Respect Movement championed government positions to support the Non-
not only the cause of the non-Brahmin Cooperation Movement (1920–1922). He
Hindus, but also that of the Muslims. The gave up his profitable business and became
Self-Respect Movement extolled the lofty an active member of the Congress. He
principles of Islam such as equality and promoted khadi and sold it on the streets of
brotherhood. They exhorted the Muslims to Tamil Nadu. He cut down 500 coconut trees
admit into their fold the depressed sections in his farm to support the campaign for
of the Hindu society, in order that they might prohibition. He held the positions of Secretary
enjoy the equality and brotherhood of Islam. and President of the Tamil Nadu Congress
Muslim elite considered the Tamil Muslims Committee.
as Dravidians. Yet Periyar did not hesitate to
As president of the
attack certain customs like wearing of purdah
Tamil Nadu Congress
by Muslim women. He wanted the Dravidian
Committee, Periyar proposed
Muslims to follow Mustapha Kemal Pasha of
a resolution regarding the
Turkey and Amanullah of Afghanistan who
rights of “Untouchables” to
initiated reforms in Islamic society.
temple entry. In the name of
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Arasu was the official newspaper of the Self-

Respect Movement. It brought out the multiple
voices and ideas of Non-Brahmins, women
and religious minorities. Usually, Periyar
wrote a column and expressed his opinion on
social issues in each of its issues. He frequently
wrote columns under the pseudonym of
Chitraputtiran.
Thanthai Periyar Memorial (Vaikom, Kerala) Over the years, Periyar visited many
“caste dharma” the “lower caste” people were countries and interacted with intellectuals all
denied access to the temples and the streets over. He visited Singapore and Malaya (1929–
surrounding the temple. In Vaikom (a town 1930, 1954), Egypt, U.S.S.R. (modern Russia),
in the then Princely State of Travancore and in Greece, Turkey, Germany, England, Spain,
present day Kerala), people protested against France and Portugal (1931–32), and Burma
this practice. In the initial stages George (1954 to attend the 2500 th birth Anniversary
Joseph of Madurai played big role. After the of the Buddha). His experience of travelling
local leaders were arrested Periyar led the in the Soviet Union and Europe carried
movement and was imprisoned. People hailed Periyar towards socialist ideals. Periyar had
him as Vaikom Virar (Hero of Vaikom). In a close relationship with Singaravelar who is
the meantime, he was disturbed by the caste- considered the first communist of south India
based discrimination in the dining hall at the and a pioneer of Buddhism. In 1936, Periyar
Cheranmadevi Gurukulam (school), which got Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Annihilation of
was run by V.V.Subramaniam (a Congress Caste translated into Tamil immediately after
leader) with the financial support of the it was written. He also supported Ambedkar’s
Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. Periyar demand for separate electorates for scheduled
was disappointed when, despite his objections castes.
and protests against this discrimination, the
In 1937, in opposition to the Rajaji’s
Congress continued to support the iniquitous
practice in the Gurukulam. government’s move to introduce compulsory
Hindi in schools, he launched a popular
Periyar was keen on the introduction of movement to oppose it. The anti-Hindi agitation
reservation in representative bodies such as the (1937–39) had a big impact on Tamilnadu’s
legislative council for non-Brahmins. He wanted politics. Periyar was imprisoned for his role in
to pass the resolution in the annual conference the movement. When he was still in jail, Periyar
of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee in was elected the president of the Justice Party.
1925 at its Kanchipuram session but in vain. Thereafter the Justice Party merged with the
The Congress’s inability in addressing these Self-Respect Movement. It was rechristened as
concerns made him quit the Congress in 1925. Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) in 1944.
Following his disillusionment, Periyar started
the Self-Respect movement in 1925. Rajaji, the Chief Minister of Madras State
(1952–54), introduced a vocational education
Periyar understood the relevance of programme that encouraged imparting school
mass communication in spreading rationalist children with training in tune with their
thought. He started a number of newspapers father’s occupation. Periyar criticised it as Kula
and journals such as Kudi Arasu (Democracy)
Kalvi Thittam (caste-based education scheme)
(1925), Revolt (1928), Puratchi (Revolution)
and opposed it tooth and nail. His campaigns
(1933), Paguththarivu (Rationalism) (1934),
against it led to the resignation of Rajaji. K.
and Viduthalai (Liberation) (1935). Kudi
Kamaraj became Chief Minister of the Madras
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State. Periyar died at the age of ninety four by “valkaithunai,”(companion) a word for
(1973). His mortal remains were buried at marriage taken from the Tirukkural. Peiyar’s
Periyar Thidal, Madras. most important work on this subject is Why the
Woman is Enslaved?
Periyar’s Anti-Hindi Stance
Periyar believed that property rights for
Periyar emphasised that the caste system in women would provide them a social status
south India is linked with the arrival of Brahmins and protection. He welcomed equal rights for
from the North. Ancient Tamil society, he said, males and females in property, guardianship
had a different stratification based on tinais and adoption. He was a strong champion of
(regions), determined by natural surroundings birth control and contraception, and said
and the means of livelihood or occupation of that motherhood was a burden to women.
the people. Anti-north Indian campaigns had In 1989, Government of Tamil Nadu
made Periyar to take an anti-Hindi stand. fulfilled the dream of radical reformers by
the introduction of the Hindu Succession
Periyar on Religion Tamil Nadu Amendment Act of 1989, which
ensured the equal rights to ancestral property
Periyar’s experiences taught him that it
for women in inheritance. This Act became a
was necessary to eradicate religion in order to
trendsetter and led to similar legislation at the
impart progress and justice. Periyar advocated
national level.
atheism to deconstruct the established
practices of faith, culture and custom. Periyar Rettaimalai Srinivasan
wanted religion to be replaced by rationalism.
‘Religion means you accept superstitious Rettaimalai Srinivasan
beliefs’, he asserted. Periyar spent his entire (1859–1945), popularly
life campaigning against superstitions through known as Grandpa
Thinkers or Rationalists Forums he had (Thatha), was born in
formed. Periyar objected to the hereditary 1859 at Kanchipuram. He
priesthood in temples. He argued that eligible fought for social justice,
individuals, who have a proper religious equality and civil rights
knowledge, should become priests rather of the marginalised in
than being based on caste. He encouraged the the caste order. He was Rettaimalai
people to boycott the Brahmin priests and honoured with such titles Srinivasan
their Vedic rituals. He advocated inter-caste as Rao Sahib (1926),
and Self-Respect Marriages devoid of any such Rao Bahadur (1930) and Divan Bahadur
rituals. (1936) for his selfless social services. His
autobiography, Jeeviya Saritha Surukkam (A
Periyar, a Feminist Brief Autobiography), published in 1939, is one
of the earliest autobiographies.
Periyar was critical of patriarchy. He Rettaimalai Srinivasan who had
condemned child-marriage and the devadasi experienced the horrors of untouchability
system (institution of temple girls). Right from worked for the progress of the deprived castes.
1929, when the Self-respect Conferences began He founded the Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha
to voice its concern over the plight of women, in 1893. He served as president of the Scheduled
Periyar had been emphasising women’s right Castes’ Federation and the Madras Provincial
to divorce and property. Periyar objected to Depressed Classes’ Federation. He constantly
terms like “giving in marriage”. This, he said, engaged in discussions with leaders of the
treats woman as a thing. He wants it substituted Indian National Congress and the Justice Party
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on questions involving the depressed castes. Labour Movements in

Rettaimalai Srinivasan met Gandhi in South 10.5
Tamil Nadu
Africa and was closely associated with him. He
became a member of the Madras Legislative
Council in 1923 and influenced the Justice
Party to take affirmative action to safeguard the
interests of the depressed and deprived sections
of the society.
A close associate of Dr B.R. Ambedkar, he
participated in the first and second Round Table
Conferences held in London (1930 and 1931)
and voiced the opinions of the marginalised
sections of the society. He was a signatory to the Labour Statue in Marina Beach
Poona Pact of 1932. The First World War (1914–18)
provided stimulus to industrial growth in
M.C. Rajah India. These industries, catering to war
time needs, had employed a huge number of
Mylai Chinnathambi workers. At the end of the War there were
Raja (1883–1943), retrenchments across the industries, as the
popularly known as war time requirements receded. Combined
M.C. Rajah, was one of with high prices, this gave a momentum to the
the prominent leaders labour movement. The nationalists realising
from the “depressed the value of organised labour power began
class”. Rajah started to support the cause of labour. B.P. Wadia,
his career as a teacher M. Singaravelar, Thiru. Vi. Kalyanasundaram
and wrote different M.C. Rajah
and others initiated the formation of labour
textbooks for schools and colleges. He was unions in the Madras Presidency. In 1918,
one of the founding members of the South India’s first organised trade union, the
Indian Liberal Federation (Justice Party). He Madras Labour Union, was formed.
became the first elected Legislative Council
Member (1920–26) from the depressed The first All India Trade Union
classes in Madras province. He functioned Conference (AITUC) was held on 31 October
as the Deputy Leader of Justice Party in the 1920 in Bombay. The delegates discussed
Madras Legislative Council. several resolutions. These included a demand
for protection from police interference
Later, he left the Justice Party. M.C. Rajah in labour disputes, the maintenance of
demanded abolition of untouchability and an unemployment register, restriction on
organised a number of political meetings and exporting foodstuffs, compensation for
conferences for the “untouchable castes” to injuries, and health insurance. In addition, the
have access to public wells and pathways to delegates demanded that Indian workers be
burial grounds. In addition, he advocated the given some representation in the government,
use of such as terms, Adi-Dravida and Adi- just as employers had representatives on
Andhra. In 1928, he founded the All India legislative councils.
Depressed Classes Association and was its M. Singaravelar (1860–1946), was a
long time leader. Rajah had earlier called for pioneer in the labour movement activities
separate electorate; but after the Poona Pact, in the Madras presidency. He was born in
he supported the idea of joint electorates. Madras and graduated from the Presidency
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College, University of The implementation of Hindi as a

Madras. He advocated compulsory language in Tamil Nadu, at various
Buddhism in his early points of time, was seen as a threat to Tamil
life. He knew many language and culture. C. Rajaji, the Premier
languages, including of Madras Presidency, introduced Hindi as a
Tamil, English, Urdu, compulsory subject in schools. This created a stiff
Hindi, German, French opposition in Madras province. Periyar declared
and Russian and wrote that the introduction of Hindi over Tamil would
about the ideas of Karl deny the Dravidians of their job opportunities.
Singaravelar
Marx, Charles Darwin, Maraimalai Adigal pointed out that the Tamil
Herbert Spencer and Albert Einstein in Tamil. language would suffer with the introduction of
He organised the first ever celebration of May Hindi. The anti-Hindi campaigners considered
Day in 1923. He was one of the early leaders of it an ideological battle against Brahminism
the Communist Party of India. He published and the hegemony of Sanskrit over Tamil.
a Tamil newspaper, Thozhilalan (Worker) to They saw Sanskrit as a vehicle for propagation
address the problems of the working class. He of Brahmanical ideology, there by preserving
was closely associated with Periyar and the Self- the caste hierarchies and gender inequalities.
Respect Movement. The agitation was marked by massive protest
meetings, demonstrations, and hunger strikes.

Language Agitation Tens of thousands of people took part in
10.6 before Indian the agitation.
Independence 10.7 Women’s Movements
In general, language is a dominant
There were several streams of women’s
symbol of identity and it is associated with
movements and organisations established
culture and sentiments of any society. Tamil
in the early twentieth century to address the
regained its prominence in the latter half of
question of women empowerment in Madras
the nineteenth and early twentieth century.
Presidency. Women’s India Association (WIA)
Maraimalai Adigal’s Pure Tamil Movement,
and All India Women’s Conference (AIWC)
the language reforms of Periyar and Tamil
are the important among them in Tamil Nadu.
Isai Movement helped to galvanise the
WIA was started in 1917 by Annie Besant,
Tamil language. Tamil renaissance that led
Dorothy Jinarajadasa and Margaret Cousins
the Dravidian consciousness made a great
at Adyar, Madras. The Association published
intervention in the development of modern
pamphlets and bulletins in different languages
Tamil language and its art forms. Agamic
to detail the problems of personal hygiene,
temples did not permit rituals in Tamil.
marriage laws, voting rights, child care and
Tamil songs had a marginal place in musical
women’s role in the public. In the meantime,
concerts. Abraham Pandithar systematically
WIA formed the All India Women’s Conference
studied the history of Tamil music and
(AIWC) in 1927 to address the problem of
attempted to reconstruct the ancient Tamil
women’s education and recommended that the
musical system. He founded the Tanjore
government implement various policies for the
Sangitha Vidya Mahajana Sangam in 1912
uplift of women.
and it became the kernel of the Tamil Isai
Movement (Tamil Music Movement). The Women’s liberation was one of the important
movement gave importance to the singing of objectives of the Self-Respect Movement. Self-
Tamil compositions in music concerts. The respecters led by Periyar E.V.R. worked for
first Tamil Isai Conference was held in 1943, gender equality and gender sensitisation of the
to discuss the status of Tamil music. society. The movement provided a space for
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women to share their ideas. There was a custom of dedicating young

There were several women girls to the Hindu temples as a servant of God,
activists in the movement. known as devadasi. Though intended as a
Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar, service to god it soon got corrupted leading
Nagammai, Kannamma, to extensive immorality and abuse of the
Nilavathi, Muvalur women. Dr. Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar, was in
Ramamirtham, Rukmani the forefront of the campaign pressing for a
Ammal, Alarmelmangai legislation to abolish this devadasi system. The
Thayammal, Nilambikai, and Muvalur Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication)
Sivakami Chidambaranar Ramamirtham Act 1947 was enacted by the government.
are prominent among them.
In 1930, Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar introduced in the Madras Legislative Council a Bill on

the “prevention of the dedication of women to Hindu temples in the Presidency of Madras”. The
Bill, which later became the Devadasi Abolition Act, declared the “pottukattu ceremony” in the
precincts of Hindu temples or any other place of worship unlawful, gave legal sanction to devadasis
to contract marriage, and prescribed a minimum punishment of five years’ imprisonment for those
found guilty of aiding and abetting the devadasi system. The Bill had to wait for over 15 years to
become an Act.
SUMMARY
Nineteenth century India encountered a process of introspection among Indian intellectuals

due to the colonial intervention and the rise of rationalism. This led to the Indian renaissance.
In Tamil Nadu, the proliferation of the printing press acted as a catalyst for the publication and
spread of secular ancient Tamil literature.
Tamil scholars in the nineteenth century worked hard to publish Tamil classics. These triggered
an intellectual revolution and it was popularly known as Tamil renaissance.
The transformation not only revived Tamil language and literature. It challenged the prevailing
caste hierarchy and influenced the rise of Dravidian consciousness and established Tamil as a
language of the Dravidian family.
The Justice Party established in 1916 voiced the problems of non-Brahmin in the Madras
Presidency. The party introduced significant reforms such as communal representation,
women’s franchise rights, and Hindu Religious Endowment Board.
Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, the pioneer of the Self-Respect Movement, critiqued fundamentalism
and promoted rationalism among people for the better construction of human society. He
reformed Tamil society, gave special attention to the women empowerment and did an extensive
language reform for the betterment of Tamil language and culture.
Concurrently, Thatha Rettaimalai Srinivasan worked for the development of depressed castes,
and the labour movement addressed the problems of the working classes.
Meanwhile, Tamil Pure Movement and Tamil Music Movement promoted and preserved
Tamil language.
Ultimately, the rational ideas of Tamil Nadu became a model for constructive developments of
the modern Indian state.
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British declared the fourth Anglo-Mysore judicial powers and dispensed justice over
war in 1799. General David Baird stormed civil and criminal cases.
Srirangapatnam. Tipu’s offer of peace was
rejected and in the eventual battle Tipu The origin of the Palayakkarar (poligari)
was wounded and soon after shot dead by system dates back to the 1530s. It is
a European Soldier. believed that this system was practiced
The elimination of Tipu and the earlier in Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal.
restoration of the old Wodeyar dynasty The literal meaning of Palayakkarar is the
to the Mysore kingdom marked the real holder of a camp as well as the holder of
beginning of Company rule in south India. an estate on military tenure. Prior to the
The sons of the slain Tipu were interned enforcement of this system Servaikarars
first at Vellore, and later, after the Vellore and Talayaris collected fees for police
Revolt of 1806, shifted to Calcutta. Thus work. After the creation of palayams, the
ended the valiant fight of Mysore Sultans Servaikarars turned Palayakkarars and
against the British subordinated Talayaris to their authority.
Based on the topographical

18.2 Early Resistance distribution they are classified as western
of Southern palayams and eastern palayams. The
Palayakkarars against palayams held by Maravar chieftains were
mostly in the western parts of Tirunelveli.
the British The settlement of Telugu migrants in
Origin of Palayams and the black soil tracts, lying in the eastern
Palayakkarars
part of Tirunelveli, left those parts under
Nayak Palayakkarars.
After the decline of Vijayanagara Empire,
Nagama Nayak who arrived as a viceroy
Revolt of Palyakkarars
to Madurai and his son Viswanatha Nayak
asserted themselves as independent rulers The Nawab of Arcot, who had borrowed
of Madurai and Tirunelveli. Under the able heavily by pledging the villages in several
guidance of prime minister Ariyanayaga parts of Tamilnadu, entrusted the task
Mudaliyar, all the little kingdoms of the of collecting land revenue arrears to the
former Pandian Empire were classified and Company administration. Yusuf Khan,
converted into 72 palayams. Viswanatha remembered as Khan Sahib, had been
Nayak constructed a formidable fort employed as commander of the Company’s
around Madurai city, which consisted of Indian troops. He was entrusted not only
seventy two bastions. Each of them was with the command of the forces, but also with
placed under a chief. the collection of revenue. At the request of
A Palayakkarar was bound to pay the Nawab, a force of 500 Europeans and 200
a fixed annual tribute or supply troops to sepoys was (1755), ordered to proceed into
the king and to keep order and peace over the “countries of Madurai and Tirunelveli” to
a particular area. In order to enable him to assist him. The encroachment of East Indian
perform these duties and attend to other Company administration into palayakkarar’s
services, a certain number of villages authority aroused stiff resistance.
were granted for revenue collection. In Mafuzkhan (Arcot Nawab’s elder
addition he was presented with several brother) was appointed by the Nawab as
titles and privileges. Palayakkarars had his representative in those territories.
130 Early Resistance to British Rule
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Mafuskhan along with Colonel Heron

proceeded towards Tirunelveli. They easily Yusuf Khan was born as Maruthanayakam
took Madurai. An expedition was sent to Pillai. Originally he belonged to
reduce Kattabomman, the palayakkarar of Ramanathapuram district. When in
Panchalamkurichi but had to be recalled. Pondicherry he embraced Islam. He
While returning Colonel Heron was urged joined the company of sepoys under Clive
to storm the fort of Nel-Kattum-Seval. in 1752 and participated in the siege of
Its palayakkarar Puli Thevar wielded Tiruchirappalli during 1752-54. From 1756
enormous influence over the western to 1761 he was in charge of the districts of
palayakkarars. For want of cannon and of Madurai and Tirunelveli as Governor under
supplies and pay to soldiers, the attack of the Madras Government which had been
Colonel Heron had to be abandoned and controlling them though they belonged to
the force retired to Madurai. the Nawab of Arcot. He defeated Haider
Ali and captured Solavandan. At the time
Three Pathan officers, Nawab Lally’s siege of Madras (1758-59), he
Chanda Sahib’s agents, named rendered splendid service to the English. As
Mianah, Mudimiah and Nabikhan one in charge of administration of Madurai
Kattak, commanded the Madurai and and Tirunelveli regions he encouraged the
Tirunelveli regions. They supported weaving industry of Madurai. He gave a
Tamil palayakkarars against Arcot fixed amount for the conduct of worship
Nawab Mohamed Ali. Puli Thevar in the temples of Madurai and retrieved
had established close relationships the temple lands. Yusuf Khan rebelled
with them. The palayakkarars of because the English ordered him to serve
Uthumalai, Surandai, Thalaivankottai, the Nawab of Arcot.
Naduvakurichi, Singampatti, Urkad,
Seithur, Kollamkondan and Wadakarai
joined Puli Thevar’s confederacy. With From 1756 to 1763, aided frequently
the promise of restoring Kalakkadu, Puli by Travancore, the palyakkarars of
Thevar had already won over the ruler of Tirunelveli led by Puli Thevar were in
Tranvancore to his confederacy. a constant state of rebellion against the
authority of the Nawab. Yusuf Khan who
Nawab, on his side, sent an additional
had been sent by the Company would
contingent of sepoys to Mahfuzkhan and the
not venture to attack Puli Thevar unless
reinforced army proceeded to Tirunelveli.
the big guns and ammunition from
Besides the 1000 sepoys of the Company,
Tiruchirappalli arrived. As the English
Mahfuzkhan received 600 more sent by
were involved in a war with the French,
the Nawab. He also had the support of
as well as with Haider Ali and Marathas,
cavalry and foot soldiers from the Carnatic.
big guns arrived only in September
Before Mafuskhan could station his
1760. Yusuf Khan began to batter the
troops near Kalakadu, 2000 soldiers from
Nerkattumseval fort and this attack
Travancore joined the forces of Puli Thevar.
continued for about two months. On 16
In the battle of Kalakadu, Mahfuzkhan's
May 1761 Puli Thevar’s three major forts
troops were trounced.
namely Nerkattumseval, Vasudevanallur
The organized resistance of the and Panayur came under the control of
palayakkarars under Puli Thevar gave Yusuf Khan. After taking Pondicherry the
an opportunity to the British to interfere English commanded respect, as they had
directly in the affairs of Tirunelveli. eliminated the French from the picture.
Early Resistance to British Rule 131
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Consequently the unity of palyakkarars was killed by the Nawab’s forces, Velu
began to break up as French support was Nachiyar escaped with her daughter and
not forthcoming. Travancore, Seithur, lived under the protection of Haider
Uthumalai and Surandai switched their Ali at Virupachi near Dindigul for eight
loyalty. Yusuf Khan, who was negotiating years. During this period she organized
with the palayakkarars without informing an army and succeeded in securing an
the Company administration, was charged alliance with Gopala Nayaker and Haider
with treachery and hanged in 1764. Ali. In 1780 Rani Velu Nachiyar fought
Puli Thevar, who had taken the British with military assistance from
asylum elsewhere after the forts were Gopala Nayaker and Haider Ali and won
taken over by Yusuf Khan, returned and the battle.
began to organize against the British.
Captain Campbell who was sent this time
by the British, laid siege and captured Velu Nachiyar employed her intelligence
Nerkattumseval in 1767. Nothing is gathering agents to discover where the
definitely known about the last days of British stored their ammunition. One of
Puli Thevar. her followers Kuyili, doused herself in
oil, set herself alight, and walked into the
storehouse. She also employed another
Velu Nachiyar
agent, her adopted daughter Udaiyaal,
to detonate a British arsenal, blowing
herself up along with the barracks. Velu
Nachiyar formed a woman’s army.
The Nawab of Arcot placed many

obstacles to the advancement of the
Rani’s troops. However she overcame
all the hurdles and entered Sivagangai.
The Nawab of Arcot was defeated and
taken captive. Velu Nachiyar recaptured
Sivagangai and was again crowned queen
with the help of Marudu brothers.
After ascending the throne Velu
Nachiar appointed Chinna Marudu as her
adviser and Periya Marudu as commander. In
Velu Nachiyar 1783 the English forces invaded Sivaganagai
The Sethupathys ruled the area that again. This time the Marudu Pandiyan
covered Ramanathapuram, Sivagangai, saved the place by some diplomatic moves.
Virudhunagar, and Pudukkottai districts In 1790, Vellachi Nachiyar, daughter of Velu
of the present day. Velu Nachiyar was the Nachiyar who was married to Vengan Periya
daughter of Chellamuthu Sethupathy, the Udaya Thevar who became the king of
raja of Ramanathapuram. She married Sivagangai state due to compromise formula
Muthu Vadugar Periyaudayar, the Raja of the Englishmen, died under mysterious
of Sivagangai, and had a daughter named circumstances. Velu Nachiyar became sick
Vellachi Nachiar. When her husband and died in three years later in1796.
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Veera Pandiya Kattabomman

Pagoda was the dominant currency in use
at the time of arrival of European traders.
It was a gold coin of Vijayanagar descent.
It was called varagan in Tamil. During
the reign of Tipu Sultan, one pagoda was
the equivalent of three and half rupees in
Mysore. “Shaking the pagoda tree” was a
phrase used in England to describe the
opportunities for making quick fortunes
in India.
taxes. Collector Jackson wanted to send

an expedition to punish Veera Pandiyan
but the Madras administration did
not agree. The Company had already
withdrawn its forces from Tirunelveli
to be employed in the war against Tipu
Sultan of Mysore, and did not desire to risk
a conflict in the far south at this juncture.
It directed the collector to summon the
Veera Pandiya Kattabomman
Palayakkarar at Ramanathapuram and
While Velu Nachiyar was fighting the hold a discussion. Accordingly, on the
British and engaging their complete 18 August 1798 Jackson despatched an
attention on Ramanathapruam and order directing Veera Pandiyan to meet
Sivagangai, Veera Pandiya Kattabomman’s him at Ramanathapuram within two
resistance against the British was on weeks. After sending the summons, the
progress. Kattabomma Nayak was collector started on a tour of Tirunelveli.
the playakkarar of Panchalamkurichi. When Jackson halted at Chokkampatti,
Kattabomman Nayak was a family title. Sivagiri, Sattur and Srivilliputhur to
The chieftain of the Colonel Heron’s receive tribute from the Palayakkarars,
time was Jagaveera Kattabomman Veera Pandiyan sought an interview but
Nayak, the grandfather of Veera Pandiya was told that he could meet the collector
Kattabomman. This Veera Pandiya only at Ramanathapuram.
Kattabomman, born in 1761, became the
Despite this humiliation,
palayakkarar on the death of his father,
Kattabomman followed the Englishman
Jagaveera Pandiya Kattabomman. The
for twenty three days over 400 miles
collection of tribute continued to be a
through the latter’s route and reached
problem as there was a constant tussle
Ramanathapuram on 19 September. An
between the Company and the southern
interview was granted the same day and
palayakkarars. In September 1798 as the
the collector expressed his satisfaction that
tribute from Panchalamkuriuchi fell into
the Palayakkarar had behaved properly
arrears, Collector Jackson wrote to Veera
and thereby “saved himself from ruin”.
Pandiyan in his characteristic arrogance.
Upon a verification of accounts Jackson
The country experienced a severe was convinced that Kattabomman had
drought, in consequence of which the cleared most of the arrears, leaving only
palayakkarars found it difficult to collect 1080 pagodas as balance to be settled.
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Denied of courtesy, the palayakkarar and Thus in a bold attempt to strengthen

his minister Sivasubramania Pillai had his position an armed column consisting
to stand before the arrogant collector. of the followers of Veera Pandiyan, the son
Finally he directed them to stay inside of the Palayakkarar of Sivagiri and other
the Ramanathapuram fort. Now a few allied chiefs, led by Dalawai Kumaraswami
sepoys appeared, apparently to arrest Nayak, moved towards the west. As the
Kattabomman. But they escaped. At the Palayakkarar of Sivagiri was a tributary
gate of the fort a clash occurred, in which to the Company, the Madras Governor’s
some including Lieutenant Clarke were Council considered this as a challenge to
killed. Siva subramania Pilai was taken its own authority and ordered the march
prisoner but Kattabomman made his of the army.
escape. In May 1799 Lord Wellesley issued
After his return to Panchalamkurichi, orders from for the advance of forces from
Kattabomman wrote to the Madras Council Trichirapalli, Thanjavur and Madurai to
blaming the attitude of Jackson for the Tirunelveli. The Travancore troops joined
scuffle. In the meantime Governor Edward the British. Major Bannerman, armed with
Clive had issued a proclamation, inviting extensive powers, effectively commanded
the palayakkarar to submit to the authority the expedition.
of the Company. In the event of surrender On 1 June 1799 Kattabomman,
he assured a fair investigation into the attended by 500 men, proceeded to
Ramanathapuram incident. If he refused, Sivaganga. At Palayanur Kattabomman
he threatened Kattabomman with dire held deliberations with Marudu.
consequences. In response Kattabomman Subsequently, joined by 500 armed men
appeared before the committee which of Sivaganga, Kattabomman returned to
acquitted him of the charges of rebellion Panjalamkurichi.
and condemned the conduct of the collector.
S.R. Lushington was appointed collector in The Palayakkarars of Nagalapuram,
the place of Jackson, who was eventually Mannarkottai, Powalli, Kolarpatti
dismissed from service. and Chennulgudi had already formed
themselves into a combination due to the
However, Kattabomman remained efforts of Marudu brothers. They asserted
irreconciled. At this time Marudu their rights to collect taxes from certain
Pandiyan of Sivaganga along with Gopala villages in the Company’s territory.
Nayak of Dindigul and Yadul Nayak of Kattabomman proceeded to join this
Anamalai, was engaged in organising a league to take up its leadership by virtue
Confederacy against the British. In view of the influence that he wielded and the
of the identity of interests Kattabomman resources he possessed. Determined to
and Marudu Pandiyan came closer. strengthen this league, he persuaded the
Kattabomman also established chieftains of Satur, Yezhayirampannai,
contact with the Sivagiri palayakkarar. Kadalgudi and Kulathoor to join it.
While Panchalamkurichi was situated in On 1 September 1799 Major
an open plain and appeared vulnerable, Bannerman served an ultimatum directing
the strategic location of the fort of Sivagiri Kattabomman to see him at Palayamkottai.
at the foot of the Western Ghats and the As Kattabomman dodged Bannerman
formidable barriers around it rendered it decided on military action. The Company
eminently suited both for offensive and army reached Panchalamkurichi on
defensive operations. 5 September.
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Kattabomman’s fort, 500 feet long Marudu Brothers and the South
and 300 feet broad, was constructed Indian Rebellion of 1801
entirely of mud. The Company forces
cut off the communications of the fort.
Kattabomman’s forces fought gallantly
and successive attacks were repulsed.
Colonel Welsh recorded in his memoirs
the gallantry of Kattabomman's soldiers.
The English ordered for the arrival of more
troops. On 16 September reinforcements
arrived from Palayamkottai. As the broken
walls appeared vulnerable, the garrison
evacuated and reached Kadalgudi. In
a clash at Kalarpatti, Kattabomman’s Marudu Brothers
minister Sivasubramonia Pillai was taken
prisoner. The British forces followed By the treaty of 1772 the Arcot Nawab
up their victory with the reduction of had authorized the Company to collect
Nagalapuram and other strongholds the Stalam Kaval and Desakaval. This
of the defiant chiefs to submission. On affected the Kaval chiefs in both the
the appearance of the army the western Palayakkarar and non-palaykkarar
Palayakkarars too surrendered. territories. The aggrieved kavalkarars and
their chiefs had joined the palayakkarars
Vijaya Ragunatha Tondaiman, Raja in their fight against the Nawab and the
of Pudukottai, captured Kattabomman Company. In Sivagangai, Vella Marudu
from the jungles of Kalapore and handed and Chinna Marudu, who had taken over
him over to the enemy. Upon the fall of the administration from Periya Udaya
the Palayakkarar into the hands of the Tevar, who died in battle against the
enemy, his followers fled to Sivaganga Nawab’s forces, expelled the forces of the
and from there to the hills of Dindigul for Nawab and proclaimed Vellachi, daughter
taking service with Marudu Pandiyan and of Periya Udaya Tevar and Velu Nachiyar,
Gopala Nayak. as the queen of Sivagangai. The Marudus
assumed the charge of the ministers. The
Bannerman brought the prisoners
temple of Kalayarkoil in the heart of the
to an assembly of the Palayakkarars and
then Sivagangai forest became the rallying
after a mockery of trial sentenced them
point of the rebels. When Umathurai
to death. On 16 October Veera Pandiya
reached Kamudhi after the execution of
Kattabomman was tried before an assembly
his brother Veera Pandiya Kattabomman,
of Palayakkarars at Kayatar. Unmindful of
Chinna Marudu took him to Siruvayal, his
impending death Kattabomman admitted all
capital.
the charges levelled against him. He declared
that he did send his armed men against Now, Nawab Mohammad Ali
Sivagiri and that he did fight the British released Muthuramalinga Thevar from
troops in the battle at Panchalamkurichi. On jail and enthroned him as the Setupati
17 October Kattabomman was hanged to of Ramanathapuram. But the rebels
death at a conspicuous spot near the old fort proclaimed Muthu Karuppa Thevar as
of Kayatar. Kattabomman’s heroic exploits their ruler. They occupied the southern
were the subject of many folk ballads which and northern regions of the kingdom. The
kept his memory alive among the people. soldiers made their entry into Madurai
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too. In July Umathurai led his followers the able commanders of the British army
to Palayanad in Madurai and captured won the day. Following Umathurai’s arrest
it. In 1801 both the Sivagangai and Marudu brothers were captured from
Ramanathapuram forces joined together the Singampunary hills, and Shevathiah
under the command of Shevatha Thambi, from Batlagundu and Doraiswamy, the
the son of Chinna Marudu, and marched son of Vellai Marudu from a village
along the coast towards Thanjavur. near Madurai. Chinna Marudu and his
Thereupon the distressed peasants in brother Vellai Marudu were executed at
Thanjavur also joined the force of Shevatha the fort of Tiruppatthur on 24 October
Thambi. Captain William Blackburne, the 1801. Umathurai and Shevathiah, with
resident of Thanjaur collected a force and several of their followers, were taken to
defeated Shevatha Thambi near Mangudi. Panchalamkurichi and beheaded on 16
Serfoji, the raja of Thanjavur stood firmly November 1801. Seventy three rebels were
by the British. Yet the fighters could elude banished to Penang in Malaya in April
the pursuit of the British troops by rapid 1802.
movements, while laying the entire region
waste.
Theeran Chinnamalai
18.3 South Indian Rebellion

1801
The victory over Tipu and Kattabomman
had released British forces from several
fronts to target the fighting forces in
Ramanathapuram and Sivagangai.
Thondaiman of Pudukottai had already
joined the side of the Company. The
Company had also succeeded in
winning the support of the descendent
of the former ruler of Sivagangai named
Padmattur Woya Thevar. Woya Thevar
was recognised by the Company as the
legitimate ruler of Sivagangai. This Theeran Chinnamalai
divisive strategy split the royalist group,
eventually demoralizing the fighting The Kongu country comprising Salem,
forces against the British. Coimbatore, Karur and Dindigul formed
In May 1801 a strong detachment part of the Nayak kingdom of Madurai
under the command of P.A. Agnew but had been annexed by the Wodayars
commenced its operations. Marching of Mysore. After the fall of the Wodayars,
through Manamadurai and Partibanur these territories together with Mysore
the Company forces occupied the rebel were controlled by the Mysore Sultans. As
strongholds of Paramakudi. In the clashes a result of the Third and Fourth Mysore
that followed both sides suffered heavy wars the entire Kongu region passed into
losses. But the fighters’ stubborn resistance the hands of the English.
and the Marudu brothers’ heroic battles Theeran Chinnamalai was a
made the task of the British formidable. In palayakkarar of Kongu country who fought
the end the superior military strength and the British East India Company. He was
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trained by the French and Tipu. In his bid English. Thus the Vellore Fort became
to launch an attack on the Company’s fort the meeting ground of the rebel forces of
in Coimbatore (1800), Chinnamalai tried south India. The sepoys and the migrants
taking the help of the Marudu brothers to Vellore held frequent deliberations,
from Sivagangai. He also forged alliances attended by the representatives of the
with Gopal Nayak of Virupatchi; Appachi sons of Tipu.
Gounder of Paramathi Velur; Joni Jon
Kahan of Attur Salem; Kumaral Vellai of Immediate Cause
Perundurai and Varanavasi of Erode in
In the meantime, the English enforced
fighting the Company.
certain innovations in the administration
Chinnamalai’s plans did not of the sepoy establishments. They
succeed as the Company stopped the prohibited all markings on the forehead
reinforcements from the Marudu brothers. which were intended to denote caste
Also, Chinnamalai changed his plan and and religious, and directed the sepoys
attacked the fort a day earlier. This led to to cut their moustaches to a set pattern.
the Company army executing 49 people. Added to these, Adjutant General Agnew
However, Chinnamalai escaped. Between designed and introduced under his direct
1800 and July 31, 1805 when he was supervision a new model turban for the
hanged, Chinnamalai continued to fight sepoys.
against the Company. Three of his battles
The most obnoxious innovation
are important: the 1801 battle on Cauvery
in the new turban, from the Indian point
banks, the 1802 battle in Odanilai and the
of view, was the leather cockade. The
1804 battle in Arachalur. The last and the
cockade was made of animal skin. Pig
final one was in 1805. During the final
skin was anathema to Muslims, while
battle, Chinnamalai was betrayed by his
upper caste Hindus shunned anything to
cook Chinnamalai and was hanged in
do with the cow’s hide. To make matters
Sivagiri fort.
worse the front part of the uniform had
been converted into a cross.
Vellore Revolt (1806) The order regarding whiskers,
Vellore Revolt 1806 was the culmination caste marks and earrings, which infringed
of the attempts of the descendents of the the religious customs of both Hindu and
dethroned kings and chieftains in south Muslim soldiers, was justified on the
India to throw of the yoke of the British grounds that, although they had not been
rule. After the suppression of revolt of prohibited previously by any formal order,
Marudu brothers, they made Vellore the it had never been the practice in any well-
centre of their activity. The organizers of regulated corps for the men to appear with
an Anti-British Confederacy continued them on parade.
their secret moves, as a result of which The first incident occurred in
no fewer than 3,000 loyalists of Mysore May 1806. The men in the 2nd battalion
sultans had settled either in the town of of the 4th regiment at Vellore refused to
Vellore or in its vicinity. The garrison of wear the new turban. When the matter
Vellore itself consisted of many aggrieved was reported to the Governor by Col.
persons, who had been reduced to dire Fancourt, commandant of the garrison,
straits as a sequel to loss of positions or he ordered a band of the 19th Dragoons
whose properties had been confiscated (Cavalry) to escort the rebels, against
or whose relatives were slain by the whom charges had been framed, to the
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Presidency for a trial. The 2nd battalion Outbreak of Revolt

of the 4th regiment was replaced by the
2nd battalion of the 23rd regiment of
Wallajahbad. The Court Martial tried 21
privates (a soldier of lower military rank)–
10 Muslims and 11 Hindus–, for defiance.
In pursuance of the Court Martial order
two soldiers (a Muslim and a Hindu) were
sentenced to receive 900 lashes each and
to be discharged from service.
Despite signals of protest the
Vellore Fort
Government decided to go ahead with the
change, dismissing the grievance of Indian At 2:00 a.m. on 10 July, the sentry at the
soldiers. Governor William Bentinck also main guard informed Corporal Piercy
believed that the ‘disinclination to wear saying that a shot or two had been fired
the turban was becoming more feeble.’ somewhere near the English barracks.
Though it was initially claimed Before Piercy could respond, the sepoys
that the officers on duty observed made a near simultaneous attack on the
nothing unusual during the night of July British guards, the British barracks and
9, it was later known that the English the officers’ quarters in the Fort. In the
officer on duty did not go on his rounds European quarters the shutters were kept
and asked one of the Indian officers to open, as they were the only means of
do the duty and Jameder Sheik Kasim, ventilation from the summer heat. The
later one of the principal accused, had rebels could easily fire the gun ‘through
done it. The leaders of the regiment who the barred windows on the Europeans,
were scheduled to have a field day on the lying unprotected in their beds.’ Fire was
morning of 10 July, used it as a pretext to set to the European quarters. Detachments
sleep in the Fort on the night of 9 July. were posted to watch the dwellings of the
The Muslim native adjutant contrived to European officers, ready to shoot anyone
post as many of his followers as possible who came out. A part of the 1st regiment
as guards within the Fort. took possession of the magazines (place
where gun powder and ball cartridges
Jamal-ud-din, one of the twelve stored). A select band of 1st Regiment
princes of Tipu family, who was suspected was making their rounds to massacre the
to have played a key role in the revolt, European officers in their quarters.
kept telling them in secret parleys that
the prince only required them to keep the Thirteen officers were killed, in
fort for eight days before which time ten addition to several European conductors of
thousand would arrive to their support. ordnance. In the barracks, 82 privates died,
He disclosed to them that letters had been and 91 were wounded.
written to dispossessed palayakkarars Major Armstrong of the 16th native
seeking their assistance. He also informed infantry was passing outside the Fort
that there were several officers in the when he heard the firing. He advanced
service of Purniah (Tipu’s erstwhile to the glacis and asked what the firing
minister) who were formerly in the meant. He was answered by a volley from
Sultan’s service and would undoubtedly the ramparts, killing him instantly. Major
join the standard. Coates, an officer of the English regiment
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who was on duty outside the Fort, on the 19th dragoons under the direction of
hearing of the revolt tried to enter the Lieutenant Blakiston. The troops entered
Fort. As he was unable to make it, he sent the place, headed by a squadron of the
off an officer, Captain Stevenson of 23rd, cavalry under Captain Skelton.
to Arcot with a letter addressed to Colonel The Gillespie’s men were met by
Gillespie, who commanded the cavalry a severe crossfire. In the ensuing battle,
cantonment there. The letter reached Colonel Gillespie himself suffered bruises.
Arcot, some 25 km away, at 6 a.m. Colonel The sepoys retreated. Hundreds escaped
Gillespie set out immediately, taking over the walls of the Fort, or threw down
with him a squadron of the 19th dragoons their arms and pleaded for mercy. Then
under Captain Young, supported by a the cavalry regiment assembled on the
strong troop of the 7th cavalry under parade ground and resolved to pursue the
Lieutenant Woodhouse. He instructed fleeing soldiers, who were exiting towards
Colonel Kennedy to follow him with the the narrow passage of escape afforded by
rest of the cavalry, leaving a detachment the sally port. A troop of dragoons and
to protect the cantonment and to keep up some native horsemen were sent round
the communication. to intercept the fleeing soldiers. All the
When Colonel Gillespie arrived at buildings in the Fort were searched,
the Vellore Fort at 9 a.m., he thought it and mutineers found in them pitilessly
prudent to await the arrival of the guns, slaughtered. Gillespie’s men wanted to
since there was continuous firing. Soon enter the building and take revenge on the
the cavalry under Kennedy came from princes, the instigators of the plot; but Lt.
Arcot. It was about 10 o’Clock. The gate Colonel Marriott resisted the attempt of
was blown open with the galloper guns of the dragoons to kill Tipu’s sons.
According to J. Blakistan, an eyewitness to Gillespie's atrocity, more than 800 bodies were
carried out of the fort. In W.J. Wilson's estimate 378 were jailed for involvement in the revolt;
516 were considered implicated but not imprisoned. Based on depositions before the Court of
Enquiry, the Court Martial awarded death punishment and banishment to select individuals,
which were carried out by the commanding officer of Vellore on 23 September 1806.
1st battalion of 1st Regiment

Blown from a gun ... 1 Havildar, 1 Naik
Shot ... 1 Naik, 4 sepoys
Hanged ... 1 Jamedar, 4 sepoys
Transported ... 3 Havildars, 2 Naiks, 1 sepoy.
2nd battalion of 23rd Regiment

Blown from a gun ... 2 Subedars, 2 Lascars
Hanged ... 2 Havildars, 1 Naik
(Source: W.J. Wilson, History of the Madras Army, vol. III, 1888-89).
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Colonel Gillespie is said to have of revenue farming system, the peasantry

brought the Fort under the possession was oppressed by the revenue contractors
of the English in about 15 minutes. and company officials who imposed
Col. Harcourt (Commanding Officer high revenue demands and collected
at Wallajahbad) was appointed to the them forcibly. Initially the peasants sent
temporary command of Vellore on July a petition to the Company’s government
11. Harcourt assumed command of the asking for redress. But when their appeal
garrison on 13 July, 1806 and clamped for justice went unheeded, they organized
martial law. It was believed that the prompt themselves and resorted to direct action.
and decisive action of Gillespie put an end They attacked the local cutchery (revenue
to ‘the dangerous confederacy, and had collector’ office), looted gain stores and
the fort remained in the possession of refused to pay revenue.
the insurgents but a few days, they were A peasant movement of the 1840s
certain of being joined by fifty thousand and 1850s was the Malabar rebellion
men from Mysore.’ in present day Kerala. The Mappillas
But the obnoxious regulations were the descendents of Arab traders
to which the soldiers objected were who had settled in this region and had
withdrawn. The Mysore princes were married the Malabar women. Gradually
ordered to be sent to Calcutta, as according the Mappillais became dependent on
the Commission of Inquiry, their agriculture and turned into a community
complicity could not be established. They of cultivating tenants, landless labourers,
were removed from Vellore, on 20 August petty traders and fishermen. When the
1806. The higher tribunals of the Home British took over Malabar in 1792, they
Government held the chief authorities sought to revamp the land relations by
of Madras, namely the Governor, the creating individual ownership in land.
Commander-in-Chief, and the Deputy The traditional system provided for an
Adjutant General, responsible for the equal sharing of the net produce of the
bungling and ordered their recall. land by the janmi (holder of janmam
Vellore had its echoes in Hyderabad, tenure), the kanamdar (holder of kanam
Wallajahbad, Bangalore, Nandydurg, tenure), and the cultivator. The British
Palayamkottai, Bellary and Sankaridurg. system upset this arrangement by
Vellore Revolt had all the forebodings recognising the janmi as absolute owners
of Great Rebellion of 1857, if the word of land, with right to evict tenants, which
cartridge is substituted by cockade and did not exist earlier. Apart from that,
Bahadur Shah and Nana Sahib could be over-assessment, a huge burden of illegal
read for Mysore Princes. cesses and a pro-landlord attitude of the
judiciary and the police led the peasants
to live in conditions of extreme poverty.
18.4 Peasant and Tribal
Revolts A series of incidents therefore
occurred in Malabar throughout the
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth nineteenth century. Three serious
centuries the land tenures and revenue incidents occurred in Manjeri in August
settlements of the Company’s government 1849, in Kulathur in August 1851 – both
had fundamentally disrupted the Indian in south Malabar – and in Mattannur in
rural society and affected the peasantry in the north in January 1852. British armed
an unprecedented manner. In the early days forces were deployed to suppress the
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revolt. The repressive measures restored Santhal Hool (rebellion),

peace for about twenty years, but then 1855-56
the Mappillas rose again in 1870 and the
events followed a similar course.
Some of the rebellions in pre-1857
India were of the tribals whose autonomy
and control over local resources were
threatened by the establishment of British
rule and the advent of its non-tribal
agents. The tribal people, spread over a
large part of India, rose up in hundreds
of insurrections during the 19th century.
These uprisings were marked by Santhal rebellion
immense courage on their part and brutal
suppression on the part of the rulers. Santhal, also called Manji, lived scattered
in various forest regions of Bengal, Bihar,
The Kol Uprising (1831-32) and Orissa. Driven from their homeland,
they cleared the area around the Rajmahal
Kols as tribals inhabited in Chotanagpur Hills and called it Damin-i-koh (land of
and Singbhum region of Bihar and Orissa. Santhals). They were gradually driven to
The immediate cause of their uprising a desperate situation as tribal lands were
was the action of the Raja of Chotanagpur leased out to non-Santhal zamindars and
in leasing several villages to the non- moneylenders. To this was added the
tribals. The Kols of Sonepur and Tamar oppression of the local police and the
took the initiative in organizing a revolt European officials engaged in railroad
against the thikadars (tax collectors). The construction. This penetration of dikus
forms of rebellion consisted of attacks on (outsiders) completely destroyed their
the properties of the outsiders, but not familiar world, and forced them into
their lives. Plunder and arson, were the action to take possession of their lost
chief modes of peasant protest. Sonepur territory.
pargana of Chotanagpur was raided,
plundered and burnt down by a body of In July 1855, when their ultimatum
seven hundred insurgents on 20 December to the zamindars and the government
1831. By 26 January 1832 the Kols had went unheeded, several thousand Santhals,
taken complete possession of the whole armed with bows and arrows, started an
of Chotanagpur. The revolt against the open insurrection “against the unholy
British had ended up in a war against the trinity of their oppressors-the zamindars,
Company government. Buddha Bhagat, the mahajans and the government.” At the
the leader of Kol insurrection was killed battle of Maheshpur, many of the Manjis
in a pitched battle. A sum of one thousand were dressed in red clothes. Later this
rupees was distributed among officers garment became an assertion of authority.
and soldiers as their reward for delivering In the first week of the rising a party of ten
Bhagat’s severed head to the authorities. men attacked and burnt down the village of
Bhindrai Manki who inspired the revolt Monkaparrah. The rebels included a number
surrendered on 19 March 1832 and with of women.
his surrender the revolt of Kols came to a Initially their leader was Sido. After
tragic end. his arrest the revolt was led by Kanoo. At
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the later stage of the revolt, the peasants Mirsa’s arrest and put up a reward for his
also joined. Several thousand peasants capture. Birsa became a martyr in Ranchi
raided on Charles Maseyk’s indigo jail (9 June 1900). His name continues to
factory and pillaged. This invited brutal inspire the tribals of the region.
counter-insurgency measures; the army
was mobilized and Santhal villages were
burnt one after another with vengeance. 18.5 Great Rebellion 1857
According to one calculation, out of
thirty to fifty thousand rebels, fifteen to Introduction
twenty thousand were killed before the 1857 has been a subject of much debate
insurrection was finally suppressed. among historians, both British and Indian.
British imperialist historians dismissed it a
Munda Rebellion mutiny, an outbreak among soldiers. Indian
historians who explored the role of the
people in converting a military outbreak into
a rebellion raised two questions to which the
imperial historians have had no answer. If it
was only a military outbreak how to explain
the revolt of the people even before the
sepoys at those stations mutinied? Why was it
necessary to punish the people with fine and
hanging for complicity in acts of rebellion?
Col. Mallesan, the Adjutant General of the
Bengal army in a pamphlet titled The Making
Munda Rebellion of the Bengal Army remarked, ‘a military
mutiny...speedily changed its character and
The rebellion (ulgulan) of the Munda became a national insurrection’.
tribesmen led by Birsa Munda, occurred The historian Keene attributed
during 1899-1900. Mundas were a the outbreak due to operation of variety
prominent tribe in the Bihar region. of factors: to the grievances of princes,
During the British rule their system of soldiers and the people, produced largely
common land holdings was destroyed. by the annexation and reforming zeal of
Jagirdars, thikadars (revenue farmers) and Dalhousie. The greased cartridge affair
moneylenders grabbed the land owned by merely ignited the combustible matter
them. Birsa, born in a poor share-cropper which had already accumulated. Edward
household in 1874, declared himself a John Thompson described the event
divine messenger to drive away the British ‘as largely a real war of independence’.
and establish Munda rule in the region. V.D. Savarkar, in his The War of Indian
Under his influence the Mundas strongly Independence, published in 1909, argued
opposed non-tribals occupying tribal that what the British had till then described
lands. He urged the Munda cultivators not as merely mutiny was, in fact, a war of
to pay rent to the zamindars. independence, much like the American
Birsa Munda led a revolt in the War of Independence. Despite the fact
Chotta Nagpur region. The indiscriminate that the English-educated middle class
slaughter of Munda women at Sail Rakab played no role in the rebellion, nationalist
did not deter the followers of Birsa. The historians championed this argument as
British authorities issued a warrant for the First War of Indian Independence.
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Causes of the Rebellion the first half of nineteenth century and in the
absence of any remission or relief from the
colonial state, small and marginal farmers
as well as cultivating tenants were subject to
untold misery.
Alienation of Muslim Aristocracy

and Intelligentsia
Muslims depended largely on public
1857 Great Rebellion
service. Before the Company’s rule, they
had filled the most honourable posts in
Territorial Aggrandisement former governments. As commandants
The annexation of Oudh and Jhansi by of cavalry some of them received high
Dalhousie employing the Doctrine of Lapse incomes. But under the Company’s
and the humiliating treatment meted out administration, they suffered. English
to Nana Sahib, the last Peshwa’s adopted language and western education
son produced much dissatisfaction. In pushed the Muslim intelligentsia into
the wake of the Inam Commission (1852) insignificance. The abolition of Persian
appointed by Bombay government to language in the law courts and admission
enquire into the cases of “land held rent-free into public service by examination
without authority,” more than 21,000 estates decreased the Muslim’s chances of official
were confiscated. The land settlement in employment.
the annexed territories, particularly in
Oudh, adversely affected the interests Religious Sentiments
of the talukdars, who turned against the
British. Moreover, in Oudh, thousands The Act of 1856 providing for enrolment
of inhabitants who depended on the royal of high caste men as sepoys in the Bengal
patronage and traders who were dealing army stipulated that future recruits give
in rich dresses and highly ornamented up martial careers or their caste scruples.
footwear and expensive jewellery lost their This apart, acts such as the abolition of
livelihood. Thus Dalhousie through his sati, legalization of remarriage of Hindu
expansionist policy created hardship to a widows, prohibition of infanticide were
number of people. viewed as interference in religious beliefs.
In 1850, to the repugnance of orthodox
Hindus, the Lex Loci Act was passed
Oppressive Land Revenue permitting converts to Christianity to
System retain their patrimony (right to inherit
The rate of land revenue was heavy when property from parents or ancestors).
compared with former settlements. Prior to Further the religious sentiments of
the British, Indian rulers collected revenue the sepoys – Hindus and Muslims – were
only when land was cultivated. The British outraged when information spread that
treated land revenue as a rent and not a the fat of cows and pigs was used in the
tax. This meant that revenue was extracted greased cartridges. The Indian sepoys
whether the land was cultivated or not, and were to bite them before loading the new
at the same rate. The prices of agricultural Enfield rifle. This was viewed as a measure
commodities continued to crash throughout to convert people to Christianity.
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In every sense, therefore, 1857 was Henry Havelock, who was sent to deal
a climatic year. The cartridge affair turned with the situation, defeated Nana Sahib
out to be a trigger factor for the rebellion. the day after the massacre. Neill, who was
The dispossessed, discontented rajas, left there, took terrible vengeance and
ranis, zamindars and tenants, artisans and those whom he regarded as guilty were
workers, the Muslim intelligentsia, priests, executed. Towards the close of November
and the Hindu pandits saw the eruption as Tantia Topi seized Kanpur but it was soon
an opportunity to redress their grievances. recovered by Campbell.
Course of the Revolt

The rebellion first began as a mutiny in
Barrackpore (near Calcutta). Mangal
Pandey murdered his officer in January
1857 and a mutiny broke out there. In
the following month, at Meerut, of the 90
sepoys who were to receive their cartridges
only five obeyed orders. On 10 May three
sepoy regiments revolted, killed their Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai Nana Sahib
officers, and released those who had been The Lucknow residency, defended
imprisoned. The next day they reached by Henry Lawrence fell into the hands
Delhi, murdered Europeans, and seized of rebels. Havelock marched towards
that city. The rebels proclaimed Bahadur Lucknow after defeating Nana Sahib,
Shah II as emperor. but he had to retire. By the close of July
John Nicholson sent by John Lawrence
to capture Delhi succeeded in capturing
Delhi. The Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah
II now became a prisoner and his two sons
and grandson were shot dead after their
surrender.

Mangal Pandey Bahadur Shah II Resistance in Oudh was prolonged
because of the involvement of talukdars
By June the revolt had spread to as well as peasants in the revolt. Many of
Rohilkhand, where the whole countryside these taluqdars were loyal to the Nawab
was in rebellion. Khan Bahadur Khan of Awadh, and they joined Begum Hazrat
proclaimed himself the viceroy of Mahal (the wife of the NawabWajid Ali
the Emperor of India. Nearly all of Shah) in Lucknow to fight the British.
Bundelkhand and the entire Doab region Since a vast majority of the sepoys were
were up in arms against the British. At from peasant families in the villages of
Jhansi, Europeans were massacred and Oudh, the grievances of the peasants had
Laxmi Bai, aged 22, was enthroned. In affected them. Oudh was the nursery
Kanpur Nana Sahib led the rebels. About of the Bengal Army for a long time. The
125 English women and their children sepoys from Oudh complained of low
along with English officers were killed levels of pay and the difficulty of getting
and their bodies were thrown into a well. leave. They all rallied behind Begum
Termed as the Kanpur massacre, this Hazrat Mahal. Led by Raja Jailal Singh,
incident angered the British and General they fought against the British forces
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and seized control of Lucknow and she

declared her son, Birjis Qadra, as the
ruler (Wali) of Oudh. Neill who wreaked
terrible vengeance in Kanpur was shot
dead in the street fighting at Lucknow.
Lucknow could be finally captured only in
March 1858.
Neill’s statue on the Mount Road,

Madras angered the Indian nationalists.
The Congress Ministry of Rajaji (1937-39)
removed it and lodged it in the Madras
Museum.
Queen Victoria
Hereafter India would be governed by
Hugh Rose besieged Jhansi and
and in the name of the British Monarch
defeated Tantia Topi early in April.
through a Secretary of State. The
Yet Lakshmi Bai audaciously captured
Secretary of State was to be assisted
Gwalior forcing pro-British Scindia to flee.
by a Council of India consisting of
Rose with his army directly confronted
fifteen members. As a result, the
Lakshmi Bai. In this battle Lakshmi Bai
Court of Directors and the Board of
died fighting admirably. Rose described
Control of the East India Company
Lakshmi Bai as the best and bravest
were abolished and the Crown and
military leader of the rebels.
Parliament became constitutionally
Gwalior was recaptured soon. In July responsible for the governance of
1858 Canning announced the suppression India. The separate army of the East
of the “Mutiny” and restoration of peace. India Company was abolished and
Tantia Topi was captured and executed in merged with that of Crown.
April 1859. Proclamation endorsed the treaties
Bahadur Shah II, captured in made by the Company with Indian
September 1857, was tried and declared princes, promised to respect their
guilty. He was exiled to Rangoon rights, dignity and honour, and
(Myanmar), where he died in November disavowed any ambition to extend the
1862 at the age of 87. With his death the existing British possessions in India.
Mughal dynasty came to an end. The new council of 1861 was to have
Indian nomination, since the Parliament
Effects of the Great Rebellion thought the Legislative Council of
1853 consisted of only Europeans who
Queen’s Proclamation 1858 had never bothered to consult Indian
A Royal Durbar was held at Allahabad opinion and that led to the crisis.
on November 1, 1858. The proclamation The Doctrine of Lapse and the policy
issued by Queen Victoria was read at the of annexation to be given up. A general
Durbar by Lord Canning, who was the last amnesty (pardon) to be granted to
Governor General and the first Viceroy of the rebels except those who directly
India. involved in killing the British subjects.
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The educational and public works Hopes of a revival of the past diminished
programmes (roads, railways, and the traditional structure of Indian
telegraphs, and irrigation) were society began to break down. A
stimulated by the realization of their Westernized English-educated middle
value for the movement of troops in class soon emerged with a heightened
times of emergency. sense of nationalism.
SUMMARY
The resistance of Haider and Tipu against the Company government, leading to
four Anglo-Mysore Wars is dealt with.
The rebellions of Puli Thevar, Veera Pandiya Kattabomman, Velu Nachiyar,
Marudu Brothers, all southern palayakkarars, and Theeran Chinnamalai in the
Kongu region are explained
The last ditch battle of southern palayakkarars in association with the dethroned
kings and rulers in south India under the aegis of Tipu’s surviving sons interned in
Vellore fort is highlighted.
The 1857 rebellion of kings of displaced Jagirdars and Zamindars, and peasants
that shook the foundation of the British empire are discussed in detail.
The transfer of India to the British crown with the Queen’s proclamation of 1858
and its salient features are examined.
EXERCISE
I Choose the correct answer:-
1.
_________ became the de facto ruler of Mysore against the Wodeyar kings after
successfully handling the Marathas.
(a) Haider Ali (b) Nanjaraja (c) Nagama Nayak (d) Tipu Sultan
2.
Tipu Sultan’s capture of _______ led to the third Anglo-Mysore War.
(a) Calicut (b) Coorg (c) Cranganore (d) Dindigul
3.
The Palayakkarar system was originally practised in _____ Kingdom.
(a) Vijayanagar (b) Bahmani (c) Kakatiya (d) Hoysala
4.
______ brought Puli Thevar’s three major forts, Nerkattumseval, Vasudevanallur amd
Panayur under his control.
(a) Mafus Khan (b) Yusuf Khan (c) Colonel Heron (d) Nabikhan Kattak
5.
Velu Nachiyar was the daughter of Raja of _____.
(a) Sivagangai (b) Pudhukkotai (c) Ramanathapuram (d) Palavanatham
6.
_______ was the collector who was dismissed from service for mishandling the affairs of
Veera Pandiya Kattabomman.
(a) W.C. Jackson (b) A. Bannerman (c) S.R. Lushington (d) P.A. Agnew
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Unit - 5
Social and
Religious Reform
Movements in the
19th Century
Learning Objectives
The influence of Western ideas and Christianity in creating a new
awakening in 19th century British India
Contestation in the social and religious sphere – opposition to
practices like sati, slavery, untouchability, and child marriage
Opposition to idolatry, rituals and superstitious beliefs
Contribution of Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Theosophical
Society and Aligarh Movement to the regeneration of India
Role played by prominent personalities in bringing about this awakening amongst
Parsees and Sikhs
Social movement of Jyotiba Phule and reform movements in Kerala and Tamilnadu
Introduction broad categories: reformist movements like the

Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj and the
English education, introduced with the
Aligarh Movement; and the revivalist movements
object of producing clerks, also produced a
such as the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna
new English-educated middle class. This class
Mission and the Deoband Movement. There were
came under the influence of western ideas and
also attempts to challenge the oppressive social
thoughts. Christianity also had its effect on the
structure by Jyotiba Phule in Pune, Narayana
newly emerging middle class. Though small in
Guru and Ayyankali in Kerala and Ramalinga
number, the educated middle class began to take
Adigal, Vaikunda Swamigal and Iyothee Thassar
a lead in political as well as in reform movements.
of Tamil Nadu.
The Indian reformers were, however, quite
hesitant to subject their old notions and habits
to critical scrutiny. Instead they attempted to Early Reform
harmonize both Indian and Western cultures. 5.1
Movements in Bengal
Their ideas and their actions helped to mitigate
social evils such as sati, female infanticide, and (a) Raja Rammohan Roy and
child marriage and various superstitious beliefs. Brahmo Samaj
The reform movements of nineteenth Rammohan Roy (1772–1833) was one
century in the realm of religion fall under two of the earlier reformers influenced by the
67 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century

Western ideas to temple in Calcutta, where there was no image.
initiate reforms. He There he laid down that ‘no religion should be
was a great scholar, reviled or slightly or contemptuously spoken off
well-versed in Sanskrit, or alluded to.’ The Samaj forbade idol-worship
Arabic, Persian, and and condemned meaningless religious rites
English apart from and ceremonies. However, from the beginning,
his knowledge in the appeal of the Brahmo Samaj remained
his mother tongue, limited to the intellectuals and enlightened
Bengali. Rammohan Bengalis. Though the Samaj failed to attract the
Roy was opposed to people from the lower sections of society, its
meaningless religious Raja Rammohan Roy impact on the culture of modern Bengal and
ceremonies and all forms of pernicious social its middle class was quite significant.
customs. Yet he wanted to preserve continuity
with the past. In his religio–philosophical (b) Maharishi Debendranath Tagore
social outlook, he was deeply influenced by After the death
monotheism and anti-idolatry. Based on his of Rammohan Roy
interpretation of the Upanishads, he argued (1833), Maharishi
that all the ancient texts of the Hindus Debendranath Tagore
preached monotheism or worship of one God. (1817–1905), the poet
Deeply concerned with the prevailing Rabindranath Tagore’s
customs of sati, child marriage, and polygamy father, carried on the
he published tracts against them and work. He laid down
petitioned the government to legislate against four articles of faith:
them. He advocated the rights of widows to 1. In the beginning
remarry. He wanted polygamy to end. His there was nothing. Debendranath Tagore
opinions were resisted fiercely by orthodox The one Supreme Being alone existed who
Hindus. He appealed to reason and humanity created the Universe. 2. He alone is the God
and compassion of the people. He visited the of Truth, Infinite Wisdom, Goodness, and
crematorium of Calcutta to try and persuade Power, eternal, omnipresent, the One without
the relatives of widows to give up their plan of second. 3. Our salvation depends on belief
self-immolation. His campaign played a key in Him and in His worship in this world and
role in forcing the Governor-General William the next. 4. Belief consists in loving Him and
Bentinck’s legislation abolishing sati in 1829. doing His will.
Rammohan Roy condemned the (c ) Keshab Chandra Sen &

subjugation of women and opposed the Brahmo Samaj of India
prevailing ideas that women were inferior
Debendranath was
to men. He strongly advocated education
a moderate reformer.
for women. He gave his full support for the
But his younger
introduction of English language and western
colleagues in the Sabha
sciences in schools and colleges. Rammohan
were for rapid changes.
found in the Upanishads a new revelation of
The greatest of these,
one infinite, divine Being, the eternal Brahman,
Keshab Chandra Sen,
while Hinduism as he saw in the daily life
(1838–84) joined the
around him was a perversion of their teaching.
movement in 1857. He
Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo was greatly influenced
Samaj in 1828. On 20 August 1828 he opened a by Christianity, Keshab Chandra Sen
Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century 68

believing in its spirit but not in the person It was also to the credit of Vidyasagar
of its founder. But in 1866 a split occurred that the first age of consent Act was
in the ranks of Brahmo Samaj. Keshab left enacted in 1860. The age for marriage
the Samaj and founded a new organization. was fixed as ten years. It was raised to
Debendranath’s organization, thereafter, came twelve and thirteen years in 1891 and 1925
to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj. After respectively. Sadly, as reported in the Age
Keshab had his fourteen-year-old daughter of Consent Committee (1929), the law
married to an Indian prince, in contravention remained on paper and the knowledge of it
of the Samaj’s condemnation of child marriages, was confined to judges, lawyers and a few
the opponents of child marriage left the Brahmo educated men.
Samaj of India and started the Sadharan Samaj,
which developed anti-Christian tendencies.
steam. A movement similar to the Brahmo
(d) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Samaj, but founded in Bombay in 1867,
was Prarthana Samaj. Its founder was
Another Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang (1825–1898).
outstanding The two distinguished members of this
reformer in Samaj were R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice
Bengal was Mahadev Govind Ranade. They devoted
Ishwar Chandra themselves to activities such as inter-
Vidyasagar caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow
(1820–1891). remarriage and improvement of women
While Ram and depressed classes. Ranade (1842–1901)
Mohan Roy and was the founder of the Widow Marriage
others looked Association (1861), the Poona Sarvajanik
to western Sabha (1870) and the Deccan Education
rationalist ideas Society (1884).
to reform society, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar
Vidyasagar argued that the Hindu scriptures While the above reformers worked among
were progressive. He provided evidence from the upper castes, during the same time Jyotiba
scriptures that there was no sanction for Phule worked for the uplift of depressed
burning of widows or for the prohibition on castes and the cause of women. His book
the remarriage of widows. He wrote a number Gulamgiri (‘Slavery’) is an important work
of polemical tracts, and was the pioneer of that condemned the inequities of caste.
modern Bengali prose. He played a leading
role in promoting education of girls and
helped them in setting up a number of schools.
He dedicated his whole life for the betterment
of the child widows of the Hindu society. The
movement led by Vidyasagar, resulted in the
Widows’ Remarriage Reform Act of 1856.
This Act was intended to improve the lot of
child widows and save them from perpetual
widowhood.
(e) Prarthana Samaj

The Maharashtra region was another
region where reform activities gained Dr. Atma Ram M.G. Ranade
Pandurang

5.2 Hindu Revivalism In 1893 Arya Samaj split over the
question of doctrinal purity. Swami
(a) Swami Dayanand Saraswati Shraddhananda (1857–1926), a charismatic
and Arya Samaj, 1875 figure after Dayananda, accused the group
In the Punjab, running the DAV School of being too
the reform movement Westernized and thereby ignoring the
was spearheaded by founder’s ideology. From 1900 onward, he
the Arya Samaj. It was established his own network of schools, the
founded (1875) by a Gurukulas, which were outwardly modelled
wandering ascetic in after ancient Hindu seats of learning,
the western Gangetic emphasising the study of the Vedas.
plain, Swami Dayanand
Saraswati (1824–83).
Swami Dayanand later (b) Ramakrishna
settled in the Punjab to As we saw earlier, the Brahmo Samaj,
Swami Dayanand
preach his ideas. His book, Saraswati as a response to Christian and rationalist
Satyarthaprakash, enjoyed criticism had criticised idolatry and other
wide circulation. He declared the practices orthodox Hindu practices. The popularity
such as child marriage, the prohibition of that Ramakrishna (l836–86), a simple priest
widow remarriage, and the alleged polluting of Dakshineswar near Kolkata, gained in the
effects of foreign travel had no scriptural latter half of the nineteenth century was a
sanction. The positive principles enunciated response to this. He emphasised the spiritual
by Dayanand were: strict monotheism, union with god through ecstatic practices such
condemnation of idolatry, and rejection of as singing bhajans. An ardent worshipper of
Brahman domination of ritual and social goddess Kali, the sacred mother, he declared
practices. He also rejected superstitious that the manifestations of the divine mother
beliefs in Hinduism, especially Puranic were infinite. In his view, all religions contain
literature and his cry was “go back to Vedas.” the universal elements which, if practised,
Arya Samaj attempted to check the would lead to salvation. He said, “Jiva is Siva”
incidence of religious conversion in (all living beings are God). Why then talk
British India. One of its main objectives of showing mercy to them? Not mercy, but
was counter-conversion, prescribing a service, service for man, must be regarded as
purificatory ceremony called suddhi, God.’
directed at Hindus who had converted to
Islam and Christianity.
The late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries were a period of great turmoil
in undivided Punjab with intense debates
between Hinduism, Islam and Christianity.
The primary achievements of the Arya
Samaj were in the field of social reform and Ramakrishna Ramakrishna Mission,
spread of education. The Samaj started a Belur Math
number of Dayananda Anglo–Vedic schools Ramakrishna Mission
and colleges.
Ramakrishna’s primary achievement
was his ability to attract educated youth

who were dissatisfied with the rational involved in the militant nationalist struggle
orientation of religious reform organizations during the Swadeshi movement following
such as the Brahmo Samaj. After his death the Partition of Bengal were inspired by
in 1886, his disciples organised themselves Vivekananda.
as a religious community and undertook the
task of making his life and teaching known (d) Theosophical Movement
in India and abroad. The chief spirit behind During the nineteenth century, Hindu
this task was Vivekananda. Following religion and culture were being discredited
the organizational structure of Christian in the West, especially due to missionary
missionaries, Vivekananda established propaganda. However, some Western
the Ramakrishna Mission which did not intellectuals looked to the East for spiritual
restrict itself to religious activities but was salvation as a remedy to the materialistic
actively involved in social causes such as orientation of the West. The Theosophical
education, health care and relief in times Society, founded by Madame H.P. Blavatsky
of calamities. (1831–1891) and Colonel H.S Olcott (1832–
(c) Swami Vivekananda 1907) played a key role in this. Founded in
the USA in 1875, it later shifted to India at
Narendra Nath Datta (l863–1902), later
Adyar, Chennai in 1886.
known as Swami Vivekananda, was the prime
follower of Ramakrishna Paramahansa.
An educated youth, he was drawn to
Ramakrishna’s message. Dissatisfied with
conventional philosophical positions and
practices, he advocated the practical Vedanta
of service to humanity and attacked the
tendency to defend every institution simply
because it was connected with religion.
He emphasized a cultural nationalism and
made a call to Indian youth to regenerate
Hindu society. His ideas bred a sense of self- Madame Blavatsky Colonel H.S
confidence among Indians who felt inferior Olcott
in relation to the materialist achievements of
Theosophical Society stimulated a
the West. He became famous for his addresses
study of the Hindu classics, especially
on Hinduism at the 1893 World Congress
the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.
of Religions in Chicago. Despite his fame,
The Theosophical Society also played an
he was condemned by orthodox Hindus for
important role in the revival of Buddhism in
suggesting that the lower
India. Western interest in Hindu scriptures
castes should be allowed
gave educated Hindus great pride in their
to engage in the Hindu
tradition and culture.
rituals from which
they were traditionally Contribution of Annie Besant
excluded. Vivekananda’s
In India the movement became further
ac t ivist ide olog y
popular with the election of Annie Besant
rekindled the desire for
(1847–1933) as its president after the death of
political change among
Olcott. She played a role in Indian nationalist
many western-education
Swami politics, and formed the Home Rule League
young Bengalis. Many
Vivekananada demanding home rule to India on the lines
of the youths who were

of Ireland. Annie Besant (b) Narayana Guru
spread Theosophical ideas
Born to poor
through her newspapers
parents in Kerala,
called New India and
Narayana Guru (1854–
Commonweal.
1928) evolved into a
poet and scholar in
5.3 Anti-Caste Malayalam, Tamil and
Movements Sanskrit. In his days
Annie Besant the people of depressed
(a) Jyotiba Phule classes had no access Narayana Guru
Jyotiba Govindrao Phule was born in 1827 to temples, streets, public tanks and wells and
in Maharashtra. Phule is chiefly known educational institutions. Men and women
belonging to lower castes were not allowed
to wear the upper garments. Disturbed by
the terrible caste tyranny, that the lower caste
people suffered, he dedicated his whole life
for the betterment of the oppressed. He set up
the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam,
an organization to work for the uplift of the
“depressed classes”. He established a grand
temple at Aruvipuram and dedicated it to all. His
movement inspired a radical transformation of
Kerala society, especially among the Ezhavas.
Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule Thinkers and writers such as Kumaran Asan
and Dr Palpu were influenced by his ideas and
as the earliest leader of the non-Brahman carried forward the movement.
movement. He opened the first school for
“untouchables” in 1852 in Poona. He launched (c) Ayyankali
the Satyashodak Samaj (Truth-Seekers Nineteenth-
Society) in 1870 to stir the non-Brahman century Kerala region
masses to self-respect and ambition. Phule was plagued by caste
opposed child marriage and supported widow discriminations of
remarriage, which was prohibited particularly worst kind. Certain
among high-caste Hindus. Jyotiba and his social groups were
wife Savitribai Phule devoted their lives not only considered
for the uplift of the depressed classes and untouchable but also
women. Jotiba opened orphanages and homes un-seeable. However,
for widows. Unlike many contemporary the strident campaigns
nationalists he welcomed British rule and by thinkers such as Ayyankali
missionary activities on the ground that Narayana Guru and Ayyankali (1863–1941)
British rule enabled lower castes to challenge in the context of larger political and economic
the supremacy of Brahmins. His work, changes ushered in tremendous social
Gulamgiri (Slavery) is an important text that changes, especially in the caste structure.
summarized many of his radical ideas.
Ayyankali was born in 1863 at Venganoor
in Thiruvananthapuram then in the princely
state of Travancore. The discrimination he

faced as a child turned him into a leader of an founded a scientific society and translated
anti-caste movement and who later fought for many English books, especially science
basic rights including access to public spaces books into Urdu. He believed that the interest
and entry to schools. Ayyankali challenged of the Muslims would be best served if they
many caste conventions such as clothing bonded with the British Government rather
style; he wore clothes associated with upper than pitch in with the rising nationalist
castes that were prohibited for lower castes. movement. So he advised the Muslims to
He rode on an ox-cart challenging the ‘ban’ take to English education and to concentrate
on untouchables from accessing public roads on it.
used by caste Hindus.
Aligarh Movement
Inspired by Sree Narayana Guru,
Ayyankali founded the Sadhu Jana Paripalana S a y y i d
Sangam (Association for the Protection of the Ahmed Khan’s
Poor) in 1907 which campaigned and raised movement,
funds to educate the lower caste Pulaya people. the “Aligarh
m o v e m e n t ,”
5.4 Islamic Reforms is so called
because it was
After the suppression of great revolt
centred around
of 1857 Indian Muslims looked to Western
the Aligarh
culture with suspicion. The community feared
Mo h a m m e d a n
that Western education, Western culture and
Anglo-Oriental
Western ideas would endanger their religion.
college founded
Therefore only a small section of Muslims
by him in Aligarh Muslim University
accepted the new avenues for modern
1875, which is
education. Consequently, Indian Muslims as
a landmark in the history of Indian Muslim
a community lagged behind in comparison to
education. The college was raised to the status
the Hindu elite of various parts of India.
of a university in 1920. Aligarh produced a
Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan huge body of intelligentsia over successive
generations who played a key role in public life.
As Indian Muslims
steadily lost ground in Deoband Movement
education, in the public
services and in general Deoband was a revivalist movement
leadership in India, there organized by the orthodox Muslim Ulema
was a realization that there with the twin objectives of propagating the
was no alternative but to pure teachings of the Quran and the Hadith as
accept modern education well as encouraging the spirit of Jihad against
Sayyid Ahmed the foreign and un-Islamic elements. The
if the community was to Khan
go on the path of progress. Ulema under the leadership of Muhammad
The man who gave life and soul to it was Sir QasimWanotavi (1832-80) and Rashid Ahmad
Sayyid Ahmed Khan (1817–1898). Born in Gangotri (1828-1905) founded the school at
Delhi into a noble Muslim family, Sayyid Deoband in the Saharanpur district of the
Ahmed Khan thought that lack of education, U.P in 1866. The school curricula shut out
especially modern education, had harmed English education and western culture. The
the Muslims greatly and kept them backward. instruction imparted was in original Islamic
He exhorted the Muslims to accept Western religion and the aim was moral and religious
science and take up government services. He regeneration of the Muslim community. The

Deoband School did not prepare its students to reform. Baba Dayal Das, founder of the
for government jobs but for the preaching of Nirankari Movement, stressed the worship of
Islamic faith. god as Nirankar (formless). Rejection of idols,
In politics, the Deoband School welcomed rejection of rituals associated with idolatry,
the formation of the Indian National Congress reverence for the authority of Guru Nanak
in 1885. In 1888 the Deoband Ulema issued and of the Adi Granth formed the essence of
a religious decree (fatwa) against Syed his teachings. He reiterated the prohibition on
Ahmed Khan’s Organisation called “The meat-eating, and liquor consumption.
United Patriotic Association” and “The The Namdhari Movement, founded by
Muhammaden Anglo – Oriental Association.” Baba Ram Singh, was another socio-religious
It is said the Deoband Ulema were mainly movement among the Sikhs. The Namdharis
influenced by their determination to oppose insisted on wearing the symbols of Sikhism
Sir Syed Ahmed’s activities. except the kirpan (sword). Instead Baba Ram
Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hassan became the Singh wanted his followers to carry a lathi. It
new Deoband leader. The Jamait-Ul-Ulema considered both men and women equal and
(council of theologians) led by him gave a accepted widow remarriage. It prohibited the
concrete shape to Hassan’s ideas of protection dowry system and child marriage.
of the religious and political rights of the In the wake of the gathering influence of
Muslims in the overall context of Indian unity. Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries,
the Singh Sabha of Amritsar was established.
Its main objective was to restore the purity
5.5 Parsi Reform Movement
of Sikhism. With the support of British, it
In the middle of the nineteenth century established Khalsa College for the Sikhs in
the reform activities of the educated Parsis (the Amritsar. Singh Sabha was a forerunner of
Zoroastrians who had fled from Iran in the tenth Akali Movement.
century in the face of religious persecution)
began in Mumbai. Furdunji Naoroji founded S
ocial Reformers of
the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Parsis’ 5.7
Tamilnadu
Reform Society) in 1851. Rast Goftar (The Truth
Teller) was the main voice of the movement. (a) Ramalinga Swamigal
The leaders of the Sabha criticized elaborate
Popularly known
ceremonies at betrothals, marriages and
as Vallalar, Ramalinga
funerals. They opposed both infant marriage
Swamigal or Ramalinga
and the use of astrology. Behrramji Malabari
Adigal (1823–1874), was
organized a campaign for legislation against
born in Marudhur, a village
the practice of child marriage. The community
near Chidambaram. After
produced many leaders such as Pherozeshah
his father’s death, his family
Mehta and Dinshaw Wacha who played a big
moved to his brother’s house at Chennai. Despite
role in the early Congress.
having no formal education he gained immense
scholarship. Ramalinga emphasised the bonds
Sikh Reform Movement of responsibility and compassion between living
5.6 (Nirankaris and beings. He expressed the view that ‘those who
Namdharis) lack compassion for suffering beings are hard-
The wave of reform movements did not hearted, their wisdom clouded’. He showed
leave any community untouched. Among his compassion and mercy on all living beings
the Sikhs of Punjab too there were attempts including plants. This he called jeevakarunya.

He established the Samarasa Vedha Sanmarga had no opportunity to have any systematic school
Sangam in 1865 and it was renamed “Samarasa education but acquired knowledge of various
Suddha Sanmarga Satya Sanga” which means religious texts. He preached the ideas of equality
“Society for Pure Truth in Universal self-hood”. and advocated the rights of depressed class
Ramalinga also established a free feeding house people in the face of stiff opposition from upper
for everyone irrespective of caste at Vadalur castes as well as the princely state of Travancore.
(1867), in the wake of a terrible famine in
south India in 1866. His voluminous songs Vaikunda Swamikal criticised the
were compiled and published under the title rule of the British and the rule of Rajah of
Thiruvarutpa (Songs of Grace). His radical Travancore as the rule of White devils and
views deeply disturbed Saiva orthodoxy, who Black devils respectively.
condemned his writings as Marutpa (songs of
ignorance). He visited Tiruchendur temple and
experienced a new vision. Calling himself
Vaikundar, he requested the people to give up all
the irrelevant rites and rituals in their worship.
His preaching’s against the prevailing religious
order brought about a considerable change
in the attitude of the lower caste people. In
1833, Vaikundar commenced his meditation at
Ramalinga Vadalur Satya Gnana Sabha Samithoppu for the abolition of caste differences
Adigal and social integration of the society. During this
period, he led a life of a hermit.
Ramalinga bore witness to hunger and In south Travancore, there were many
poverty in the country: “I saw poor people, restrictions on lower caste people such as what
emaciated with hunger and terribly weary, they could wear and not wear. At a time when
going to every house, yet their hunger there was prohibition on certain sections on
was not removed, and my heart suffered wearing headgear he advocated the wearing of
intensely. Those who suffer with relentless a turban in protest. It gave a sense of honour
disease, I saw them in front of me and my to the oppressed people and offered a spirit of
heart trembled. I saw those people, poor self-respect. A new confidence was installed
and of unmatched honor, their hearts in the minds of his followers.
weary, and I grew weak.” Like the other contemporary reform
movements of India in the 19 th century, Vaikunda
(b) Vaikunda Swamikal Swamigal condemned the worship of idols. The
Vaikunda Swami low caste people had no temples for their gods,
(1809–1851), one of the they erected small pyramids of mud or bricks
earliest crusaders for in their honor, plastered and white-washed. He
social justice in south considered this kind of worship as an uncivilized
India was born at Sasthan custom. The people sacrificed goats, cocks and
Koil Vilai, the present hens. He condemned these religious customs
Samithoppu, a village and campaigned against animal sacrifice.
near Kanyakumari. Vaikunda Swamigal founded Samathuva
His original name Vaikunda Swamigal Samajam to unite all the people of various
Mudichudum Perumal was changed to castes. He organized inter-dining to accomplish
Muthukutty by his parents due to objection it. Even though he was imprisoned by the
raised by the upper caste Hindus. Muthukutti Maharajah of Travancore, he never gave up his

principles. His followers called him respectfully Pandithar Iyothee Thassar founded the
as Ayya (father). His cult was also known as Advaidananda Sabha to raise the voice for the
Ayya Vazhi (The Path of Ayya). His message temple entry of the “untouchables”. In 1882,
emancipated the people from the unjust social John Rathinam and Iyothee Thassar established
customs and superstitious beliefs. His ideas are a movement called, Dravida Kazhagam and
collected into a text called Akila Thirattu. launched a magazine called Dravida Pandian in
C. Iyothee Thassar 1885. He founded the Dravida Mahajana Sabha
in 1891and organised the First Conference of
Pandithar Iyothee the association at Nilgiris. He started a weekly
Thassar (1845–1914) journal, Oru Paisa Tamilan, in 1907 and
was a radical Tamil published it until his demise in 1914.
scholar, writer, siddha Pandithar Iyothee Thassar was disappointed
medicine practitioner, with the Hindu dharma, which served as the
journalist and socio- basis for propagating and validating caste in
political activist. Born Iyothithassar Hindu society. Influenced by the Theosophist
in Chennai, he was organizer, Colonel H.S. Olcott, he went to Sri
fluent in Tamil, English, Sanskrit and Pali Lanka in 1898 and converted to Buddhism. In
the same year, he founded the Sakya Buddhist
languages. He initiated a new knowledge
Society at Madras to construct the rational
practice by using journalism as a tool to
religious philosophy through Buddhist religion.
make inroads into the print public sphere, He argued that the so-called untouchables were
which, was hitherto an upper caste domain. originally Buddhists who were stigmatized
He campaigned for social justice and worked by Brahminism. He further constructed an
for the emancipation of the “untouchables” alternative history through the interpretation
from the caste clutches. He worked for the of Tamil literature and folk traditions of Tamil
construction of a casteless identity and from a Buddhist standpoint. In addition, he
stated that the revival of Buddhism could
castigated caste hegemony and untouchability.
liberate the people from the evil of caste that
He considered education as an important tool
afflicted the Hindu society. He called the
for empowerment and became the driving “untouchables” Sathi Petham Atra Dravidar
force behind the establishment of several (Casteless Dravidians) and urged them to
schools for the “untouchables” in Tamil Nadu. register as casteless Dravidians in the Census.
SUMMARY
A brief account of Raja Rammohan Roy’s initiatives for social and cultural reforms has been

provided.
The foundation of Brahmo Samaj by Ram mohan Roy and the role played by Maharishi

Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen in carrying forward the Brahmo Samaj activities
after Roy’s death are discussed.
The contribution of M.G. Ranade and Prarthana Samaj with which he was associated are examined.

The attempts made by Arya Samaj under the aegis of Swami Dayanad Saraswati to reform Hinduism

as well as to win converts to the Hindu fold are highlighted.
The radical reformer Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and his strivings for women’s cause are described.


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Lesson Evolution of Society

in South India
5
Learning Objectives
To understand the social and political formation in early south India from the
third century BCE to the fifth century CE
Introduction
Stupas. The stupa is a heap of clay
In the Deccan region, encompassing major that evolved out of earthen funerary
parts of present day Andhra, Karnataka and mounds, in which the ashes of the dead
Maharashtra, the Satavahanas established a were buried. Buddhist stupas evolved
powerful kingdom in the first century BCE. out of the burial of the ashes of the
In the south, the three family ruling houses, mortal remains of the Buddha. Buddhist
the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas sacred architecture originated with
were their contemporaries, ruling the fertile the eight stupas where the ashes were
parts of Tamizhagam. But the Tamil rulers divided. Hemispherical shape, the stupa
started two centuries earlier as they figure symbolizes the universe; and the Buddha
in Asoka’s inscriptions of the third century represents the emperor of the spiritual
BCE. There were many common things as universe. The stupa has a path around it
for devotional circumambulation.
well as differences in the polity and society
of the Deccan and Tamil regions.
Sources The coins issued by the Cheras, Cholas,
Archaeological Pandyas, and the chieftains of the
Sangam Age.
The megalithic burials sites of the
early historic period. Roman copper, silver and gold coins.
Excavated material from ancient
sites, including ports, capital towns, Epigraphic
with architectural remains, such as in The Asokan inscriptions, written in Prakrit,
Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Alagankulam, found in Andhra-Karnataka regions.
and Uraiyur.
The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in
Buddhist sites with stupas and chaityas
the caves of Tamil Nadu and Kerala such
located in Andhra and Karnataka regions
as in Mangulam, Jambai, and Pugalur.
(Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, etc.)
The Satavahana inscriptions and other
Numismatic Buddhist inscriptions of the Andhra
Coins of pre-Satavahana chieftains region
and of the Satavahanas from Andhra- Short inscriptions found on pottery
Karnataka region. and rings and stones in Tamil Nadu
78
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and some sites outside India, like Foreign Notices

in Berenike, and Quseir al Qadhim The following Greek and Latin sources
(Egypt). inform us about the long distance cultural
and commercial connections.
Literary
The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient
Tamil texts including the Sangam and Greek text of the first century CE.
post-Sangam literature Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, first
The Arthasastra, the treatise on century CE
economy and statecraft authored by Ptolemy’s Geography, second century
Kautilya CE
The Puranas which mention the Vienna Papyrus G 40822, a Greek
genealogy of the Andhras/Satavahanas, document datable to the second
Buddhist Chronicles such as century CE.
Mahavamsa. A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table
Gatha Saptasati, a Prakrit text
composed by the Satavahana king Hala
5.1 South India during
Classical Tamil Literature
Mauryan times
The Classical Sangam corpus consists The Asokan edicts (c. 270-30 BCE) present
of Tholkappiyam, the eight anthologies for the first time a picture of the political
(Ettuththokai), Paththuppattu. Tholkappiyam, condition in south India. Rock Edict II lists
attributed to Tholkappiyar, is the earliest the Tamil ruling houses Cholas, Pandyas,
extant Tamil grammatical text dealing not Keralaputras and Satiyaputra as neighbour
only with poetry but also the society and rulers, lying beyond his domain, where
culture of the times. The Pathinen Kilkanakku he is said to have made provision for
(18 minor works) and the five epics belong to two types of medical treatment: medical
post-Sangam times (fourth to sixth century treatment for both humans and animals.
CE) and describe a different social and The Mauryan empire at that time included
cultural set-up. northern parts of Karnataka and Andhra,
Ettuthogai and Pathupattu collections have about 2400 poems. These poems, varying in length
from 3 to 800 lines, were composed by panar, the wandering bards and pulavar, the poets.
The Eight Anthologies are 1. Natrinai; 2. Kurunthogai; 3. Aingurunuru; 4. Patitruppathu;
5. Paripadal; 6. Kalithogai; 7. Akananuru; 8. Purananuru
Pathupattu (ten long songs): 1. Thirumurugatrupatai; 2. Porunaratrupatai;
3. Sirupanatruppatai; 4. Perumpanatruppatai; 5. Mullaipattu; 6. Maduraikanchi;
7. Nedunalvadai; 8. Kurinjipattu; 9. Pattinappalai; 10. Malaipadukadam.
Patinen Kilkanakku texts, which are post-Sangam works, include eighteen texts, which mostly deal
with ethics and moral codes. The most important of them are Thirukkural, and Naladiyar.
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai are the two important epics useful for insights into cultural and
religious history.
Evolution of Society in South India 79

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while the Tamil kingdoms were treated as is available about their rulers, their coins
independent neighbours. and inscriptions reveal that they were
chiefs who controlled small territories.
Women Poets of the Sangam Age

5.2 South India under the
Of the over 450 poets who contributed Satavahanas
to the corpus of Sangam poetry about
thirty are women. They composed more The Satavahanas emerged in the first century
than 150 poems. The most prominent BCE in the Deccan region. They ruled over
DQGSUROL¿FDPRQJWKHPZDV$YYDL\DU parts of Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka and
2WKHUV LQFOXGH $OOXU 1DQPXOODL\DDU Madhya Pradesh. From recent archaeological
Kaakkaipadiniyar, Kavarpendu, evidence it is understood that the Satavahanas
1DOYHOL\DDU 2NNXU 0DVDDWKL\DU DQG started to rule in the Telengana area and
Paarimakalir. then moved to Maharashtra to rule in the
Godavari basin with Prathistan (Paithan
in Maharashtra) as their capital. Later they
After the decline of the Mauryan moved eastwards to control coastal Andhra
power, and before the rise of the also. The work of Pliny talks about 30 walled
Satavahanas, many small principalities towns, a large army, cavalry and elephant force
emerged. Although not much information in the Andhra country.
SATAVAHANA EMPIRE
Malwa
Avanti Ujjayani
Saurashtra Utkala Tripuri
Junagadh Bharuch
Girnar Anupa
Vidarbha ga
Nasik lin Sisupalpuri
Kalyan Muluka Ka
Pratishthan
Sopara Bay of
Asmaka
Arabian Bengal
Sea
Amravati
Andama
L a k sha d weep
(I n dia)
n and Nicob
(I n d ia)
ar
Indian Ocean
80 Evolution of Soc
i ety in South India
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Gautamiputra Satakarni
was the greatest of the
Satavahana kings. He
defeated the Shaka
ruler Nahapana and
reissued the coins of
Nahapana with his own royal insignia.
The inscription of his mother Gautami
Balashri at Nashik mentions him as the
conqueror of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and Naneghat inscription
Yavanas. He is also said to have performed
the prestigious Vedic asvamedha sacrifice. Buddhists and Brahmins. The Naneghat
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, the inscription refers to tax exemptions given
successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni, to the lands granted to Buddhist monks.
expanded the frontiers of the Satavahana Thus we notice the beginning of priestly
Empire. The coins issued by him are found groups attaining higher status. These land
scattered in many parts of south India. donations created a group of people who
Yagnashri Satakarni was another famous did not cultivate, but owned land. This led
ruler who issued coins with a ship motif, to the development of land-based social
indicating the importance of the overseas hierarchy and divisions in the society.
trade during his reign. For the first time a big state covering
a major part of the Deccan was established.
Several rock-cut caves dedicated to the
Buddha sangha bear evidence that they
were situated in the trade routes linking
the interior to the coastal parts of Konkan
region. It was also a period of brisk Indo-
Roman trade.
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi 5.3 The Sangam Age

King Hala is credited with the The first three centuries of the Common
writing of Gatha Sattasai, a collection of Era are widely accepted as the Sangam
700 love poems. Written in Maharshtri period, as the information for this period
Prakrit dialect, it has themes similar to is mainly derived from the Sangam
those found in the Tamil Sangam poetry. literature. More correctly this has to be
The Satavahana Empire declined called as the early historical period and
around the 3rd century CE and was starts one or two centuries earlier, from
replaced by the Ikshvakus, followed by the the second century BCE, as we have clear
Pallavas, in Andhra and the Kadambas in epigraphical and archaeological evidence,
northern Karnataka. in addition to literary evidence.
Importance of Satavahana Period The Muvendar

Offering land grants was an important Though the three Tamil ruling families
development of the Satavahana times. The were known to Asoka in the third century
beneficiaries of these grants were mostly BCE itself, some individual names are
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known only from the Sangam poems flourishing port during his time. Another
of the first century and later. Known as king, Perunarkilli is said to have performed
muvendar, ‘the three crowned kings’, the the Vedic sacrifice Rajasuyam. Karikalan’s
Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas controlled death was followed by a succession dispute
major agrarian territories, trade routes between the Puhar and Uraiyur branches
and towns. But the Satiyaputra (same of the Chola royal family.
as Athiyaman) found in the Asokan The Cheras controlled the central
inscription along with the above three and northern parts of Kerala and the
houses is a Velir chief in the Sangam Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. Vanji was
poems. their capital and the ports of the west
The Cholas controlled the central coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their
and northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Their control. Vanji is identified with Karur,
core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later while some scholars identify it with
known as Cholamandalam. Their capital Tiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala. Now it is
was Uraiyur (near Thiruchirapalli town) and accepted by most scholars that there were
Puhar or Kaviripattinam was an alternative two main branches of the Chera family
royal residence and chief port town. Tiger and the Poraiya branch ruled from Karur
was their emblem. Kaviripattinam attracted of present-day Tamil Nadu.
merchants from various regions of the The Patitrupathu speaks of eight
Indian Ocean. Pattinappalai, composed by Chera kings, their territory and fame.
the poet Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar, offers The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur
elaborate descriptions of the bustling trading mention Chera kings of three generations.
activity here during the rule of Karikalan. Chellirumporai issued coins in his name.
Karikalan, son of Ilanjetchenni, Imayavaramban Nedun-cheralathan and
is portrayed as the greatest Chola of the Chenguttuvan are some of the prominent
Sangam age. Pattinappalai gives a vivid Chera kings. Chenguttuvan defeated many
account of his reign. Karikalan’s foremost chieftains and is said to have ensured the
military achievement was the defeat of safety of the great port Musiri by putting
the Cheras and Pandyas, supported by as down piracy. But the great north Indian
many as eleven Velir chieftains at Venni. expedition of Chenguttuvan mentioned in
He is credited with converting forest Silappathikaram is however not mentioned
into habitable regions and developing in the Sangam poems. He is said to have
agriculture by providing irrigation through ruled for fifty-six years, patronising the
the embankment of the Kaveri and orthodox and heterodox religions. Some
building reservoirs. Kaviripattinam was a Cheras issued copper and lead coins, with
Karikalan (modern representation) Cheran Chenguttuvan with Ilango Adigal

(modern representation)
82 Evolution of Soc
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Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating Roman

coins. There are many other Chera coins
with their bow and arrow emblem but
without any writing on them.
The Pandyas ruled from Madurai.
Korkai was their main port, located near
the confluence of Thampraparani with
the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl
fishery and chank diving. Korkai is referred
to in the Periplus as Kolkoi. Fish was the
emblem of the Pandyas. Their coins have Nedunchezhiyan (modern representation)
elephant on one side and a stylised image
of fish on the other. They invaded Southern credit for capturing Milalai and Mutthuru
Kerala and controlled the port of Nelkynda, (Pudukottai district) two important places
near Kottayam. According to tradition, from a Vel chief. He is praised as the lord of
they patronized the Tamil Sangams and Korkai, and as the overlord of the southern
facilitated the compilation of the Sangam Paratavar, a martial and fishing community
poems. The Sangam poems mention the of the Tirunelveli coast.
names of several kings, but their succession
and regnal years are not clear.
5.4 Social Formation in
Tamil Eco-zones
Sangam poems help us
understand the social
formation of the time.
According to the thinai
concept, Tamilagam was
divided into five landscapes
Coin of Peruvazhuthi or eco-regions namely
Kurinji, Marutam, Mullai, Neytal and Palai.
The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi Each region had distinct characteristics –
inscription mentions a Pandya king by name a presiding deity, people and cultural life
Nedunchezhiyan of the second century BCE. according to the environmental conditions,
Maduraikanchi refers to Mudukudumi- as follows:
Peruvazhuthi and another Nedunchezhiyan,
victor of Talaiyalanganam, and a few other Kurinji: hilly region: hunting and
Pandya kings. Mudukudimi-Peruvazhuthi gathering
is referred to in the Velvikkudi copper Marutham: riverine tract:
plates of eighth century for donating land to agriculture using plough and irrigation.
Brahmans. He seems to have issued coins with
Mullai: forested region: pastoralism
the legend Peruvazhuthi, to commemorate
combined with shifting cultivation
his performance of many Vedic sacrifices.
Neythal: coastal land: fishing and
Nedunchezhiyan is praised for his
salt making.
victory over the combined army of the Chera,
the Chola and five Velir chieftains (Thithiyan, Palai: parched land. Unsuitable for
Elini, Erumaiyuran, Irungovenman, and cultivation and hence people took to cattle
Porunan) at Talayalanganam. He is also given lifting and robbery.
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5.5 Tamil Polity The following counter arguments

are presented in response:
In a way this thinai classification is said
to reflect the uneven socio-economic A closer look at the Sangam literature
developments of the different localities. That is reveals that social differentiation is
seen in the political forms too. Three levels of evident in the Marutham region.
rulers are found:1) Kizhar, 2) Velir, 3) Vendar. The territorial associations are very
Kizhar were the heads of the villages or a small clear in the case of the Muvendar,
territory, later known as nadu. They were the and their important position is
chiefs of tribal communities living in specific corroborated by the Greco-Roman
areas. The Vendar were kings controlling texts from the first century CE.
larger, fertile territories. Warfare for territorial expansion was
The Velir, who were many in a major theme of Puratthinai
number, controlled the territories of Evidence for taxation at the highways
varied geographical nature, mainly hilly and in the port of Kaviripattinam is
and forest areas, that were in between the cited. The Chera king is spoken as
muvendar’s fertile territories. Chiefs like receiving the resources from the hills
Athiyaman, Pari, Ay, Evvi and Irungo each and the port of Musiri.
commanded a big area, rich in natural
Trade played an important role between
resources. They were generous patrons
the late first century BCE and third
of the poets and bards. They had military
century CE.
power and there were frequent wars
among these chiefs on account of capture
of cattle. On many occasions they seem to Political Ascendancy of the
have united and confronted one or other Vendar
of the three kings.
From the chiefs of the Iron Age (c. 1100-
There are differing views among 300 BCE) emerged the Vendar of the
scholars, with regard to the political early historic period. While certain chiefs
organization of the three kingdoms. The attained higher status (vendar) through
earlier and dominant view is that the the larger and effective control of pastoral
Sangam Age society was a well-organised and agricultural regions, others in the
state society. The other view which is marginal regions remained as chieftains
put forward in recent decades is that the (velir). For example, Athiyamans,
polities of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas mentioned as Satiyaputra in the Ashoka
were pre-state chiefdoms. The arguments inscriptions, became weak and did not
for the latter view are: attain the status of kings like the Chola,
1. No social stratification is noticed. Pandya and Chera vendar.
2. Proper territorial association is The Vendar subjugated the
absent. chieftains and fought with the other two
Vendars. For this they mobilized their
3. Destructive warfare did not allow
own warriors, besides seeking the support
the development of agriculture and
of some Velir chiefs. The adoption of
surplus production for the emergence
titles was one of the measures adopted
of the state.
by the Sangam Age Vendar to display
4. No evidence of taxation as in the their power. Titles such as Kadungo,
governments of North India. Imayavaramban and Vanavaramban and
84 Evolution of Soc
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Peru Vazhuthi distinguished themselves

from the ordinary people and the Velirs.
The patronization of bards and
poets and entertaining them in their courts
(avaiyam) was probably a step undertaken
by the kings to glorify their name and
fame and also their territories and towns.
For example, the Chola king Karikalan is
said to have offered a huge amount of gold
coins to Uruttirankannanar who composed
Pattinappalai.
5.6 Society and Economy

In the Sangam Age the wars waged by the Stones for ornaments, Pattanam
Vendar were involved in expanding their
territorial base by annexing the enemy’s
territories. Endemic warfare presumably The names of persons mentioned in
created conditions for social disparities. inscriptions on pottery reveal the presence
War captives serving in some cult centres of non-Tamil speakers, mostly traders, in
certain craft centres and towns. Traders from
are mentioned. Some references to slaves
faraway regions were present in the Tamil
are also found there.Women were actively
country. Manimegalai refers to Magadha
engaged in economic production and there artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths
were a significant number of women poets and Yavana carpenters working in co-
in the Sangam Age. operation with Tamil craftsmen. Trade-
There is evidence of craft related terms such as vanikan, chattan
production such as bronze vessels, beads and nigama appear in the Tamil-Brahmi
and gold works, textiles, shell bangles and inscriptions. Salt merchants called umanar,
ornaments, glass, iron smithy, pottery travelled in bullock carts along with their
making. Craft production was common in families for trade activities. Chattu referred
the major urban centres such as Arikamedu, to the itinerary or mobile merchants.
Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam,
Madurai, Korkai, and Pattanam in Kerala.
Maduraikanchi speaks about day markets
as well as and night markets selling
several craft goods. Raw materials for
the production of various objects and
ornaments were not available everywhere.
Precious and semi-precious stones were
collected, which were exchanged for other
commodities. Such raw materials reached
the industrial centres, where various
objects were made, and they were again
exchanged for some other produce.
Roman Amphora

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is a legend associated with the movement

of Chandragupta Maurya to Karnataka
region before the time of Ashoka. The
Satavahanas, Sangam kings and Ikshvahus
supported Vedic sacrifices. The evidence
for the movement of Brahmins and the
performance of Vedic ritual practices
is found in the Sangam texts. But the
varnasrama ideology was yet to take root
in the Tamil region.
Evidence of Buddhism is widely
found in south India. The Krishna
and Godavari delta of Andhra had
many important Buddhist centres.
Roman Glass Bowls
Archaeological excavations conducted in
Amaravathi, Nagarjunakonda, etc. show
how deep-rooted was Buddhism. In Tamil
In trade, barter system was much Nadu, Kaviripattinam and Kanchipuram
in vogue, though coins were also in use. have evidence of Buddhist Stupas. But
Roman coins circulated as bullion. Long compared to Jainism, the evidence for
distance trade existed and the connections Buddhism is restricted to a few sites in
with the Roman empire and southeast Asia Tamil Nadu. The numerous cave shelters
are in evidence at many archaeological with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found
sites. The southern part of India, because in Tamil Nadu show that Jainism was
of its easy access to the coast and location more influential in the Tamil country.
in the maritime trade route connecting the Their influence on the common people is
East and the West, played an important role not known but we have evidence for the
in the overseas contacts. The major early merchants and lay devotees supporting
historic ports have evidence of Roman Jain monks by providing rock shelters and
amphora, glassware and other materials offerings. In the post-Sangam centuries
suggesting active maritime activities. The
wealth brought by the Romans and the
arrival of foreign merchants is evidenced
in archaeology as well as literature. Roman
gold and silver coins have been found in
many hoards in the Coimbatore region
and in many other places in south India.
5.7 Ideology and Religion

The earliest evidence of the appearance
of formal religious activities appears in
the time of the Asoka, when Buddhism
reached south India and Sri Lanka.
Asoka’s daughter is considered to have
Amaravathi Stupa
taken the Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka. There
86 Evolution of Soc
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Tamil culture disappeared in this interval.

This idea of the Kalabhra interregnum is
no more accepted as correct.
Rather this is the time when the
greatest Tamil work Tirukkural was written
along with many other works grouped
as the eighteen minor works. The epics
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai also
belong to this period. As this was the time
when the non-orthodox religions, Jainism
and Buddhism became more influential,
Buddha Statue, Nagarjunakonda
the scholars of the orthodox Vedic-
Puranic school seem to have created the
impression that the ruling Kalabhras of
Jains contributed substantially to Tamil the time were evil in nature.
literature. The recent interpretation of the
period takes it as a period of transition
leading to enlarged state societies under the
5.8 Age of Kalabhras - Post
Pallavas ruling over northern Tamilnadu
Sangam Period and the Pandyas in the south from the sixth
The period between the Sangam Age century onwards. To start with, the rulers
and the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly of these new states were patrons of the Jain
between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known and Buddhist religions and gradually they
as the age of Kalabhras in the history of came under the spell of the orthodox Vedic-
Tamizhagam. As the three traditional Puranic religion emerging in the form of the
kingdoms disappeared in this interval Bhakti cults of Saivism and Vaishnavism. But
due to the occupation of their territory the influence of Jain and Buddhist religions
by a warlike group called the Kalabhras, on the general society was so strong as to
this period was called an interregnum or evoke much aversion from the Bhakti saints.
'dark age' by earlier historians. It was also
supposed that many good traits of earlier
A group of inscriptions found at Pulangurichi in Sivagangai district datable to about the

middle of the fifth century, name two kings. They are Chendan and Kurran. Though there is no
mention about their family or dynasty name, some scholars identify them as Kalabhra rulers.
The Kalabhra kingdom seems to have been uprooted by Pandyas around the third quarters of
sixth century CE.

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Lesson Cultural Development

in South India
9
Learning Objectives
To understand state and society in early medieval south India

To know the nature of political conflict between Chalukyas and Pallavas
To understand the cultural exchanges occurring in south India under the two
antagonistic kingdoms
To study the artistic greatness of monuments at Ajantha, Ellora and Mamallapuram
To study the devotional movements and impressive growth of vernacular
literature in early medieval south India.
Introduction Brahmins, as well as the royal and

The political history of south India the non-royal gifts made to religious
during the sixth century to ninth century establishment are equally important
CE was marked by conflicts between sources. The Aihole inscription of
the Chalukyas of Badami (also known Pulikesin II composed by his court poet
as Western Chalukyas), and the Pallavas Ravikirti in Sanskrit is among the most
of Kanchi. At the same time, the period important of Chalukyan inscriptions.
also saw great advancements in the field Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in
of culture and literature. It also broke Kannada, Vikramarjuna-vijayam, also
new grounds in areas like devotional called Pampa-bharata, by Pampa in
literature, art and architecture. The Bhakti Kannada, which were all of a later period,
movement, which impacted the entire and Nannaya’s Mahabharatam in Telugu
sub-continent, originated in the Tamil also provide useful historical data.
country during this period. However, pride of place must
go to Tamil literature. The Bhakti
movement which originated in South
Sources
India found its greatest expression in
Inscriptions on copperplates, on temple the songs composed by the Azhwars and
walls and pillars form a major source of Nayanmars. The poems of the Vaishnavite
historical information for this period. Azhwars were later compiled as the
Inscriptions issued by Chalukyas in Nalayira Divya Prabhandam. The Saiva
Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit literature was canonized as the Panniru
languages, and Pallavas in Tamil and Tirumurai. The Thevaram, composed by
Sanskrit, recording land grants to Appar (Thirunavukkarasar), Sambandar
139
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(Thirugnanasambandar) and Sundarar; I Chalukyas and Pallavas

and Thiruvavasagam by Manickavasagar
are prominent texts which are read as sacred 9.1 Chalukyas
literature to this day. Periyapuranam There are two Chalukya families:
written by Sekizhar, in a later period, also Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi) and
provides much historical information. Chalukyas of Kalyani. This lesson
The Mathavilasa Prahasanam written concerns only the Chalukyas of Badami.
by Mahendravarman I in Sanskrit, is an Chalukya dynasty emerged as a strong
important source for the Pallava period. power with its founder Pulikesin I (c. 535-
Many inscriptional sources 566 CE) fortifying a hill near Badami.
including the Allahabad Pillar He declared independence from the
inscription of Samudragupta and the Kadmabas. It is said that he conducted
Aihole inscription of the Chalukya yagnas and performed the asvameda
king Pulakisin II provide details of sacrifice. The capital Badami was founded
Pallava - Chalukya conflict. The Kuram by Kirtivarman (566-597). Pulikesin
copper plates of Parameshwaravarman I’s grandson Pulikesin II (609-(642),
and the Velurpalayam copper plates of after defeating Mangalesha, proclaimed
Nandivarman III record their military himself as king, an event that is described
achievements. Coins help us to under- in the Aihole inscription. One of the
stand the economic condition of the period. most outstanding victories of Pulikesin II
Buddhist sources such as Deepavamsa was the defeat of Harshavardhana’s
and Mahavamsa, written in Pali, the army on the banks of the Narmada. The
accounts of Chinese travellers Hiuen kings of Malwa, Kalinga, and eastern
Tsang and Itsing give us details about the Deccan accepted his suzerainty. His
socio-religious and cultural conditions victories over Kadambas of Banvasi, and
of the Pallava times. The ninth and tenth Gangas of Talakad (Mysore) are also
century writings of Arab travellers and worthy of note. However, his attempt to
geographers such as Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, attack Kanchipuram was thwarted by
and Ibn Hauka also tell us about the Mahendravarma Pallava. This led to a
socio-political and economic conditions prolonged war between the Chalukyas
of India of this period. The sculptures in and the Pallavas. Narasimha Varman I
the temples in Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal (630-668), the Pallava King, attacked and
reflect the culture of the times. occupied Badami. Pulikesin II died in the
From Kuram Copper Plate

(Line 12). The grandson of Narasimhavarman, (who arose) from the kings of this race, just as
the moon and the sun from the eastern mountain; who was the crest-jewel on the head of those
princes, who had never bowed their heads (before); who proved a lion to the elephant-herd of
hostile kings; who appeared to be blessed Narasimha himself, who had come down (to earth) in
the shape of a prince; who repeatedly defeated the Cholas, Keralas, Kalabhras, and Pandyas; who,
like Sahasrabahu (i.e., the thousand-armed Kartavirya), enjoyed the action for a thousand arms in
hundreds of fights; who wrote the (three) syllables of (the word) vijaya (i.e., victory), as on a plate,
on Pulikesin’s back, which was caused to be visible (i.e., whom he caused to turn his back) in the
battles of Pariyala, Manimangala, Suramara, etc., and who destroyed (the city of) Vatapi, just as the
pitcher-born (Agastya) (the demon) Vatapi.
140 Cultural Development in South India

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CHALUKYA DYNASTY N
W E
Chalukya dynasty
I N D I A MAGADHA
Narmada Tamralipti
Tapti nadi
BHOJAKAS ha
Ma
PITINKAS Toshali BAY
Godavari
OF
BENGAL
Vatapi KALINGA
ARABIAN Kris ANDHRA
hna
SEA
Suvarnagiri
PULINDAS
An
SATHYA PUTRA
da m
Lakshad weep isla
Kaveri
an and n ic ob ar i
CHOLA
(I N D I A )
(I N D I A )
PANDYA
KERALAPUTRA
nd
an sl
Anuradhapura
s
ds
I N D I A N O C E A N Map not to scale
battle. Pallava control over Badami and trained in literature, law, philosophy, martial
the southern parts of the Chalukya empire arts and others. Chalukyan kings claimed to
continued for several years. In the mid- rule according to dharma-sastra and niti-
eighth century, the Badami Chalukyas sastra. Pulikesin I (543-566) was well-versed
were overpowered and replaced by the in manu-sastra, puranas, and itihasas. In the
Rashtrakutas. beginning, the Chalukya kings assumed
titles such as Maharajan, Sathyasrayan
Chalukya Administration and Sri-Pritivi-Vallaban. After defeating
State Harshavardhana, Pulikesin II assumed
The king was the head of the administration. the title of Parameswaran. Bhattarakan
In dynastic succession primogeniture was and Maharajathirajan, soon became very
not strictly followed. Generally, the elder popular titles. In the Pallava kingdom, kings
was to be appointed as yuvaraja while the took high-sounding titles such as Dharma
king was in the office. The heir apparent got maharajaadhi raja, Maharajadhiraja,
Aihole Inscription of Pulikesin II

The Megudi temple at Aihole (in Karnataka) stands on top of a hill. On the eastern wall of this
Jaina temple is a 19-line Sanskrit inscription (dated to 556 Saka era: 634-635). The composer is a
poet named Ravikriti. The inscription is a prashasti of the Chalukyas especially the reigning king
Pulikesin II, referred to as Sathyasraya (the abode of truth). It highlights the history of the dynasty,
defeat of all his enemies, especially Harshavardhana.
Cultural Development in South India 141

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Dharma maharaja, Maharaja. In the Provincial and District

Hirahadagalli plates the king is introduced Administration
as the performer of agnistoma, vajapeya and
asvamedha sacrifices. Generally, the king appointed his sons as
the provincial governors. The governors
The wild boar was the royal called themselves raja, marakka-rajan
insignia of the Chalukyas. It was claimed and rajaditya-raja-parameswaran. Some
that it represented the varaha avatar of governors held the title maha-samanta and
Vishnu in which he is said to have rescued maintained troops. The chief of vishaya
the Goddess of the Earth. The bull, Siva’s was vishayapati. In turn, vishaya was
mount, was the symbol of the Pallavas. divided into pukti. Its head was pogapati.
Royal Women Village Administration

Chalukya dynasty of Jayasimhan I line The traditional revenue officials of
appointed royal ladies as provincial the villages were called the nala-
governors. They also issued coins in some kavundas. The central figure in village
instances. Vijya Bhattariga, a Chalukya administration was kamunda or pokigan
princess, issued inscriptions. Pallava who were appointed by the kings. The
queens did not take active part in the village accountant was karana and he was
administration of the kingdom, but they otherwise called gramani. Law and order
built shrines, and installed images of of the village was in the hands of a group
various deities, and endowed temples. The of people called mahajanam. There was
image of Queen Rangapataka, the queen a special officer called mahapurush, in
of Rajasimha, is found in the inscription charge of maintaining order and peace of
in Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram. the village. Nagarapatis or Purapatis were
the officials of the towns.
The King and His Ministers
All powers were vested in the king.
Religion
Inscriptions do not specifically speak of a
council of ministers, but they do refer to The Chalukyas patronised both Saivism
an official called maha-sandhi-vigrahika. and Vaishnavism. They built temples
Four other categories of ministers are also for Siva and Vishnu. Brahmin groups
referred to in the epigraphs: Pradhana (head were invited from the Gangetic regions
minister), Mahasandhi-vigrahika (minister and settled to perform regular pujas
of foreign affairs), Amatya (revenue and conduct festivals and ceremonies
minister), and Samaharta (minister of in the temples. Notable Chalukya rulers
exchequer). Chalukyas divided the state like Kirtivarman (566-597), Mangalesa
into political divisions for the sake of (597-609), and Pulikesin II (609-642)
administration: Vishayam, Rastram, Nadu performed yagnas. They bore titles such as
and Grama. Epigraphs speak of the officials parama-vaishana and parama-maheswara.
like vishayapatis, samantas, gramapohis and Chalukyas gave prominent place to
mahatras. Vishayapatis exercised the power Kartikeyan, the war god. Saiva monasteries
at the behest of the kings. Samantas were became centres for popularising Saivism.
feudal lords functioning under the control Chalukyas patronised heterodox sects
of the state. Grampohis and gramkudas also and lavishly donated lands to the
were village officials. Mahatras were the Jain centres. Ravikirti, the poet-laureate
prominent village men. of Pulikesin II, was a Jain scholar. In

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the reign of Kirtivarman II (744-755) a

Jain village official built a Jain temple
in a place called Annigere. The prince
Krishna (756-775) appointed Gunapatra,
a Jain monk, as his master. Pujyapatar
the author of Jainentriya-viyakarnam
was a Jain monk, a contemporary of
Vijayadityan (755-772). According to
Hiuen Tsang, there were many Buddhist
Aihole Durga Temple
centres in the Chalukya territory wherein
more than 5000 followers of the Hinayana style. A temple dedicated to the goddess
and Mahayana sects lived. Durga was built on the model of Buddha
Chaitya. It stands on a raised platform in
Literature and Education the form of semi-circle. Another temple,
Chalukyas used Sanskrit in pillar dedicated to the same goddess is called
inscriptions such as in Aihole and Maha- Huccimalligudi, which is rectangular in
kudam. A seventh-century inscription shape. Chalukyas also built Jain temples.
of a Chalukya king at Badami mentions Megudi Jain temple is illustrative of the
Kannada as the local prakrit, meaning evolution of temple architecture under the
the people’s language, and Sanskrit as Chalukyas. The mandapa-type caves are
the language of culture. A chieftain of preserved at Aihole.
Pulikesin II authored a grammar work
Saptavataram in Sanskrit. Badami (Vatapi)
There are four caves in Badami. The
Chalukya Architecture
largest cave temple built by Mangalesa is
Historically, in Deccan, Chalukyas dedicated to Vishnu. The reclining posture
introduced the technique of building of Vishnu on the snake bed and Narasimha
temples using soft sandstones as medium. are exquisite examples of Chalukya art.
In Badami, two temples are dedicated Irrespective of religion, architectural
to Vishnu and one each to Siva and to features share a common style. It
the Jaina tirthankaras. Their temples establishes the technical importance and
are grouped into two: excavated cave the secular attitude of both patron and
temples and structural temples. Badami is architect.
known for both structural and excavated
cave temples. Pattadakal and Aihole are Pattadakal
popular for structural temples.
Pattadakal, a quiet village in Bagalkot
district of Karnataka, is famous for its
Aihole (Ayyavole)
exquisite temples. Pattadakal was a
Built in 634, Aihole, the headquarters of centre for performing royal rituals. The
the famous medieval Ayyavole merchants’ Virupaksha temple was built at the order of
guild was an important commercial centre. queen Lohamahadevi to commemorate the
About seventy temples are located in Aihole. conquest of Kanchipuram by her husband
The earliest stone-built temple is Lad Khan Vikramaditya II. The unique feature of
temple. Its unique trait is a stucco pillar the structural temple built by Rajasimha
with a big capital distinct from northern at Mamallapuram was adopted here by

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panels depicting scenes and characters

from the Ramayana. The eastern wall
has a short Kannada inscription, giving
the name of the architect Revadi Ovajja,
who designed the shrine. In Pattadakal,
Chalukyas built more than ten temples
which demonstrate the evolution in
Chalukya architecture. On the basis of
style these temples are classified into two
Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal
groups: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian.
the Chalukyas. Monuments are generally
Painting
associated with the rulers who built them.
However, here we also have signatures of the Paintings are found in a cave temple
architects who conceived the edifices and dedicated to Vishnu in Badami. Chalukyas
the skilled craftspeople who created them. adopted the Vakataka style in painting.
The east porch of the Virupaksha temple Many of the paintings are of incarnations of
has a Kannada inscription eulogizing the Vishnu. The most popular Chalukya painting
architect who designed the temple. The is in the palace built by the King Mangalesan
architect was given the title Tribhuavacharya (597-609). It is a scene of ball being watched
(maker of the three worlds). Several reliefs by members of royal family and others.
on the temple walls bear signatures of the
sculptors who carved them.
9.2 Pallavas
At the south-eastern corner of the
village is the Papanatha temple. Similar to There is no scholarly consensus about the
the Virupaksha temple in its basic plan, origin of the Pallavas. Some early scholars
it has a shikara in the northern style. The held the view that the word Pallava was a
outer walls are richly decorated with many variant of Pahlava, known as Parthians,
PALLAVA TERRITORIES N
W E
Pallava Territories
S
Narmada Mahanadi
God Bay of
ava
ri
Bengal
Bijapur
hna
Arabian Kris
Masulipatnam
Sea
Sira PALLAVA
CauvVellore KANCHI
ery
A
L a ks h a d weep
nda
(I n d ia)
Calicut
man and Nicobar
(I n d ia)
PANDIYA
Madurai
Quilon
Indian Ocean

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who moved from western India to the reign of Narasimhavarman I (630-668), the
eastern coast of the peninsula, during Pallavas managed to settle scores by winning
the wars between the Sakas and the several victories over the Chalukyas
Satavahanas in the second century CE. But with the aid of their ally Manavarman,
many scholars today regard them native a Sri Lankan prince, who later became
to south India or “with some mixture of ruler of the island kingdom. The climax
north Indian blood”. was Narasimhavarman’s invasion of the
The Pallavas were associated with Chalukyan kingdom and his capturing of the
Tondaimandalam, the land between the Badami. Narasimhavarman claims to have
north Pennar and north Vellar rivers. defeated the Cholas, Cheras and Kalabhras.
Simhavishnu is believed to have conquered Two naval expeditions despatched to help
the Chola country up to the Kaveri and Manavarman were successful, but this
consolidated his dynastic rule, started by Sri Lankan ruler subsequently lost his
his father Simhavarman. Simhavishnu, kingdom.
vanquishing the Kalabhras, conquered the The Pallava-Chalukya conflict
land up to the Kaveri, thereby coming into continued during the subsequent decades,
conflict with the Pandyas. Simhavishnu’s with some intermittent peace. During the
successor Mahendravarman I (590-630), reign of his grandson, Paramesvaravarman I
whom Appar, converted from Jainism to (670-700), Vikramaditya of the Chalukya
Saivism, was a patron of arts, and a poet kingdom invaded the Pallava country.
and musician in his own right. Paramesvaravarman fought against him
During Mahendravarman’s reign, with the support of the Gangas and
the army of Pulikesin II annexed the Pandyas. As a result, the Pallavas came into
northern part of Pallava kingdom and conflict with the Pandyas in the south. In
almost reached the Pallava capital of the early ninth century, the Rashtrakuta
Kanchipuram. Subsequently, during the king, Govind III, invaded Kanchi during
the reign of the Pallava Dantivarman.
Dantivarman’s son Nandivarman III
aided by western Gangas and Cholas,
defeated the Pandyas at the battle of
Sripurambiyam or Thirupurambiyam.
Aparajita, grandson of Nandivarman III,
lost his life in a battle fought against Aditya
I of the Chola kingdom who invaded
Tondaimandalam. This sealed the fate
of the Pallavas. Thereafter, control over
Tondaimandalam passed into the hands
of the Cholas.
About the Cheras

Though the Kerala region seems to have
been under the rule of the Chera Perumals
during the period from sixth to ninth
century little is known about its history
until the beginning of the ninth century.
Narasimhavarman

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Pallava Administration Land Grants

Under the Pallavas, kinship was held to Land ownership was with the king, who
be of divine origin and was hereditary. could make revenue grants to his officers
The king took high-sounding titles, some and land-grants to Brahmans, or else
of which, such as maharajadhiraja, were continue to have land cultivated by small-
borrowed from north Indian traditions. scale cultivators and landlords. The latter
The king was assisted by a group of was the most common practice. Crown
ministers, and in the later Pallava lands were leased out to tenants-at-will.
period this ministerial council played a The status of the village varied according
prominent part in state policy. Some of the to the tenures prevailing. The village
ministers bore semi-royal titles and may with an inter-caste population paid land
well have been appointed from among the revenue. The brahmadeya villages were
feudatories. donated to a single Brahman or a group
Distinctions are made between of Brahmans. These villages tended to be
amatyas and mantrins. While a mantri is more prosperous than the others because
generally understood to be a diplomat, no tax was paid. There were devadana
amatya is a counsellor. Mantri Mandala villages, donated to a temple, and the
was a council of ministers. Rahasyadhikrita revenue was consequently received by
was a private secretary of the king. the temple authorities and not by the
Manikkappandaram-Kappan was an officer in state. The temple authorities assisted the
charge of the treasury (Manikka - valuables; village by providing employment in the
Pandaram - treasury; Kappan – keeper). service of the temple. This last category of
Kodukkappillai was the officer of gifts. They villages gained greater significance when
were central officers under the Pallava king. in later centuries the temples became the
Kosa-adhyaksa was the supervisor of the centres of rural life. During the Pallava
Manikkappandaram-kappan. Judicial courts period the first two types of villages were
were called Adhikarna Mandapa and judges predominant.
called Dharmadhikarins. Fines are mentioned
in the Kasakudi plates of Nandivarman In 1879, eleven plates held together by a
Pallava as Karanadandam (fine in superior/ ring of copper, its two ends soldered and
higher court) and Adhikaranadandam (fine stamped with a royal seal depicting a bull
and a lingam (the Pallava symbol) were
in district level).
discovered in Urrukkattukottam, near
The governor of a province was Puducherry. It records a grant of a village
advised and assisted by officers in made in the twenty-second year of the king
charge of districts who worked in close Nandivarman (753 CE). The inscriptional
collaboration with local autonomous text commences with a eulogy of the king in
institutions, largely in an advisory Sanskrit, followed by the details of the grant
capacity. They were built on local in Tamil, and a concluding verse in Sanskrit.
relationship of caste, guilds, craftsmen
and artisans (such as weavers and oil-
mongers), students, ascetics and priests. Village Life
There were assemblies of villagers and In the village, the basic assembly was
also representatives of districts. General the sabha, which was concerned with all
body meetings of the assembly were held matters relating to the village, including
annually, and meetings of smaller groups endowments, land, irrigation, cultivated,
were responsible for implementing policy. punishment of crime, the keeping of

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a census and other necessary records.

Village courts dealt with petty criminal
cases. At a higher level, in towns and
districts, courts were presided over by
government officers, with the king as the
supreme arbiter of justice. The sabha was
a formal institution but it worked closely
with the urar, an informal gathering of
the entire village. Above this was a district
council which worked with nadu or
district administration. Villages populated
entirely or largely by Brahmans preserved Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchipuram
records of the functioning of assemblies
and councils. The link between the village came almost exclusively from rural
assembly and the official administration sources, mercantile and urban institutions
was the headman of the village. being largely unplanned. Two categories
of taxes were levied on the village. The
land revenue paid by the cultivator to
Tank Irrigation the state varied from 1/6th to 1/10th of
A special category of land, eripatti or tank the produce, and was collected by the
land, was known only in south India. village and paid to the state collector. In
This land was donated by individuals, the the second category were local taxes, also
revenue from which was set apart for the collected in the village but utilized for
maintenance of the village tank. Rainwater services in the village itself. The tax money
was stored in the tank so that land could was spent for repairing irrigation works,
be irrigated during the annual long, dry illuminating the temple, etc. When the
spell. The tank, lined with brick or stone, state land tax was inadequate, the revenue
was built through the cooperative effort of was supplemented by additional taxes on
the village, and its water was shared by all draught cattle, toddy-drawers, marriage-
cultivators. The maintenance of these tanks parties, potters, goldsmiths, washermen,
was essential to the village. Practically textile-manufacturers, weavers, brokers,
every inscription from the Pallava period letter-carriers, and the makers of ghee.
pertaining to the rural affairs refers to the The loot and booty obtained in war
upkeep of the tank. Next in importance added to the revenue of the state. Pallava
came wells. Water was distributed by considered war to be very important
canals, which were fitted with sluices and a series of sculptures depicting the
to regulate the water level and prevent important events connected with the reign
overflowing at the source. The distribution of Nandivarama Pallava, notably Pallava
of water for irrigation was supervised by troops attacking a fort are seen in the
a special tank committee appointed by the Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchipuram.
village. Water taken in excess of allotted to This fort is depicted in the sculptures
a particular cultivator was taxed. as having high ramparts with soldiers
attacking it and elephants standing near it.
Revenue and Taxation
Pallava Army
Land grants recorded mainly on
copperplates provide detailed information Much of the state revenue went to
on land revenues and taxation. Revenue maintain the army. The king maintained

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a standing army under his direct control. controlled by the Pallavas and the Chalukyas
The army consisted of foot-soldiers, commanded a limited income from land.
cavalry and a small force of elephants. Mercantile activity had not developed
Chariots were by now almost out of use sufficiently to make a substantial contribution
and in any case were ineffective in the to the economy. The Pallavas had maritime
hilly terrains, as much of the fighting took trade with south-east Asia, where by now
place there. Cavalry, though effective, there were three major kingdoms: Kambuja
was expensive, as horses had to be (Cambodia), Champa (Annam), and
imported. The Pallavas developed a navy Srivijaya (the southern Malaya peninsula and
and built dockyards at Mamallapuram Sumatra). On the west coast, the initiative in
and Nagapattinam. However, the Pallava the trade with the West was gradually passing
navy was inconsiderable compared to into the hands of the foreign traders settled
the naval strength of the Cholas who along the coast, mainly Arabs. Indian traders
succeeded them. were becoming suppliers of goods rather
than carriers of goods to foreign countries,
and communication with the west became
Trade
indirect, via Arabs, and limited to trade alone.
Kanchipuram was an important trading
centre in the Pallava period. The
merchants had to obtain license to market Society
their goods. Barter system generally Brahmins as learned scholars in literature,
prevailed but later the Pallavas issued astronomy, law and others functioned as
gold and silver coins. Merchants had their the royal counsellors. Not only were they
own organizations such as Manigramam. in the teaching profession, they were also
In foreign trade, spices, cotton textiles, involved in agriculture, trade and war.
precious stones and medicinal plants were They were exempted from paying taxes and
exported to Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Sri capital punishment. The next important
Lanka, China and Burma. Mamallapuram social group which ruled the state was
was an important seaport. called sat-kshatryas (quality kshatriyas).
Traders founded guilds and called Not all the kshatryas were of warring
themselves as sudesi, nanadesi, ainurruvar groups; some of them were involved
and others. Their main guild functioned in trading as well. They also enjoyed
at Aihole. Foreign merchants were known the right to read the Vedas, a privilege
as Nanadesi. It had a separate flag with denied to lower varnas. The trading group
the figure of bull at the centre, and they maintained warriors for protection and
enjoyed the right of issuing vira-sasanas. founded trade guilds. The people who
The jurisdiction of this guild stretched were at the bottom of the society worked
over entire south-east Asia. The chief of in agriculture, animal husbandry, and
this guild is registered in the inscriptions handicraft works. People engaged in
as pattanswamy, pattnakilar, and scavenging, fishing, dry-cleaning and
dandanayaka. Its members were known as leather works were positioned outside the
ayyavole-parameswariyar. varna system.
Most scholars agree that
Aryanisation or the northern influence
Maritime Trade
on the south picked up pace during the
Unlike in the Ganges plain, where large areas Pallava period. This is evident from the
were available for cultivation, the regions royal grants issued by the kings. The caste
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structure had firmly established. Sanskrit Monasteries and Mutts

came to be held in high esteem. Monasteries continued to be the nucleus of
Kanchipuram continued to be the Buddhist educational system and were
a great seat of learning. The followers located in the region of Kanchi, and the
of Vedic religion were devoted to the valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari
worship of Siva. Mahendravarman was rivers. Buddhist centres were concerned
the first, during the middle of his reign, with the study of Buddhism, particularly as
to adopt the worship of Siva. But he this was a period of intense conflict between
was intolerant of Jainism and destroyed orthodox and heterodox sects. But Buddhism
some Jain monasteries. Many of the was fighting a losing battle. Royal patronage,
great Nayanmars and Alwars, Saiva and which the Buddhists lacked, gave an edge to
Vaishanava poet-saints lived during his the protagonists of Vedic religions.
time. Buddhism and Jainism lost their Apart from the university at
appeal. However, Hiuen-Tsang is reported Kanchi, which acquired a fame equal to
to have seen at Kanchi one hundred that the Nalanda, there were a number
Buddhist monasteries and 10,000 priests of other Sanskrit colleges. Sanskrit was
belonging to the Mahayana school. the recognized medium, and was also the
official language at the court, which led to
*URZLQJLQÀXHQFHRI its adoption in literary circles. In the eighth
Brahmanism century the mathas (mutts) became popular.
This was a combination of a rest house, a
Perhaps the most obvious sign of the feeding-centre, and an education centre,
influence of Aryan culture in the south which indirectly brought publicity to the
was the pre-eminent position given to particular sect with which it was associated.
Brahmins. They gained materially through
large gifts of land. Aryanisation is also Growing Popularity of Sanskrit
evident in the evolution of educational
institutions in the Pallava kingdom. In Mahendravarman I composed Mathavilasa
the early part of this period education was Prahasanam in Sanskrit. Two
controlled by Jains and Buddhists, but extraordinary works in Sanskrit set
gradually the Brahmins superseded them. the standard for Sanskrit literature in
The Jains who had brought with them the south: Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya and
their religious literature in Sanskrit and Dandin’s Dashakumaracharita. Dandin of
Prakrit, began to use Tamil. Jainism was Kanchipuram, author of the great treatise
extremely popular, but the competition on rhetoric Kavyadarsa, seems to have
of Hinduism in the succeeding centuries stayed in Pallava court for some time.
greatly reduced the number of its
adherents. In addition, Mahendravarman I Rock-cut Temples
lost interest in Jainism and took up the
cause of Saivism, thus depriving the Jains Mahendravarman I is credited with the
of valuable royal patronage. The Jains had introduction of rock-cut temples in the
developed a few educational centres near Pallava territory. Mahendravarman claims
Madurai and Kanchi, and religious centres in his Mandagappattu inscription that his
such as the one at Shravanabelagola in shrine to Brahma, Isvara and Vishnu was
Karnataka. But a vast majority of the Jaina made without using traditional materials
monks tended to isolate themselves in such as brick, timber, metal and mortar.
small caves, in hills and forests. Mahendravarman’s rock temples are

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usually the mandapa type with a pillared Mural paintings in Ellora are found
hall or the mandapa in front and a small in five caves, but only in the Kailash
shrine at the rear or sides. temple are they preserved. Some murals
in Jain temples are well preserved. Not
only animals, birds, trees, flowers are
pictured elegantly, but human emotions
and character - greed, love, compassion-
are depicted with professional skill.
The Ellora caves were designated as

a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1983.
Rock-cut temple of Mahendravarma Pallava

Heterodox I / Buddhist caves
II. Ellora – Ajanta and There are 12 Buddhist caves. Every

Buddhist cave temple is of a unique
Mamallapuram
model in architecture. Some are modest;
Aurangabad district in Maharashtra is the while others are double-storeyed or
centre of the groups of caves in Ellora and triple-storeyed. The plans of the caves
Ajanta. The Ellora group of caves are famous demonstrate that these were designed
for sculptures while the Ajanta group of as religious centres where monks stayed
caves are famous for paintings. The dates of and the disciples were trained in religious
these temples range from c. 500 to c. 950 CE. treatises and scriptures. The main hall in
But the activity of creating cave temples may the centre and the cubical rooms on either
have started two hundred years earlier. The side were used as monasteries for teaching
first cave temple was created for the Ajivikas. and preaching. This is attested by a figure,
Some of the temples are incomplete. in cave number six, of man reading a
manuscript on a folding table. The panels in
these caves portray scenes from the life of
9.3 Ellora the Buddha. Three different characters are
The rock-cut cave temples in Ellora are indentified by the sculptures in the caves.
in 34 caves, carved in Charanadri hills. The central figure is Buddha found in three
Without knowledge of trigonometry, sagacious postures: meditating (dhyana
structural engineering, and metallurgy, the mudra), preaching (vyakhyana mudra) and
Indian architects could not have created touching the earth by index finger of right
such exquisite edifices. The patrons of hand (bhumi-sparsha mudra).
these caves range from the dynasties of
Goddesses
Chalukyas to Rashtrakutas. The heterodox
sects first set the trend of creating this Buddhist caves represented goddesses by way
model of temples. Later, orthodox sects of the carved images of Tara, Khadiravani-
adopted it as a medium of disseminating tara, Chunda, Vajradhat-vishvari, Maha-
religious ideologies. These temples were mayuri, Sujata, Pandara and Bhrikuti. In
linked to Ajivikas, Jainism, Buddhism, cave twelve, a stout female figure is depicted
and Brahmanism. The earliest temples are wearing a waistband and headgear of a
modest and simple with no artistic claims. cobra. Khadrivani-tara also holds a cobra in
But, the later temples are elegant edifices. one of her hands in the same cave.

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mounted on a crocodile and the river goddess

Yamuna mounted on a tortoise.
9.4 Ajanta
The Ajanta caves are situated at a distance
of about 100 km north of Aurangabad in
Maharashtra. Totally 30 caves have been
scooped out of volcanic rocks. Though
chiefly famous for mural paintings, there are
Buddha in Meditation-Ellora
some sculptures too. The Hinayana sect of
Heterodox II / Jain caves Buddhism started the excavation of caves in
Ajanta. The patrons were the kings who ruled
A few Jain caves are also seen in Ellora the Deccan plateau during the period c. 200
group and are distinct from others. But BCE to 200 CE. Inscriptions speak of the
they are incomplete. The figures of Yaksha- patrons who range from kings to merchants.
matanga, Mahavira, Parsvanatha, and First phase of the caves belong to the period
Gomatesvara are surrounded by attendants. from c. 200 BCE to 200 CE. The second phase
started from c. 200 CE to 400 CE.
Caves of Vedic Religions
Paintings
The earliest caves in these groups are modest
and simple. Mostly, they are square-shaped Ajanta caves are the repository of rich mural
except Kailasanatha cave (cave-16), which is paintings. Paintings of the early phase
a massive monolithic structure, carved out are mostly in caves nine and ten, which
of a single solid rock. This temple is said to belong to the period of the Satavahanas.
represent Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva. The authors of Ajanta paintings followed
The temple is two storeyed and the Kailasa ingenious techniques. First, they plastered
temple is on the first one. The lower storey the ridged surface of the volcanic rock. This
has carved life-size elephants, which looks plaster was made of vegetable fibres, paddy
like they are holding up the temple on their husk, rock-grit, and sand. This surface was
backs. The temple exterior has richly carved overlaid with a thin layer of lime, ready to
windows, images of deities from the Hindu receive the pigment. Recently it was noticed
scriptures and Mithunas (amorous male that a stretch of cloth was reinforced on the
and female figures). Most of the deities to surface for the application of pigment.
the left of the temple entrance are Saivite The colours were extracted out
and the deities to the right of the entrance of natural objects and minerals. The
are Vaishnavite. The courtyard has two prominent colours used are black, red,
huge pillars with the flagstaff and a Nandi white, yellow, blue and green. The
mandapa. The wedding ceremony of Siva- aesthetic features of the paintings are
Parvati, the attempted lifting of the Kailasa garland, necklaces, headgear, ear-rings
mountain by Ravana, and the destruction and the perfection of the movements of
of Mahisasura by the goddess Durga are the human hands. The story panels are
beautiful specimens. Weapons and musical attractive and informative. Scenes from
instruments of the gods are also depicted the Jataka stories and select episodes from
through the panel sculptures. An interesting the life history of Buddha are the central
sculpture is that of the river goddess Ganga theme of the paintings.

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independently is another important feature.

The popular Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara is
depicted in painting and sculpture.
9.5 Mamallapuram
The iconic Shore Temple of Pallavas at
Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) was
constructed during the reign of Rajasimha
(700-728). The temple comprises three
shrines, where the prominent ones
are dedicated to Siva and Vishnu. The
Ajantha: Bodhisatva
exterior wall of the shrine, dedicated to
The celestial figures of Kinnaras, Vishnu, and the interior of the boundary
Vidyadharas and Gandharvas are depicted wall are elaborately carved and sculpted.
in paintings and sculptures. In the In southern India, this is one amongst the
paintings of the later period Bodhisattva is earliest and most important structural
shown in larger relief. Though a variety of temples. Unlike other structures of the
human moods are presented, the dominant region, the Shore Temple is a five-storeyed
ones are of compassion and peace. Light rock-cut monolith. The monolithic
and shadow are intelligently used. Human vimanas are peculiar to Mamallapuram.
figures depicted in different colours have The Rathas there are known as the
been interpreted to mean that they are Panchapandava Rathas. The Arjuna Ratha
from different ethnicities. contains artistically carved sculptures of
Siva, Vishnu, mithuna and dwarapala. The
Architecture and Sculpture most exquisite of the five is the Dharmaraja
Ratha, with a three-storied vimana and a
Architecturally, Ajanta caves are grouped
square base. The Bhima Ratha is rectangular
into two: chaityas and viharas. The chaityas
in plan and has beautiful sculptures
have vaulted ceilings with long halls. In the
of Harihara, Brahma, Vishnu, Skanda,
rear end of the halls the statue of Buddha is
Ardhanarisvara and Siva as Gangadhara.
seen. The sculpture of Buddha in the garba-
griha is in the classical model. His image is
the embodiment of benevolence. Heaviness
is the general character of the sculptures.
Sculptures of Yakshis and Hariti with children
are significant. Bodhisattva carved out
Panchapandava Rathas
The most important piece of carving

in Mamallapuram is the Descent of the
Ganga (variously described as ‘Bhagirata’s
Penance’ or ‘Arjuna’s Penance’). The portrayal
of puranic figures with popular local stories
reveals the skill of the artists in blending
Ajantha Cave 12: Vihara Cells various aspects of human and animal life. The
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of Madurai in south of Tamil country

patronised the religious movement of
Bhakti, spearheaded by the elite and the
wealthy merchant class. The local temple
became the nucleus of this movement.
Bhakti became the instrument to touch
the hearts of people emotionally, and
mobilize them.
Bhakti cult as a religious movement
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram opened a new chapter in the history of
Tamilnadu in the early medieval period. A
sculptural panel in the Krishna mandapa,
strong wave of Tamil devotionalism swept
where village life with cows and cowherds is
the country from the sixth through the
depicted with beauty and skill, is yet another
ninth centuries. The form was in hymns of
artistic wonder to behold.
the Nayanmars and the Azhwars. The saints
of Saivism and Vaishnavism simplified the
Conclusion use of Tamil language with the application of
Rock-cut temples were common in the music. They brought the local and regional
Pallava period. The structural temples and ethos into the mainstream. Azhwars (totally
the free-standing temples at Aihole and 12) and Nayanmars (totally 63), came from
Badami in the Deccan and at Kanchipuram different strata of Tamil society, such as
and Mamallapuram provide testimony artisans and cultivators. There were women
to the architectural excellence achieved saints as well like Andal, an Azhwar saint. The
during the period. poet Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Tilakawathi),
and the Pandya queen Mangayarkkarasiyar
The Deccan style of sculpture shows were prominent female Nayanmar saints.
a close affinity to Gupta art. Pallava sculpture The refashioning of Saivism and Vaishnavism
owed a lot to the Buddhist tradition. Yet the by the Bhakti saints effectively challenged
sculpture and the architecture of the Deccan Buddhism and Jainism. The influence of
and Tamil Nadu were not mere offshoots of the Bhakti movement is still discernable in
the northern tradition. They are distinctly Tamilnadu.
recognizable as different and have an originality
of their own. The basic form was taken from the
older tradition, but the end result unmistakably Sources
reflected its own native brilliance. Hymns of Thevaram corpus; Nalayira-
divyaprapandam; Periyapuranam;
III. Devotional Movement and Tiru-thondarthogai; Manickavasakar’s
Literature Tiruvasagam; Hymns engraved on the
walls of temples. Miniature sculptures
9.6 Tamil Devotionalism in the circumambulation of temples;
paintings in the temples.
The emergence of regional polities in
south India necessitated the establishment
Bhakti as Ideology
of states based on a certain ideology. In
the context of the times religion alone The term Bhakti has different connotations.
could be the rallying point. The Pallavas It includes service, piety, faith and worship.
of Kanchipuram in north and the Pandyas But it also has an extended meaning. It
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is an enactment of emotion, aesthetics

and sensitivity. Bhakti hymns have three
major themes: First and foremost is the
idea of devotion to a personal god. The
second is a protest against orthodox Vedic
Brahmanism and the exclusiveness of the
Brahmans in their access to divine grace
and salvation. The third is the outright
condemnation of Jains and Buddhists as
heretics. Azhwars
by Nadamuni, at the end of the ninth

Bhakti and the Arts century. Nadamuni who served as a
Originating with folk dancing, the priest at the Ranganatha temple in
choreography of temple dancing became Srirangam is credited with compiling this
highly sophisticated and complex work comprising four thousand poems.
renderings of religious themes as apparent Periyalvar lived in Srivilliputtur during
in the final form. From the Pallava period the reign of Pandyan king Maravarman
onwards trained groups of dancers were Srivallabha in the ninth century. The
maintained by the more prosperous themes are mostly Krishna’s childhood.
temples. Classic scenes from puranas, Krishna is the hero in Andal’s hymns.
and itihasas were sculpted on the walls Her songs convey her abiding love for
of the temples, in bronze and stone. Krishna. Nammalvar, from Kurugur
Subsequently, artists were attached to the (Alvar Tirunagari), now in Thoothukudi
temples with state patronage in order to district, is considered the greatest
promote the fine arts like music, dance and amongst Alvars. Nammalvar authored
others. Religious hymns set to music were four works that include the Tiruvaymoli.
popularized by the Tamil saints, and the Vaishnava devotees believe that his hymns
singing of these hymns became a regular distil the essence of the four Vedas. From
feature of the temple ritual. The veena the twelfth century, the Vaishnava hymns
was probably the most frequently used were the subject of elaborate and erudite
instrument. Sometime around the fifth commentaries.
century CE, it was replaced in India by a
lute with a pear-shaped body. Some two Nayanmars
centuries later it took the form in which it The prominent Saiva poets
is found today-a small gourd body with a include Tirunavukarasar (Appar),
long finger-board. Tirugnanasambandar and Sundarar, and
Manikkavasagar. Nambi Andar Nambi
9.7 Azhwars and compiled their hymns into an anthology
Nayanmars
Azhwars
Azhwars composed moving hymns
addressed to Vishnu. They were compiled
in the Nalayira Divviyaprabandham
Nayanmars
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of eleven books, towards the end of tenth society into mainstream politics through
century. The first seven books, commonly the motto of service, surrender and
known as Thevaram, contain the hymns sacrifice. Every layman could understand
of Sambandar (I to III), Appar (books this motto because Bhakti literary canons
IV to VI) and Sundarar (book VII) and were composed in Tamil in simple
Manikkavasagar (book VIII). Sekkilar’s syntactic and semantic style. But, with the
Periyapuranam is the twelfth thirumurai arrival of Adi Sankara Bhakti discourse
of the Saiva canon. It is a hagiography began in Sanskrit in a philosophical
of the sixty-three Nayanmars but mode.
contains an undercurrent of historical
information as well. This collection of Advent of Adi Sankara
12 books is named Panniru Tirumurai. Against the background of the emerging
The Periyapuranam relates many stories pan-Indian need for an ideology to evolve
about Nayanmars and the miraculous statehood, a new doctrine was expounded
episodes in their lives. by Sankara from Kaladi, Kerala. With
his new doctrine of Maya (illusion) he
Impact held debates with his counterparts from
The devotional movement manifested different sects of religions and won over
itself as a great social transformation. them. Fundamentally, Sankara’s Advaita
The apogee of its movement was the or non-dualism had its roots in Vedanta
coming up of temples that became or Upanishadic philosophy. His attempts
prominent in the Tamil landscape. to root out Buddhism and to establish
Temples, in later Chola times, became smarta (traditionalist) mathas resulted
great social institutions. Politically, in the establishment of monasteries in
the Bhakti movement prompted the different places viz., Sringeri, Dvaraka,
rulers to establish the settlements for Badrinath, and Puri, which were headed
the invited Brahmin groups from the by Brahmin pontiffs. Sankara looked
north of the Indian sub-continent. Royal upon Saiva and Vaishnava worship as two
members, local administrative bodies equally important aspects of the Vedic
and individuals initiated the calendrical religion. Monastic organization and
celebrations and festivals to be conducted preservation of Sanskrit scriptures were
in the temples for which they started the two major thrusts of Sankara school.
making endowments to meet their
expenditure. It directly speeded up the 9.9 Sri Ramanujar
emergence of state in Tamil country and
(1017-1138)
indirectly integrated the different social
groups into the religious fold through the Sri Ramanujar, a native of Sriperumpudur,
instrumentality of temple institutions. underwent philosophical training under
Over the centuries the Bhakti movement Yatavaprakasar in Kanchipuram in
spread all over India, and resulted in a Sankara school of thought. The young
transformation of Hinduism. Ramanujar did not agree with the
teachings of his guru and was fascinated
by the teachings of the Srirangam school
9.8 Adi Sankara (788-820) of thought. Yamunacharya who once
Bhakti or devotional movement found him in Kanchi invited him to
incorporated different sections of the Srirangam. But as soon as he reached

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Sri Rangam, Yamunacharya passed

away. Ramanujar was then declared the
head of monastery in Srirangam. He
took control of monastery, temple and
united the sect with efforts at modifying
the rituals in temples. Ramanuja was a
teacher-reformer and a great organiser.
He challenged the monist ideology of Adi
Sankara and in his effort to widen the
social base to include social groups other
than Brahmans. Described as qualified
monism, his philosophy of Visishtadvaita
influenced many thinkers and developed
into a separate tradition. A century after
his death, there was a schism which
developed into two separate schools under
Vedanta Desikar and Manavala Mamuni.
Sri Ramanujar
Ramanuja took interest in propagating
the doctrine of Bhakti to social groups
outside the varnashrama system. He composite Indian culture. The popularity
influenced some temple authorities to of the bhakti cult in various parts of India
permit the social groups outside the was inaugurated by the Tamil devotional
varnashrama system to enter into temple cult, indicating that ‘maximum of common
at least once a year. It is believed that due characteristics was beginning to merge in
to the perceived threat to their religious the various regions of the sub-continent’.
faith and existence, Ramanujar had to Quoting M.G.S. Narayanan and Kesavan
leave his place of residence. Veluthat, we can sum up the significance
of bhakti ideology as ‘the cementing force
bringing together kings, Brahmin priests
Conclusion and the common people in a harmonious
The developments in south India that took manner to strengthen the rule of the newly
place during this time facilitated the fusion established Hindu kingdoms based on the
of north Indian and south Indian traditions caste system.’
and paved the way for the evolution of a
SUMMARY
I Chalukyas and Pallavas
Chalukyas
Chalukyas of Vatabi, Pulikesin II in particular prevented Harsha in the north and
Pallavas in the south from extending their territorial power into their occupied
territory of Deccan.
Chalukyas established a comprehensive administrative structure at the provincial,
district and village level and supported both Vedic and heterodox religions.

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UNIT
14 Political Developments in Tamilnadu
Diary of Events
1914 - Birth of Dravidian Association

1916 - South Indian Liberal Federation was formed
1917 - Justice Party
1919 - Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
1925 - Periyar founded Self Respect Movement
1937 - Congress Ministry formed under the leadership of Rajaji
1937 - Anti-Hindi Agitation
t Salem conference the Justice Party was renamed into
A
1944 -
Dravidar Kazhagam (DK)
T.Prakasam of Congress formed Government in Madras
1946 -
Presidency
1947 - O.P.Ramaswamy became the Chief Minister
1949 - P.Kumaraswami Raja formed his ministry
1949 - Birth of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)
1952 - First General Elections took place
1956 - States Reorganization Act
1965 - Anti-Hindi Agitation.
ravida Munnetra Kazhagam formed government under the
D
1967 -
leadership of C.N.Annadurai.
1969 - Madras State was renamed as "Tamilnadu"
1969 C.N.Annadurai passed away.
1969 - M.Karunanidhi became the Chief Minister of the State
1972 - AIADMK was founded by M.G.Ramachandran (MGR)
1974 - State Autonomy Resolution was passed in the Assembly
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Learning Objectives
 To understand the nature of political discourses that took place in Madras
presidency during the 1900s.
 To unravel the emergence of Non-Brahmin movement and how it had paved the
way for the Dravidian parties rule in the state of Tamil Nadu.
 To explore the nature of centre-state relations during the rule of various political
parties in the state.
 To study the welfare policies of the Dravidian parties and its significant impact on
the society.
 To examine whether any state level political will has any impact on national politics.
 The chief aim of the study is to understand various dimensions of the social welfare
policies of successive governments in the state.
 To explore the reasons for the fragmentation in Dravidian politics and in
consequences.
14.1 Political History of Tamil Nadu by the "Brahmin – non – Brahmin conflicts".
Scholars and political thinkers believed
Compared with rest of India, Tamil that understanding the conflicts between
Nadu has had a healthy administrative these two groups, (the Brahmins and non –
and political culture, more or less stable Brahmins), is necessary to understand the
economic life, and continuity of traditions South Indian Politics and society.
from the hoary past to the present. Madras
Presidency of South India came into Madras Presidency
existence due to the administrative and Simultaneously a few members
political needs of the British. The Madras of Non-Brahmin caste groups sought
Presidency was formed in A.D (C.E.) employment in industries, commercial
1801. The Presidency, as it existed during enterprises etc., Significant but a portion
the 19th and 20th centuries, comprised of non-Brahmin caste groups migrated
of the present states of Andhra Pradesh, from rural areas to urban pockets of the
Malabar region of Kerala, Southern Presidency and wanted to ascertain their
Karnataka, Southern most part of Odisha identity as ‘Dravidian’ and ‘Tamils’ and
and Union Territory of Lakshadweep. gradually challenged the monopoly of
powers and privileges enjoyed by the
Madras Presidency politics in the Brahmins in politics, administration and
early part of 20th century was dominated society.
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Presidency. In Bengal and in the rest of

North India a Sanskrit and Vedic centered
Indian culture was projected, besides an
Indo-Aryan or Indo-German group of
languages were acknowledged. Non-
Vedic, Non-Sanskrit cultures were not
recognized. The deciphering of Brahmi
script in 1837 by James Principe and
researches on south Indian languages
(Ellis in 1816 and Caldwell in 1856) came
to establish that Indian culture was not
homogeneous;
Ellis is praised by Tamil
enthusiasts as lover of
Tamil, Valluvar, Kural and
so on, without knowing
The word ‘Dravidian’ was used by the colonial and christian
scholars and non – Tamils to identify non- background of him. In
Aryan Tamil speaking people. At the same fact, he tried to forge valluvar as Jain, to
time Brahmins were identified as “Aryans” promote the "thomas myth" in India
and the custodians of Sanskrit civilisation
Francis Whyte Ellis
where as non-Brahmins were considered
as “Dravidians” and the custodians of Born: May 7, 1814,
Tamil language, culture and civilisation. Clady, United Kingdom
Died: August 28, 1891,
14.2 Emergence of Dravidian Kodaikanal, India
Movement
Robert Caldwell
In order to protect and promote the
Tamil identity, culture, socio-political Buddhist and Dravidian traditions
and economic interest of non-Brahmins, also existed in India. In the south, especially
a movement called ‘Dravidian Movement’ in the multi-lingual Madras Presidency,
was started in Madras Presidency by a theories on Dravidian group of languages
group of non – Brahmins. and Dravidian cultural heritage led to
assertion of Dravidian identity among the
Dravidian and Non-Brahmin Identity Non-Brahmin.
In 1801 Madras Presidency was
formed by the colonial regime as a Two factors (1) Brahmins claiming
multilingual province (Tamils, Telegus, superiority over Non-Brahmins and (2)
Malayalees, Kannadigas and Tulus). Brahmins monopolizing educational and
India’s diversity could be noticed in the employment opportunities transformed
political developments of the Madras the Dravidian identity into Non-Brahmin
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identity. (In Maharashtra too Mahatma 14.3 Justice Party

Jyotiba Rao Phule launched a Non-
Brahmin movement on similar lines). The major political organization of
Dravidian also indicated the Non- that time, Indian National Congress was
Brahmins in south India. dominated by Brahmins had refused to
consider the demands of non-brahmin
members. Thus the non-brahmin leaders
of Madras Presidency began to think of
floating a non-brahmin political
organization. The prospects of political
reforms after the First World War, and the
possibilities of representing institutions
stimulated their move.
The Non-Brahmins of the Madras

Presidency had a grievance that the emerging
nationalist leaders paid no heed to non-
brahmin issues. In 1852 Gangalu Lakshmi In 1916 Dr.T.M. Nair, Pitti
Narash expressed this grievance, seceded Theagarayar and Dr.C. Natesan founded
from British Indian Association and floated the South Indian Liberal Federation
his own organization named Madras Native to promote and safeguard the socio-
Association. In the post-mutiny period, the economic political interests of the non-
non-brahmin leaders undertook social brahmin. This South Indian Liberal
reforms rather than political reforms. After Federation (SILF) came to be popularly
the introduction of Minto-Morley reforms known as the "Justice Party" named after
in 1909 the non-brahmin leaders of Madras the English journal Justice. Through their
Presidency began to protest the inadequate relentless efforts they secured reservation
representations to them in education and of seats for the non-brahmin in the
employment. elections to the legislative council.
Sir Alexander The main objectives of the

Gordon Cardew, Justice Party (JP)
a member of i) To create and promote the Educational,
Governor’s Executive Social, Economic, Political and material
Council submitted progress of all communities other than
statistical details Brahmins of South India.
(1913) to prove that ii) To work for Non-Brahmins upliftment
the Brahmins who formed only three through Constitutional government.
percent of the population cornered most iii) To make the government truly a
of the opportunities. representative government.
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iv) To create public opinion infavour of the elections, but many congressmen
Non-Brahmins demand. contested the elections under different
banners.
The Justice Party won majority of

the seats and A.Subbarayalu became the
Chief Minister and after his death, Raja of
Panagal became the Chief Minister of
Madras in 1921.
14.4 Contributions of Justice Party
In spite of the fluctuating fortunes in

the subsequent elections, the Justice party
continued to hold power from 1921 to
1937. They introduced a number of
reforms. Through communal Government
Order they ensured adequate number of
opportunities to every category of non-
brahmin communities. They removed
discrimination against Sudras and
Panchamas in public roads, transports,
restaurants and public wells. They
regulated the temple affairs through the
newly constituted Hindu Religious
Endowment Board, earmarked plots of
land for the Panchamas (Panchami’s Land)
introduced new township and industrial
Montagu Chelmsford reforms 1919 estates. Special efforts were taken to
introduced dyarchy in the presidencies provide education for the children of
by which a few departments were depressed classess. For the first time they
earmarked for Indian ministers chosen experimented with “Noon Meal Scheme”
from the elected members. In the first in a few schools. Knowledge of Sanskrit
elections under dyarchy in 1920, the as the basic eligibility for medical
Indian National Congress as a part of the education was removed which facilitated
Non-Co-operation Movement boycotted non-brahmin students gaining entry into
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medical education. On an initiative from and then he was elected as the president of
Dr. Muthulakshmi and others, Devadasi Justice Party. In the same year, the Justice
system was abolished in Tami nadu and Party passed a resolution that Tamil Nadu
women were enfranchised. Co-operative should be made as a separate state loyal
societies were promoted. Mirasdari system to British government and it should be
was abolished, and a under the direct control of the Secretary
number of irrigation of State for India.
schemes were
Periyar E.V.Ramaswamy who played
introduced in 1923.
a pioneering role in the Madras Presidency
Annamalai University
Congress, had tried his best to make the
and Andhra
Tamilnadu Congress Committee adopt
University were
resolutions in favour of proportional
founded during their
representation for the non-brahmins
regime. It was the Justic Party which
in political arena. He gave an effective
provided the most successful government
leadership to the Vaikom Sathyagraha and
though they were assigned only a few
campaigned against caste-discrimination
departments.
in the Cheranmadevi Gurukula, founded
14.5 Periyar E.V. Ramasamy: by congress.
When all his efforts failed to make
Peiyar E.V. Ramasamy congress adopt his programme, he left
considered the congress and launched the self-respect
decision of Rajaji’s movement in 1925. He shunned electoral
government to impose politics and instead campaigned for social
Hindi as a compulsory reforms, especially for eradication of
subject as a move caste system, removal of indignities and
to establish ‘North Indian imperialism’ gender based restrictions on women,
and destroying the Tamil language and and rejection of hereditary priesthood.
culture. Periyar, further, maintained that The self-respect movement carried on
the imposition of Hindi was a calculated a vigorous campaign against age old
effort to sub judicate the Dravidians in superstitious beliefs and practices in
order to ascertain the supremacy of the every sphere and questioned the role of
Aryans. religion in justifying and sustaining such
Madras Presidency has witnessed irrational traditions and inequalities. The
massive anti-Hindi agitations and Self Respect Movement campaigned for
Periyar was imprisoned by the provincial rationalism, and against denial of dignity
government. It is significant to note that in and equal status of individuals (including
fifteen years he went to jail twenty- three women) under the garb of tradition and
times and got the nickname as ‘jailbird’ religion.
(Siraiparavai). In 1938, Periyar was The Self Respect Movement ordained
imprisoned for his Anti-Hindi agitation its members to give up caste surname and
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caste-religious identities; it introduced the Periyar launched anti-Hindi agitations. A

self-respect marriages. It fought against large number of students have participated
not only untouchability but even against in the agitations organized by Periyar.
the caste-system and the caste based
disabilities and indignities imposed on During this period, the Communist
individuals. Party (formally launched in 1925) became
active in campaigning for socialist
The Self Respect Movement programme and organized labour
propagated not merely letter treatment of movements. M.Singaravelu, and their
women, but for equal rights, equal status associates were impressed by the social
an equal opportunities for women. Self reform programmes of the Self Respect
Respect Movement’s role in “Women Movement, which in turn extended
Liberation” was unparalleled and for that support to the economic programme of
E.V.Ramaswamy was given the title the communities, and these two
“Periyar” in a women’s conference. movements agreed to work on a common
Periyar’s journal ‘Kudiarasu’ ‘Revolt’ and programme (Erode Plan).
later ‘Viduthalai’ carried on the effective
propaganda of self-respect ideals.
Objectives of Self-Respect League

i) Reforming Dravidian society to make
14.6 Self Respect Movement it truly rational.
In 1929 the first Self-Respect ii) To teach the truth of ancient Tamil
Conference was held in Chengalpattu. In the civilization to Dravidians.
crucial elections of 1937 the Congress party,
iii) Save the Dravidian society from the
led by C. Rajagopalachari, won majority
domination of Aryan culture.
every seats except one. The Congress
party victory was largely because of the iv)
Reforming the Hinduism by
decline of Justice Party. The Congress eliminating Brahmin influence and
formed the government and Rajaji became superstitious practices.
the Chief Minister of the Madras province.
He wanted to restore the past glory
Soon after assuming power the of Dravidian culture by creating social
Congress government introduced Hindi awareness among the non-Brahmins
as a compulsory subject in the schools.
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in general and particularly the youth.

He advocated Self –Respect marriages,
a marriage which was conducted in
the absence of Brahmin priesthood,
discouraged the people from performing
religious ceremonies and not to employ
the services of the Brahmins in any of the Mariamalai Adigal to organize the ‘Anti
social events. Hindi Movement’ in 1937. Thousands of
agitators including E.V.Ramaswamy
Decline of Justice Party courted arrests, and a number of agitators
By 1929, the Self-Respect Movement died in prison.
had become a formidable movement in the Salem Conference, 1944
Madras Presidency. In 1930’s the Justice
Party began to face decline in the province. In 1944, at Salem conference under the
There were three major factors responsible leadership of Periyar, a historic resolution
for this decline. Firstly, the party lost its was moved to change the name of Justice
support among the Depressed sections of Party to Dravidar Kazhagam (DK). Periyar
the society and minorities. Secondly the organised ‘Dravida Nadu’ conference and
Self-Respect Movement, under Periyar demanded an independent homeland for
had become more radical. Finally the ‘Dravidians’. Further, he pronounced his
elitist and pro-British outlook of Justice very famous slogan ‘Dravida Nadu for
Party had also contributed significantly Dravidians’ at the conference.
for its decline. Apart from separate ‘Dravida Nadu’
14.7 Anti Hindi Agitation demand, the Dravidar Kazhagam wanted
to establish casteless society, condemned
The decline of the Justice Party and religious rituals, traditions and
Periyar’s refusal to enter into electoral superstitious in Dravidian society. The
politics together with the growing Dravidar Kazhagam became very popular
popularity of Mahatma Gandhi, enabled in many rural and urban masses, especially
Indian National Congress to win elections among the students. Many non-Brahmin
in the Madras Presidency in 1937 and leaders and students have changed their
Rajagopalachari became the premier. name reflecting Tamil Identity.
He introduced total prohibition (ban Anti-Hindi Agitation 1965
on liquor) and abolished the Zamindari
system, and introduced legislations
removing restrictions on temple entry for
the depressed classes. Yet his measures
leading to closure of many schools and
introduction of Hindi as compulsory
language in schools provoked the admirers
of self respect and Tamil Nationalists like
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S.NO. PREMIER CHIEF MINISTER YEAR

1 A. Subbarayalu Reddiar 1920 – 1921
2 Raja of Panagal 1921-1926
3 P. Subbarayan 1926 1930
4 P. Munusamy Naidu 1930 1932
5 Poppili Raja 1932 -1937
6 P.T. Rajan 1936
7 K.V. Reddy Naidu 1937
8 C. Rajaji 1937 - 1939
(Note: Tamil Nadu was under Governor’s rule from 29 th October 1939 to 30th April 1946)
9 T. Prakasam 1946 -1947
10 O.P. Ramasamy Reddiyar 1947 – 1949
CHIEF MINISTER
11 P.S. Kumarasamy Raja 1949-1952
12 C. Rajaji 1952 - 1954
13 K. Kamaraj 1954-1957
14 K. Kamaraj 1957-1962
15 K. Kamaraj 1962-1963
16 M. Bakthavatsalam 1963-1967
17 C.N. Annadurai 1967-1969
18 M. Karunanidhi 1969-1971
19 M. Karunanidhi 1971-1976
20 M.G. Ramachandran 1977-1980
23 Janaki Ramachandran 1988
24 M.Karunanidhi 1989-1991
25 J. Jayalalithaa 1991-1996
26 M.Karunanidhi 1996-2001
27 J. Jayalalithaa 2001
28 O. Panneerselvam 2001-2002
29 J. Jayalalithaa 2002 -2006
30 M. Karunanidhi 2006 - 2011
31 J. Jayalalithaa 2011
32 O. Panneerselvam 2012 (Interim)
33 J. Jayalalithaa May 16, 2016 – Dec .5 2016
34 O. Panneerselvam Dec 2016 – Feb 2017
35 K. Palanisamy Feb 2017 - till date
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In accordance with the provisions In 1951, the Supreme Court struck

of Article 313 of the Indian Constitution down communal reservations in higher
Hindi was made as the official language of education. Immediately Periyar launched
the Indian Union on January 26, 1965. In a major agitation for the restoration of
order to protest the decision of the Union communal reservation.
Government the Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam decided to observe 26th January,
1965 as a ‘Day of Mourning’. Many leaders
of the party and its cadres were arrested.
Tamil Nadu had witnessed a large scale
of Anti-Hindi agitations. Because of the
agitations the cause secured considerable
amount of support among the student
community. On the other hand the
Congress party lost its base and support
in the state of Tamil Nadu. Meanwhile,
the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam had
withdrawn the demand for ‘Dravida Law and rules are only for the
people. People are not for the
Nadu’ and continue to actively participate
law and the rules
in the electoral politics of Tamilnadu and - Kamaraj
became a ruling party in the state.
14.8 Dravidian Movement during Consequently, the first constitutional

second World War and after: amendment Act was passed in the
In 1939, the Parliament in favour of reservations for
congress protested socially and educationally backward
the government’s classes.
d e cl ar at i on 14.9 Rajaji Regime (1952-54)
involving India in
the Second World The politics of Madras
War which led to State in India witnessed the
the resignation of continuation of struggle
congress ministry. In Madras Presidency between statusquoists and
Rajaji’s ministry had resigned but Periyar reformists. C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) who
raised the demand of Dravida Nadu on led the first elected ministry in the Madras,
the ground that independence prior to under the Republican Constitution, again
socio-cultural equality would be injurious reduced the number of schools, attempted
to Tamil interests. In 1949, Dravidar to impose Hindi in schools and Modified
Kazhagam split and Dravida Munnetra Scheme of Elementary Education which
Kazhagam was formed. provided for part time learning of
hereditary occupations popularly known
as kulakalvi.
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Kamaraj also introduced the noon-meal

scheme for school children.
Arundhati Roy on Dandi March
Resistance as spectacle,
as political theatre,
has a history. Gandhi’s
salt march in 1930 to
Dandi is among the
most exhilarating examples. But the
salt march wasn’t theatre alone. It was In 1963, Kamaraj resigned (Kamaraj
the symbolic part of a large act of real Plan) his chief ministership to become the
civil disobedience. When Gandhi and President of Indian National Congress and
an army of freedom fighters marched M.Bhaktavatchalam took over the reins
to Gujarat’s coast and made salt from of the government. The Food shortage
sea water, thousands of Indians across and anti-hindi agitation caused the un-
the country began to make their popularity of his ministry.
own salt, openly defying imperial
Dravidian Parties Rule
Britain’s salt tax laws, which banned
local production in favour of British In the general elections of 1967,
imports. It was a direct strike at the the congress party was defeated. The
economic underpinning of the British Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam formed the
Empire. government.
(Arundhati Roy, An Ordinary Person’s
Guide To Empire, p.307.)
Dravidian leaders launched a

statewide protest against movement. Even
a section of congress leaders resented
Rajaji’s proposals which led to change in
Chief ministership.
14.10 Kamaraj Era (1954-1963)

Kamaraj abolished the Modified
Scheme of Elementary Education,
increased manifold the number of schools,
built a number of dams for improving
irrigation, provided more industrial
estates and ensured astonishing industrial
growth in the state. He made education
more accessible to poor and rural children.
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and to overcome newly amended electoral

In 1956, through 'states laws. It won a majority in 1967 elections.
reorganization Act' Madras Annadurai ruled for a brief period (1967-
Presidency gave up malayalam regions 69), yet he renamed Madras state as
to Kerala, Telegu region to Andhra Tamilnadu, passed civil marriages act,
Pradesh and Kannada regions to rejected three language policies of central
Mysore. Thus, Madras state became government and enforced a two languages
a state of Tamils. Kamaraj provided a (English & Tamil) policy in Tamilnadu.
stable government.
The provision of affordable universal

housing for poor, precursor to food
security (Rice scheme) and establishment
of Slum Clearance Board have substantially
improved and received support among
the urban poor people also. Significantly,
the government renamed the State from
Madras to Tamil Nadu in the year 1969.
The other major achievements of the
party were:
A. Nationalisation of Bus routes larger

than 75 miles.
B. Waiver of Tuition fee for poor students
of all castes in pre-University and pre- For the first time, he introduced a
technical courses. subsidized rice (one measure one rupee)
scheme. His successor M.Karunanidhi
C. Second World Tamil Conference was continued his legacy. In 1972,
organised. M.G.Ramachandran founded his own
Dravidian Party (All Indian Anna Dravida
D. Supply of subsidised rice for people of Munnetra Kazhagam – AIADMK). He
Tamil Nadu. captured power in 1977 and retained the
same till his death in 1987. Thereafter,
14.11 Dravidian Rule in Post- Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam under
Independence Tamilnadu M.Karunanidhi and Selvi J. Jayalalitha
For the past 62 years Dravidian of All Indian Anna Dravida Munnetra
parties have been ruling Tamilnadu. Kazhagam led ministries in alternative
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam decided to elections. Besides, these two, there are a few
enter electoral politics in 1957 and gave other Dravidian parties like Marumalarchi
up its “Dravida Nadu” demand consequent Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.
to Chinese aggression of Indian territories
176

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www.tntextbooks.in
More than, six decades of Dravidian Development Index). Today, Tamilnadu

rule contributed remarkably to the is in prominent position in promoting
development of Tamil. They steadfastly automobile industries, electronics, and
protected the interest of Tamil language, in pharmaceutical industries. it's new
Tamil people and Tamilnadu. A number economic zones are attracting huge
of welfare schemes were introduced to investments. Tamilnadu’s achievements in
alleviate the suffering of common people. infrastructural development are acclaimed
They ensured food security through by all. Roads, harbours, electrification
subsidized and later free rice schemes, and availability of skilled labour facilitate
nutritious meal scheme, free education industrial development.
until under graduate level, free electricity
for farming, abolition of cycle rickshaws There has been a manifold increase
and manual scavenging , cradle baby in the number of schools of different
scheme for the abandoned children, and categories. There is a manifold increase
welfare boards for various unorganized in the number of universities. Tamilnadu
workers, and even for transgender. As a has exclusive universities for women,
remedy to ruinous caste conflicts, engineering and technology, law,
‘Samathuvapuram’ and ‘Uzhavarsanthai’ medicine, siddha medicine, sports etc.
were created. Promotion of Tamil language, through
tamil university, ulaga tamil araichi
niruvanam, world tamil conference
and ulaga tamil semmozhi conference,
and script reforms, led to all-round
advancement of tamil language.
The Dravidian parties since the days

of Annadurai have been championing the
cause of secularism and autonomy of the
states. The Dravidian parties have also
been contributing substantially to national
politics. Dravidian political stream
continues to be formidable in Tamilnadu.
Glossary
Free electricity was provided to huts,

Coalition – A temporary alliance formed
slum clearance board met the housing
by political parties especially at the time
requirements of slum dwellers. The
of Elections.
phenomenal increase in industrial activity
increased the opportunities for youth; as Communism - a system of social
a result of these developments Tamilnadu organization in which all property is
registered a high ranking in HDI (Human owned by the community. Further, each
177

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TNPSC ARCHAEOLOGY 2020
Stay Focused
TNPSC ARCHAEOLOGY 2020
Stay Focused
TNPSC GROUP II MODEL 2020
46. Jaina influence is strong in early Tamil literature. Which one of
the following is not a jaina work ?
[A] Naaladiyar [B] Pazhamozhi
[C] Jivakachinthamani [D] Manimekalai
gH’;fhyj; jkpH; ,yf;fpaj;jpy; rkz rkaj;jpd; jhf;fk; tYthf cs;sJ/

fPH;f;fz;ltw;Ws; rkz ,yf;fpak; my;yjhJ vJ >
[A] ehyoahu; [B] gHbkhHp
[C] rPtf rpe;jhkzp [D] kzpnkfiy
47. Which one of the following is not correct about Buddha ?
[A] He did not mention about God.
[B] His teachings are full of descriptions about God.
[C] He did not accept inequality based on one‟s birth.
[D] He neither accepted nor denied the existence of God.
fPH;f;fz;ltw;Ws; g[j;jiug; gw;wpa jtwhd Tw;W vJ >
[A] mtu; flt[isg; gw;wp Fwpg;gpltpy;iy/
[B] mtUila nghjidfs; midj;Jk; flt[isg; gw;wpa

tUzidfisf; bfhz;oUe;jd/
[C] gpwg;gpd; mog;gilapyhd rkkw;w Kiwia mth;

Vw;Wf;bfhs;stpy;iy/
[D] mtu; flt[spd; ,Ug;ig Vw;Wf;bfhs;st[kpy;iy

kWjypf;ft[kpy;iy/
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48. The rock cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta belong to the period of :
[A] Rashtrakutas [B] Palas
[C] Sathavahanas [D] Chalukyas
vy;nyhuh kw;Wk; vypbgz;lh Filtiuf; nfhapy;fs; vtUila fhyj;ijr;

rhu;e;jit >
[A] uhc&;ouTlu;fs; [B] ghyu;fs;
[C] rhjthfdu;fs; [D] rhSf;fpau;fs;
சாதவாகைர்கள்
49. Who built the world famous “ khajuraho ” temples ?
[A] Chalukyas
[B] Chandelas of Bundelkhand.
[C] Rashtrakutas
[D] Bahmini Sultans
cyfg; g[fH;bgw;w *f$%uhn~h * nfhtpy;fisf; fl;oatu;fs; ahu; ?
[A] rhSf;fpau;fs;
[B] ge;njy;fz;l; re;njyu;fs;
[C] uhc&;ouTlu;fs;
[D] ghkpdp Ry;jhd;fs;
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50. To which period the great literary works of “ Kamba Ramayanam”
and “ Periyapuranam ” belong ?
[A] Chalukyas [B] Vijayanagar Empire
[C] Later Cholas [D] Pandyas
bgUk; ,yf;fpag; gilg;g[fshd *fk;guhkhazk;* kw;Wk; *bgupag[uhzk; * Mfpait

ve;j fhyfl;lj;ijr; rhu;e;jit>
[A] rhSf;fpau;fs; [B] tp$aefug; nguuR
[C] gpw;fhyr; nrhHu;fs; [D] ghz;oau;fs;
51. Who hailed the Pandiyan kingdom as the richest and the most
splendid province in the world ?
[A] Ibn Battuta [B] Marcopolo
[C] Hiuen-Tsang [D] Fa-Hien
ghz;oa muR cyfpnyna kpft[k; bry;tr; brHpg;g[lDk;. mw;g[jkhd mHFlDk;

fhzg;gLk; gFjp vdg; g[fHhuk; Nl;oatu; ahu;>
[A] ,gpd; gl;Llh [B] khu;f;nfhnghnyh
[C] a[thd; Rth’; [D] gh~pahd;
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52. Which one of the following Governors of Madras presidency gave
attention to education and regarded any expenditure on it as an
investment for whom a statue was erected at Chennai in 1839 by
public subscription ?
[A] John Erskine [B] James Thompson
[C] Thomas Manro [D] Arthur Havelock
fPH;f;fhQqk; brd;id khfhz MSeu;fspy; fy;tpf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mspj;jJld;

mjw;fhd brytpd’;fis KjyPlhff; fUjpa xUtupd; epidthfg; bghJkf;fs;
tH’;fpa epjpiaf; bfhz;L 1939?Mk; Mz;L brd;idapy; rpiy epWtg;gl;lJ >
mtu; ahu;>
[A] $hd; vu;!;fpd; [B] n$k;!; fhk;g;!d;
[C] jhk!; kd;nwh [D] Mu;ju; n~t;yhf;
53. Use of animal forms in pilasters and columns including rampant

horses and leogryphs give a distinctive character to which one of the
following architecture ?
[A] The Dravidian style.
[B] The Bundalkhand style.
[C] The Orissan style.
[D] The Harappan style.
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rJuj;J}z;fs;. rPwp vGk; Fjpiufs; kw;Wk; ahHpfs; Mfpatw;wpd; gad;ghL fPH;f;fhQqk;
ve;j rpw;gf;fiy Kiwf;F jdpj;Jtkhd jd;ikia tH’;FfpwJ >
[A] jpuhtpl Kiw
[B] ge;njy;fz;l; Kiw
[C] xup!;!h Kiw
[D] ~ug;gd; Kiw
54. (i) The sound system in this language is rich in retroflex

components.
(ii) Its varied vowels distinguish it from other languages.
Which language system is described in the above statements ?
[A] Dravidian languages.

[B] Pali language.
[C] Prakrit language.
[D] Sanskrit language.
(i) ,e;j bkhHpapYs;s xyp mikg;gpy; tisehbthypf; TWfs; kpFjpahff;

fhzg;gLfpd;wd/
(ii) ,jd; gy;ntW tifg;gl;l capbuGj;Jf;fs; gpw bkhHpfspypUe;J ,ij
ntWgLj;jpf; fhl;Lfpd;wd/
nkw;Twpa Tw;Wfs; ve;j bkhHpiag; gw;wp tptupf;fpd;wd >
[A] jpuhtpl bkhHpfs;
[B] ghyp bkhHp
[C] gpuhfpUj bkhHp
[D] rk!;fpUj bkhHp
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106. Assertion (A): Karikala Cholan was distinguished as “Ponnikku Karai
Kanda Bhoopathi”
Reason (R): The stone construction named Kallanai, a masterpiece in

Water Management fitted with water canals was
constructed by Karikalan.
(A) [A] is true, but [R] is false.
(B) Both [A] & [R] are true; and [R] is the correct explanation of [A].
(C) (A) and (R) are true.
(D) [A] is false, but [R] is true.
Tw;W (A) : ‟bghd;dpf;Ff; fiu fz;l g{gjp‟ vd fhpfhy; nrhHd; rpwg;gpf;fg;gLfpwhd;/

fhuzk; (R): ePiu bewpg;gLj;Jk; tha;f;fhy;fshy; ,izf;fg;gl;l jiyrpwe;j
fw;fl;Lkhdkhfpa fy;yiz fhpfhydhy; fl;lg;gl;lJ/
(A) (A) rhp Mdhy; (R) jtW
(B) (A) kw;Wk; (R) ,uz;Lk; rhp/ nkYk; (R) vd;gJ (A) tpw;Fr; rhpahd
tpsf;fkhFk;/
(C) (A) kw;Wk; (R) ,uz;Lk; jtW/
(D) (A) jtW Mdhy; (R) rhp/
107. What is the second line of the verse from Purananooru that begins as
follows?
“Yadhum Oore Yavarum Kelir”
……..
(The world is my Country, all countrymen my kindred)
(A) “Theethum Nandrum Pirar Thara varaa”

(Boon or Bane does not come from others)
(B) “Undi Koduthor Uyir Koduthore!”
(One who feeds gives Life)
(C) “Unbadhu Naazhi, Uduppana Irande”
(For eating a measure, for dressing just two)
(D) “Thuippom enine thappuna palave”.
(If savored alone, much is lost)
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“ahJk; Cnu ahtUk; nfsph;” – vdj; bjhl’;Fk; g[wehD}w;Wg;ghlypd; ,uz;lhtJ
mo vJ?
(A) jPJk; ed;Wk; gpwh;ju thuh
(B) cz;o bfhLj;njhh; caph; bfhLj;njhnu
(C) cz;gJ ehHp cLg;gd ,uz;nl
(D) Ja;g;nghk; vdpnd jg;g[d gynt
108. The message related in the Purananooru verse
“Yaanai pukka pulam pola,

Thanum unnaan; ulagamum kedume….”
(As the elephant destroys the field, so does the King‟s taxes does not benefit
himself and destroys the world).
1) Tax abolition.
2) Reduction of Tax.
3) Regulating Tax Collection Methodology
4) Tax Evasion.
(A) 1 only.
(B) 2 and 3 only.
(C) 1 and 2 only.
(D) 3 only.
“ahid g[f;f g[yk; nghy

jhDk; cz;zhd;; cyfKk; bfLnk” – vDk; g[wehD}w;Wg; ghly; czh;j;Jk; fUj;J
1) thpia xHpj;jy;
2) thpf;Fiwg;g[
3) thp tNypf;Fk; Kiwia xG’;FgLj;Jjy;
4) thp Va;g;g[
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(A) 1 kl;Lk; TNPSC GROUP II MODEL 2020
(B) 2 kw;Wk; 3 kl;Lk;
(C) 1 kw;Wk; 2 kl;Lk;
(D) 3 kl;Lk;
109. Which is the Grammatical literature pioneered by “Tholkappiyam” ?
(A) Thirukkural
(B) Moodhurai
(C) Nannool
(D) Neethi Venbaa
bjhy;fhg;gpaj;jpd; tHpE}yhf tps’;Fk; ,yf;fz E}y; vJ ?
(A) jpUf;Fws;
(B) K:Jiu
(C) ed;D}y;
(D) ePjp btz;gh
110. Match correctly the excavated things with their corresponding

excavation sites.
(i) Golden foils - 1. Thirukkampuliyur
(ii) “Rouletted” potteries made in Rome - 2. Aadhichanallur
(iii) Sun & Natural Objects - 3. Vadamangal
(iv) Fort wall (Compound Wall) that is - 4. Uraiyur

3000 years old
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(A) 3 4 1 2
(B) 2 4 1 3
(C) 4 2 1 3
(D) 1 4 3 2
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fPnH bfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s fz;Lgpog;g[fis mjd; Ch;fSld; bjhlh;g[gLj;Jf
(i) j’;fg;gl;l’;fs; ? 1/ jpUf;fhk;g[ypa{h;
(ii) nuhkhg[hpapy; bra;ag;gl;l busyl;ll;

vDk; kz;ghz;l’;fs; ? 2/ Mjpr;rey;Y}h;
(iii) Nhpad; kw;Wk; ,aw;if cUt’;fs; ? 3/ tlk’;fy;
(iv) 3000 Mz;Lfs; gHik tha;e;j Rw;Wr;Rth; ? 4/ ciwa{h;
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(A) 3 4 1 2
(B) 2 4 1 3
(C) 4 2 1 3
(D) 1 4 3 2
111. The graffiti symbols of Keeladi are similar to which one of the
following civilizations ?
[A] Sumerian Civilization [B] Nile River Civilization
[D]Indus Valley Civilization [C] Yellow River Civilization
fPHoapd; fPwy;fs; - FwpaPLfs; gpd;tUk; ve;j ehfhpfj;njhL xg;g[nehf;ff; Toait ?
[A] Rnkhpa ehfhpfk; [B] iey; ejp ehfhpfk;
[C]rpe;J rkbtsp ehfhpfk; [D] k‛;rs; ejp ehfhpfk;
112. The carbon samples collected by the Department of Archaeology,

Government of Tamil Nadu from the excavations of Keeladi after
having been analyzed indicate that all the six samples fall between:
(A) 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE

(B) 6th century BCE and 3rd century BCE
(C) 4th century BCE and 6th century CE
(D) 3rd century BCE and 5th century CE
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fPHo mfH;tha;tpd; nghJ jkpH;ehL murpd; bjhy;ypay; Jiwahy; nrfhpf;fg;gl;l
fhpk khjphpfs;. gFg;gha;t[ bra;ag;gl;ljpy; mtw;wpd; fhyk; vJbtd
mwpag;gLfpwJ ?
(A) fp/K ,uz;lhk;; E}w;whz;L Kjy; fp/gp ,uz;lhk;; E}w;whz;L tiu/

(B) fp/K Mwhk;; E}w;whz;L Kjy; fp/K K:d;whk; E}w;whz;L tiu/
(C) fp/K ehd;fhk; E}w;whz;L Kjy; fp/gp Mwhk;; E}w;whz;L tiu/
(D) fp/K K:d;whk; E}w;whz;L Kjy; fp/gp Ie;jhk; E}w;whz;L tiu/
113. (i) Dharma, Atharma, Kaama and Moksha are the four fold
classification of Indian Philosophy.
(ii) Tholkappiyam and Sangam literature speak only the first three.
Which of the above statement/s is / are correct ?
(A) (i) only

(B) (ii) only.
(C) (i) and (ii).
(D) None of the above.
(i) jh;kk;. mjh;kk;. fhkk;. nkhl;rk; vd;w ehd;F tif ghFghl;il ,e;jpaj; jj;Jt’;fs;
Fwpg;gpLfpd;wd/
(ii) bjhy;fhg;gpak; kw;Wk; r’;f ,yf;fpa’;fs; Kjy; K:d;W tiffis kl;Lnk

Fwpg;gpLfpd;wd/
nkw;fhQqk; Tw;Wfspy; rhpahdJ-it vJ / vit?
(A) (i) kl;Lk;
(B) (ii) kl;Lk;
(C) (i) kw;Wk; (ii)
(D) nkw;fz;l vita[k; my;y/
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114. “…………………………… are the
eyes of all human beings”
In the above Thirukkural, which one of the below are identified by Thiruvalluvar as
the eyes of all human beings :
(A) Virtue and wealth

(B) Impartiality and self control
(C) Wealth and love
(D) Numbers and letters
*///////////// apt;tpuz;Lk;
fz;bzd;g thG Kapu;f;F*
nkw;fhQqk; jpUf;Fwspy; vit ,uz;il jpUts;Stu; fz;fSf;F xg;ghff; TWfpwhu;>
(A) mwKk; bghUSk;
(B) eLt[ epiyika[k; mlf;fKilika[k;
(C) bghUSk; ,d;gKk;
(D) vz;Qqk; vGj;Jk;
115. “Dare to do a thing…………………..

………………………… it is shameful to say”
As per the above Thirukkural, how should we enter an action?
(A) After accumulating enormous wealth

(B) After charity
(C) After a mature thought
(D) At an appropriate time
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*////////////////////Jzpf fUkk; Jzpe;jgpd;
//////////////////// vd;g jpGf;F*
vt;thW xU braypy; <Lgl ntz;Lk; vd jpUts;Stu; nkw;Twpa Fwspy;

mwpt[Wj;Jfpwhh;>
(A) epiwag; bghUs; nrh;j;j gpwF
(B) jhdk; bra;j gpwF
(C) ed;whfr; rpe;jpj;J mjw;Fg; gpwF
(D) jf;f fhykwpe;J
116. “Speak out your speech, when once 'tis past dispute
That none can utter speech that shall your speech refute.”
What does Thiruvalluvar mean by “that shall your speech” ?
(A) A synonym of the word used by you.

(B) A substitute word.
(C) A translated word for the word used by you.
(D) That word of yours which cannot be won by others.
“brhy;Yf brhy;iyg; gpwpnjhh;brhy; mr;brhy;iy

bty;Y‛;brhy; ,d;ik mwpe;J”
- “mr;brhy;iy ” vd jpUts;Sth; ciug;gJ vij ?
(A) eP’;fs; gad;gLj;jpa bghUspy; ntbwhU brhy;/
(B) brhy;Yf;F khw;whf ntWbrhy;/
(C) eP’;fs; gad;gLj;jpa brhy;Yf;F ntw;WbkhHpr; brhy;/
(D) kw;wth;fshy; bty;y Koahj c’;fSila brhy;/
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117. “……………………………….. if they fail to control it, their words will lose weight
and sorrow and grief will overwhelm them”.
In the above Thirukkural, Thiruvalluvar emphasizes the importance to control

one‟s tongue. According to him, this is applicable to :
(A) The wealthy

(B) The Poor
(C) The Good human beings
(D) Everyone
* //////////////////////////////////////////// ehfhf;f fhthf;fhy;

nrhfhg;gh; brhy;ypGf;Fg; gl;L*
nkw;Twpa jpUf;Fwspy; jpUts;Sth; ehtlf;fj;ij gw;wp TWfpwhh; ? ,g;gz;g[ vtUf;Fg;

bghUe;Jk; >
(A) bghUs; cilatUf;F
(B) bghUs; mw;nwhUf;F
(C) ey;nyhUf;F
(D) midtUf;Fk;
118. “Incomings may be scant; but yet, no failure there,

If in expenditure you rightly learn to spare”.
What do you infer from the above ?
(A) Work hard to increase your income.
(B) Though income is limited, one can live without any misery, if
the outflow is carefully managed.
(C) Completely restrict the outflow regardless of your income.
(D) Increase both the income and the outflow.
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“Mfh wstpl;o jhapD’; nfoy;iy
nghfh wfyhf; fil”
-nkw;fhQqk; Fwspy; ,Ue;J ePtph; mwptJ ahJ?
(A) tuitg; bgUf;Ftjw;Ff; fodkhf ciHf;f ntz;Lk;/
(B) bryitf; ftdkhf nkyhz;ik bra;jhy; tut[ FiwthdhYk; vt;tpjj;

Jd;gKkpd;wp thH Koa[k;/
(C) tut[ vj;jifajhapDk; brytpd; bgUf;fj;ij KGikahff; fl;Lg;gLj;Jf/
(D) tut[. bryt[ ,uz;ila[k; mjpfhpj;Jf; bfhs;s ntz;Lk;/
119. Match the following:
(i) “…………………………………………………….. (a) Need to encounter with

all the rest is nothing but trash to him” cheerful face
(ii) “ When trouble comes……………… (b) Knowing the fittest time
……………………………………………”
(iii) “ like the stork or crane with folded (c) Learning
wings……………………………………”
(i) (ii) (iii)

(A) a b c
(B) b c a
(C) c a b
(D) c b a
fPH;f;fhz;gtw;iwg; bghUj;Jf :
(i) “……………………………………………….. (a) ,d;Kfj;njhL vjph;bfhs;s ntz;oa

……………………..khly;y kw;wait” mtrpak;
(ii) “,Lf;fz; tU’;fhy; ……………… (b) rupahd re;jh;g;gk; mwpe;J
……………………………………………” bray;gLjy;
(iii) [ ; ………………
“bfhf;bfhf;f Tk;gk (c) fy;tp fw;wy;
……………………………………………”
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(i) (ii) (iii)
(A) a b c
(B) b c a
(C) c a b
(D) c b a
120. “To use ……………………………………. is to
make choice of unripe fruits to ripe fruits”.
In the above Thirukkural, according to Thiruvalluvar, which one, when

spoken is equivalent to choosing unripe to ripe fruits ?
(A) Truth instead of falsity.

(B) Rebirth instead of the current birth.
(C) Bitter words instead of sweet words.
(D) Talking about arrogance instead of humility.
*//////////////////////////////////////////////// Twy;
fdpapUg;gf; fha;ftu;e; jw;W*
,f;Fwspy; jpUts;Sth;. *vijf; TWtJ* fdpapUf;Fk; nghJ fhiaf; ftu;tjw;F

xg;ghFk; vd;fpwhh; >
(A) cz;ikapUf;fg; bgha;ik Twy;/
(B) ,k;ik ,Uf;f kWik gw;wpf; Twy;/
(C) ,dpait ,Uf;f ,d;dhjJ Twy;/
(D) mlf;fKlikf;Fg; gjpyhf mlf;fkpd;ik gw;wpg; ngRtJ/
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121. (i) “What is called Truth of True word…………………….”
(ii) “External cleanliness can be had by use of …………”
Considering both the above Thirukkurals together, which one of the

following would be the most important outcome?
(A) Falsehood
(B) Truthfulness
(C) External cleanliness
(D) Blameless good
(i) *bgha;ika[k; tha;ik aplj;j /////////////////////////////////////////////*

(ii) *g[we;J}a;ik ePuhyika[ kfe;J}a;ik /////////////////////////////////*
,t;tpuz;L Fws;fisa[k; xUnru kdjpy; bfhz;L fPH;f;fz;l ve;j tpist[ kpFe;j

Kf;fpaj;Jtk; cs;sjhff; fUJtPu; >
(A) bgha;ik
(B) tha;ik
(C) g[we;J}a;ik
(D) g[iujPh;e;j ed;ik
122. Which one of the following is not the attribute of Thirukkural ?
(A) Secular nature

(B) Compassion
(C) Inclusive thinking
(D) Naming some Kings and praising their individual valour.
gpd;tUtdtw;Ws; jpUf;Fwspy; ,y;yhj ,ay;g[ vJ?
(A) kjr;rhh;gpd;ik
(B) ,uf;fk;
(C) midj;ija[k; cs;slf;fpa rpe;jid
(D) rpy kd;dh;fspd; bgah;fisf; Fwpg;gpLtJk;. mth;fspd; jdpg;gl;l

tPuj;ijg; giwrhw;WtJk;/
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123. During the Sangam age, “Hero Stones” were erected to
commemorate the honourable death of Heroes. In order to protect
which one of the following, these heroes gave up their lives while
fighting enemies ?
(A) Horses
(B) Clothes & Jewels
(C) Cattle
(D) Weapons
r’;f fhyj;jpy; vtw;iwg; giftuplkpUe;J fhf;Fk; Kaw;rpapy; <Lgl;L caph; ePj;j
tPuh;fSf;F “eLfw;fs;” elg;gl;ld >
(A) Fjpiufs;
(B) Mil Mguz’;fs;
(C) fhy;eilfs;
(D) Ma[j’;fs;
124. “All men that live are one in circumstances of birth;
…………………………………………”
According to the above Thirukkural, differences among the
individuals in a society are due to:
(i) Quality of their actions.

(ii) Amount of wealth possessed by their kith and kin.
(A) (i) only

(B) (ii) only
(C) Both (i) and (ii)
(D) None of the above
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“gpwg;bghf;Fk; vy;yh caph;f;Fk; /////////////////
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////”
nkw;Twpa jpUf;Fwspd; go xU rKjhaj;jpy; jdp kdpju;fSf;fpilnaahd
ntw;Wikf;Ff; fhuzkhf ,Ug;gJ :
(i) mth;fSila bray;fspd; juk;
(ii) mth;fspd; cwtpdh;fsplk; ,Uf;Fk; bry;tj;jpd; mst[
(A) (i) kl;Lk;
(B) (ii) kl;Lk;
(C) (i) kw;Wk; (ii)
(D) nkw;fhQqk; vita[k; my;y/
125. What is the importance of Thirukkural as a secular literature?
(A) Being secular, its values are not just confined to any particular religion
and it is applicable to the entire humanity.
(B) Its focus on human welfare.
(C) Reading Thirukkural strengthened the secular vision of the founding
fathers of our nation.
(D) All the above.
kjr;rhh;gw;w ,yf;fpak; vd;w tifapy; jpUf;Fwspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ahJ?
(A) ve;j xU Fwpg;gpl;l kj kjpg;gPl;ow;fhd ,yf;fpakhft[k; ,y;yhJ khDlk;

KGikf;Fk; bghUe;Jk; jdpj;Jtk;/
(B) khDl eyid Kd;epWj;Jk; jdpj;Jtk;/
(C) jpUf;Fws; thrpg;g[ ekJ ehl;il fl;likj;j jiyth;fspd; kjr; rhh;gw;w

jd;ikia typikg;gLj;jpaJ/
(D) nkw;fz;l midj;Jk;/
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126. Who formed the “United Nationalist Party” ?
(A) Poppili
(B) Subbarayar
(C) Natesan
(D) M.C. Raja
“a[idbll; nerdyp!;l; fl;rp”iaj; njhw;Wtpj;jth; ahh;?
(A) bghg;gpyp
(B) Rg;guhah;
(C) enlrdhh;
(D) vk;.rp. uh$h
127. The original name of Oomaithurai was :
(A) Kumarasamy
(B) Kattathurai
(C) Meenatchi Sundaram
(D) Vellaya Thevan
Cikj;Jiuapd; ,aw;bgah; vJ ?
(A) Fkhurhkp
(B) fl;lj;Jiu
(C) kPdhl;rp Re;juk;
(D) bts;isaj; njtd;
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128. Which place was closely associated with the “Black Hole Tragedy”
of Madras ?
(A) Alipuram
(B) Mamallapuram
(C) Tiruppur
(D) Mallapuram
*brd;id ,Ul;liwj; Jau* epfH;r;rpa[ld; bjhlh;g[ila ,lk; vJ?
(A) mypg[uk;
(B) khky;yg[uk;
(C) jpUg;g{h;
(D) ky;yg[uk;
129. The Palayakkarar system was originally practised in which of the

following kingdoms?
(A) Vijayanagar
(B) Bhamini
(C) Kakatiya
(D) Hoysala
ghisaf;fhuh; Kiw Kjd; Kjypy; vtUila Ml;rpg;gFjpapy; bray;gLj;jg;gl;lJ?
(A) tp$aefh;
(B) ghkpdp
(C) fhfjpah;
(D) b~ha;rhsh;
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130. Which of the following journal was not founded by Thanthai Periyar ?
(A) Kudi Arasu

(B) Puratchi
(C) Viduthalai
(D) Swarajya
fPH;f;fhQqk; ehspjH;fspy; je;ij bghpahuhy; Jtf;fg;glhj ehspjH; vJ ?
(A) FoauR
(B) g[ul;rp
(C) tpLjiy
(D) Rauh$;ak;
131. Who is known as the “Political Guru” of Kamaraj ?
(A) Gopalakrishna Gokhale

(B) Mahatma Gandhi
(C) Rajagopalachari
(D) Sathyamoorthy
fhkuh$hpd; “murpay; FU” vd mwpag;gLgth; ahh; ?
(A) nfhghyfpUc&;z nfhfny
(B) kfhj;kh fhe;jp
(C) ,uh$nfhghyhr;rhhp
(D) rj;jpaK:h;j;jp
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132. Which is the original name of Marai Malai Adigal ?
(A) Swami Dayananda

(B) Swami Vedhachalam
(C) Swami Paramananda
(D) None of the above.
kiwkiy mofspd; ,aw;bgah; vd;d?
(A) Rthkp jahde;jh
(B) Rthkp ntjhr;ryk;
(C) Rthkp gukhde;jh
(D) ,th;fspy; vtUkpy;iy/
133. Perarignar Anna chose Justice Party to work for :
(i) Casteless society

(ii) Classless society
(iii) Casteless and Classless society
(iv) Class based society
(A) (i) only.

(B) (i) and (iv) only.
(C) (iii) only.
(D) (iv) only.
nguwp‛h; mz;zh ePjpf; fl;rpia ve;jg; gzpf;fhfj; njh;e;bjLj;jhh;?
(i) rhjpaw;w rKjhak; mikf;f
(ii) th;f;f ngjkw;w rKjhak; mikf;f
(iii) rhjpaw;w. th;f;f ngjkw;w rKjhak; mikf;f
(iv) th;f;fj;ij mog;gilahff; bfhz;l rKjhak; mikf;f
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(A) (i) kl;Lk;/
(B) (i) kw;Wk; (iv) kl;Lk;/
(C) (iii) kl;Lk;/
(D) (iv) kl;Lk;/
134. Vaikunda Swamigal as a symbol of protest :
(i) Urged his followers to wear a turban, a right which was permitted
only to upper castes in those days.
(ii) Insisted on physical segregation in dining habits.
(iii) In his feeding centre called “Nizhal Tangal”, caste based

restrictions were broken down.
(iv) Stood for social segregation.
(A) (i) only

(B) (ii) only
(C) (i) and (iii) only
(D) (iv) only
itFz;l Rthkpfs; vjph;g;gpd; milahskhf
(i) me;jf; fhyj;jpy; cah; $hjpapdUf;F kl;Lnk mDkjpf;fg;gl;oUe;j chpikahd

jiyg;ghif mzptij jd;idg; gpd;gw;Wgth;fisa[k; mzpa typa[Wj;jpdhh;/
(ii) jdpj;jdpahf cztUe;Jk; gHf;fj;ij typa[Wj;jpdhh;/
(iii) *epHy; jh’;fy;* vd;W miHf;fg;gl;l czt[f;Tl’;fspy; rhjpaf; fl;Lg;ghLfs;

cilj;bjwpag;gl;ld/
(iv) rKjha hPjpahf jdpikg;gLj;Jjiy Mjhpj;jhh;/
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(A) (i) kl;Lk;
(B) (ii) kl;Lk;
(C) (i) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;
(D) (iv) kl;Lk;
135. Which of the following were the policies and principles of

Perarignar Anna ?
(i) Religion and Politics should not mix.

(ii) Privatising education and health sectors.
(iii) Public ownership of transport systems in Tamil Nadu.
(A) (i) only.

(B) (ii) and (iii) only.
(C) (iii) only.
(D) (i) and (iii) only.
fPH;fz;litfspy; nguwp‛h; mz;zhtpd; bfhs;if kw;Wk; nfhl;ghLfs; vit?
(i) rkaKk; murpaYk; xd;nwhL xd;W fyf;ff; TlhJ/
(ii) fy;tp kw;Wk; Rfhjhuj;Jiwfis jdpahh; kakhf;Fjy;/
(iii) jkpH;ehl;od; nghf;Ftuj;Jj; Jiwia muRilikahf;Fjy;/
(A) (i) kl;Lk;/
(B) (ii) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;/
(C) (iii) kl;Lk;/
(D) (i) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;/
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136. The weekly journal “Oru Paisa Tamilan ” was run by :
(A) V.O.Chidambaranar
(B) Thanthai Periyar
(C) Ayothi Thasa Pandithar
(D) Bharathiyar
“xU igrh jkpHd;” vDk; thu ,jiH elj;jpath; ahh;?
(A) t/ c/ rpjk;gudhh;
(B) je;ij bghpahh;
(C) mnahj;jpjhr gz;ojh;
(D) ghujpahh;
137. Which of the following is / are not the work/s of Perarignar Anna ?
(i) Velaikkari.
(ii) Neethi Devan Mayakkam.
(iii) Kannan Paattu.
(iv) Kudumba Vilakku.
(A) (i) only.

(B) (ii) only.
(C) (i) and (ii) only.
(D) (iii) and (iv) only.
fPH; tUtdtw;Ws; vit nguwp‛h; mz;zhtpd; gilg;g[fs; my;y?
(i) ntiyf;fhup (ii) ePjp njtd; kaf;fk;
(iii) fz;zd; ghl;L (iv) FLk;g tpsf;F
(A) (i) kl;Lk;/
(B) (ii) kl;Lk;/
(C) (i) kw;Wk; (ii) kl;Lk;/
(D) (iii) kw;Wk; (iv) kl;Lk;/
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138. What are the similarities between Thanthai Periyar and Socrates ?
(i) Asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking.
(ii) Purpose of dialogues is to expose underlying assumptions.
(iii) Accepted hero worship.
(iv) Accepted that solutions to problems cannot be identified by

discussions.
(A) (i) and (ii) only.

(B) (iii) and (iv) only.
(C) (i) and (iv) only.
(D) (ii) and (iii) only.
bghpahh;. rhf;ul;O!; Mfpa ,UtUf;Fk; ,ilnaahd xw;Wikfs; ahit?
(i) nfs;tpfs; nfl;L tpilfhz;gjpd; thapyhf tpkh;rd hPjpapyhd rpe;jidiaj;
J}z;odhh;fs;.
(ii) fye;Jiuahlypd; nehf;fk; mDkhd’;fspd; cl;fplf;iffis btspf;bfhzh;tJ/
(iii) ehaf tHpghl;il Vw;Wf;bfhz;lhh;fs;/
(iv) tpthjpg;gjpd; thapyhfg; gpur;rpidfSf;Fj; jPh;t[ fhz KoahJ vd;gij Vw;Wf;
bfhz;lhh;fs;/
(A) (i) kw;Wk; (ii) kl;Lk;/
(B) (iii) kw;Wk; (iv) kl;Lk;/
(C) (i) kw;Wk; (iv) kl;Lk;/
(D) (ii) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;/
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139. Ayothithasa Pandithar :
(i) Campaigned for social justice

(ii) Considered education as an important tool for empowerment.
(iii) Started a weekly journal called „Kudiyarasu‟.
(iv) Was an ardent follower of Hindu Dharma
(A) (i) only.

(B) (i) and (iv) only
(C) (i) and (ii) only
(D) (i), (ii) and (iii) only
mnahj;jp jhr gz;ojh; :
(i) rK:f ePjpf;fhfg; nghuhodhh;
(ii) fy;tpia mjpfhuj;ijg; bgWtjw;fhd Kf;fpaf; fUtpahff; fUjpdhh;.
(iii) “FoauR ” vDk; thu ,jiH Muk;gpj;jhh;/
(iv) ,e;J jh;kj;ijj; jPtpukhfg; gpd;gw;wpath;/
(A) (i) kl;Lk;
(B) (i) kw;Wk; (iv) kl;Lk;
(C) (i) kw;Wk; (ii) kl;Lk;
(D) (i), (ii) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;
140. Which is the best example of rationalist thinking ?
A person suffering from Jaundice has yellow coloured eyes:
(A) Therefore, any food item that is yellow in colour should not be
consumed.
(B) Wearing yellow colour dress aggravates the effects of jaundice.
(C) Jaundice can be reduced by adorning yellow coloured flowers.
(D) Jaundice is a disease which can only be treated by identifying the

cause. It has no relevance to the colour of the food consumed,
colour of the dress and flower one adorns.
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gFj;jwpt[r; rpe;jidf;Fr; rhpahd vLj;Jf;fhl;L vJ ?
xUth; k‛;rs; fhkhiyahy; ghjpf;fg;gl;L k‛;rs; epwf;fz;fSld; cs;shh;/
(A) mth; k‛;rs; epwj;jpy; cs;s ve;j czita[k; cl;bfhs;sf; TlhJ/
(B) mth; k‛;rs; epw Milia mzptJ k‛;rs; fhkhiy nehapd; tPupaj;ijj; J}z;Lk;/
(C) k‛;rs; epwg; g{f;fisr; NLtJ k‛;rs; fhkhiy nehapd; jd;ikiaf; Fiwf;Fk;/
(D) k‛;rs; fhkhiy vd;gJ neha;f;fhd fhuzj;ijf; fz;lwpe;jhy; kl;Lnk

Fzkhf;ff; Toa xU neha;/ cztpd; epwk;. cilapd; epwk;. NLk; g{f;fspd;
epwk; Mfpatw;wpw;Fk; ,e;neha;f;Fk; ve;jtpjj; bjhlh;g[kpy;iy/
141. A person with self respect will have the following attributes:
(i) Will be a good team leader empathizing with other team members.
(ii) Will be prone to finding fault with others rather than looking into one‟s
own problems.
(iii) Will believe in the inevitability of social hierarchy.
(iv) Will condone others‟ mistakes and give an opportunity to learn.
Which of the above are true?

(A) (i) and (iv) only.
(B) (i) and (ii) only.
(C) (ii) and (iii) only.
(D) (i), (ii) and (iii) only.
Rakhpahij cila kdpjh; fPH;f;fz;l gz;g[fisg; bgw;wpUg;ghh;;/
(i) FGtpd; kw;w cWg;gpdh;fspd; czh;t[fis mwpe;J bray;gLk; rpwe;j

FGj;jiytuhf ,Ug;ghh;/
(ii) jd;Dila jtWfisf; Fwpj;J Muhahky; kw;wth;fspd; jtWfisf; fhz;gjpy;
Mh;tk; bfhz;oUg;ghh;
(iii) rKjhag; goepiyfs; jtph;f;f ,ayhjit vd ek;g[gtuhf ,Ug;ghh;.
(iv) kw;wth;fspd; jtWfis kd;dpj;J. mth;fs; mtw;wpy; ,Ue;J ghlk;
fw;Wf;bfhs;s tHptFg;ghh;;/
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nkw;fz;ltw;Ws; rhpahdit vit ?
(A) (i) kw;Wk; (iv) kl;Lk;/
(B) (i) kw;Wk; (ii) kl;Lk;/
(C) (ii) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;/
(D) (i), (ii) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;/
142. Which are the characteristics of a person with self respect ?
(i) Such a person will be with positive self esteem and will facilitate
meaningful social existence.
(ii) Such a person will promote free expression of creative ideas.
(iii) Such a person will treat others with dignity.
(iv) Such a person will have a superior feeling about oneself.
(A) (i) only

(B) (i) and (ii) only
(C) (iv) only
(D) (i), (ii) and (iii) only
Rakhpahija[s;s kdpjhpd; gz;g[eyd;fs; ahit ?
(i) mj;jifa egh; neh;kiwahd jd;kjpg;ig bgw;Ws;stuhft[k;. mh;j;jKs;s rK:f
thH;tpid cUthf;Fgtuhft[k; ,Ug;ghh;/
(ii) mj;jifa egh; gilg;ghw;wy; kpf;f rpe;jidfisj; jilapd;wp
btspg;gLj;Jtij Cf;Ftpg;gtuhf ,Ug;ghh;/
(iii) mj;jifa egh;; kw;wth;fis fz;zpaj;Jld; elj;Jgtuhf ,Ug;ghh;/
(iv) mj;jifa egh; kw;wth;fis tpl jhd; cah;e;jth; vd;w vz;zj;ijf;
bfhz;oUg;ghh;/
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(A) (i) kl;Lk;
(B) (i) kw;Wk; (ii) kl;Lk;
(C) (iv) kl;Lk;
(D) (i), (ii) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;
143. Why did Thanthai Periyar write in “Kudiyarasu” that “Government and
National consciousness should exist only for the purpose of making the
people live with self respect” ?
(i) He felt that Government or nationalism is not merely to satisfy their

mean needs of food and clothes only.
(ii) One‟s self respect never robs away others‟ self respect.
(iii) He felt that if true sense of self respect is inculcated in people, then
they will certainly create faultless politics and peaceful nation.
(A) (i) only

(B) (i) and (ii) only
(C) (i) and (iii) only
(D) All the above.
“murh’;fKk; njrpa czh;t[k; kf;fis RakhpahijnahL thHr; bra;tijna

nehf;fkhff; bfhz;oUf;f ntz;Lk;” vd je;ij bghpahh; “FoauR” ,jHpy; Vd;
vGjpdhh; ?
(i) murh';fk; my;yJ njrpak; vd;gJ kf;fSf;fhd czt[. cil nghd;w rhjhuzj;
njitfis jpUg;jpgLj;Jtjw;fhf kl;Lnk my;y vd;gij mth;
czh;e;jpUe;jhh;/
(ii) xUtUila Rakhpahij kw;wtUila Rakhpahijiag; gwpg;gjhf ,Uf;fhJ/
(iii) Rakhpahij mjDila cz;ikahdg; bghUspy; kf;fsplk; czh;j;jg;gl;lhy;
mth;fs; Fiwfs; VJkw;w murpaiya[k;. mikjpahd ehl;ila[k;
cUthf;Fthh;fs; vd czh;e;jpUe;jhh;/
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(A) (i) kl;Lk;/
(B) (i) kw;Wk; (ii) kl;Lk;/
(C) (i) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;/
(D) nkny cs;s midj;Jk;/
144. In the Sangam age, Kotravai was worshipped as a Goddess by those

who inhabited:
(A) Mountain region

(B) Forest land
(C) Crop land
(D) Dry land
r’;f fhyj;jpy; bfhw;wit vDk; bja;tj;jpid tHpgl;nlhh; thH;e;j epyg;gug;g[ :
(A) Fwp‛;rp
(B) Ky;iy
(C) kUjk;
(D) ghiy
145. Why is Thirukkural relevant even today ?
(i) Because, the basic Human nature has not changed much.
(ii) Because, Thirukkural does not focus on specific issues but speaks
about the general ideas related to Human existence.
(iii) Because, Thiruvalluvar had anticipated the changing needs of

modern society.
(A) (i) only.

(B) (ii) and (iii) only.
(C) (iii) only.
(D) (i) and (ii) only.
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173. Which of the following is/are the correct statement/s regarding
Perarignar Anna with regard to the early days of the Dravidian
movement ?
(i) He understood that medium is the message.

(ii) He understood that affirmative action will lead to progress.
(iii) He used theatre and cinema as effective instruments of
communication.
(iv) He was a non believer in distributive justice.
[A] (i) only
[B] (ii) and (iii) only
[C] (iv) only
[D] (i), (ii) and (iii) only
jpuhtpl ,af;fj;jpd; bjhlf;f fhy’;fisg; bghWj;jkl;oy; nguwp‛h; mz;zh

gw;wpa fPH;f;fhQqk; Tw;Wfspy; rupahdJ-it vJ-vit >
(i) Clfnk bra;jp vd;gij mtu; mwpe;jpUe;jhu;/
(ii) cWjpg;gLj;Jk; eltof;iffs; Kd;ndw;wj;jpw;F tHptFf;Fk; vd;gij

mtu; mwpe;jpUe;jhu;/
(iii) mtu; ehlfk; kw;Wk; jpiu mu’;Ffis jfty; bjhlu;g[f;fhd rpwe;j
fUtpfshfg; gad;gLj;jpdhu;/
(iv) mtu; gfpu;e;jspf;Fk; ePjpapy; ek;gpf;if bfhs;shjtu;/
[A] (i) kl;Lk;

[B] (ii) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;
[C] (iv) kl;Lk;
[D] (i), (ii) kw;Wk; (iii) kl;Lk;
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Unit 4

[It is a Government Higher Secondary

University visited Kanchi of those times. Hundreds of lakes were

Chola Nadu - sorudaithu (rice in abundance).

Chera Nadu - Comprised Malayalam-speaking regions and Tamil districts of

The Sangam Age

Coins Issued by the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas and the

Time Span 3rd century BC (BCE) to c. 3rd century AD (CE)

Tamizhagam Vengadam (Tirupathi hill) in the north to

Age Iron Age

Dynasties ruled The Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas

George L. Hart, Professor of Tamil language at the University of California, has

Cheras famous of the Chola kings. He defeated

Prominent Chera Rulers

Pandyas kings issued many coins. Their coins have

The Titles Assumed by the Muvendars

CHERAN CHOLAN PANDIYAN

• Adhavan • Senni • Maran

• Kuttuvan • Sembiyan • Valuthi

• Vanavan • Killi • Sezhiyan

• Irumporai • Valavan • Tennar

Muvendar Garland Port Capital Symbols

Palmyra Muziri/ Vanchi/

Fig (Athi) Uraiyur/

Minor Chieftains – seven patrons (KadaiyezhuVallalgal). They

The kingship was hereditary. The king

Thinai (tract)-based Sangam Society

The land form was divided into five thinais (eco-regions).

also part of the population. Weaving was

Festivals and Entertainments

People celebrated several festivals. The

There were two kinds of markets or Trade Contact with Overseas

man and Nicobar

Inscriptions Mandagapattu Cave, Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II

Copper Kasakudi Plates

south including the Cholas and the Pandyas. –PeriyaPuranam

(The Delight of the Drunkards) in Sanskrit, Narasimhavarma I Mamallan, Vatapi

Mahendravarman’s reign involved

Pallava architecture can be classified as The most important among the

Cave Temple Mandagapattu

Panchapandavar Rathas Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple

Nandivarma Style times and it attracted students from all

Western Chalukyas of Kalyani

They were the descendants of Badami

Malwa. Tailapa II occupied Kalyani and

Contributions to Art and

Mahadeva Temple at Itagi represent well- Badami. Krishna I succeeded Dantidurga. He

gems of Kannada literature during the Elephanta Island

Kailasanatha Temple – Ellora

Kailasanatha Temple was one of the 30

Kailasanatha Temple – Ellora Jain Narayana Temple

Inscriptions: Temple Wall, Copper Plate & Palm Leaf

To acquaint ourselves with

language, exaggerating the king’s achievements.

We examine the details of political, Copper-plate grants, which were treated as

Dilwara Temple Mt. Abu Hampi - Vijayanagar

Devaram composed by Appar, Sambandar

stayed in India for 10 years. The most accurate

Al-Beruni (11th century) accompanied

3. travelogue a book or illustrated account of the places visited பயணக்குறிப்புகள்

5. elaborately in detail விரிவாக

To understand the evolution of temple architecture in South India

Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple Kanchi Vaikuntha Perumal Temple

have been found in different parts of the

To understand the evolution of temple architecture in South India

Tamil literary, archaeological, epigraphic and non-Tamil text

Introduction Sources for the study

ndustries and Crafts of the

Faith and Belief