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Automated Ground Vehicle (AGV) and Sensor Technologies-A Review

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 Automated Ground Vehicle (AGV) and Sensor
Technologies- A Review

Liam Lynch Thomas Newe John Clifford

Lero Research Centre, Lero Research Centre, Centre for Robotics and Intelligent
Centre for Robotics and Intelligent Centre for Robotics and Intelligent Systems,
Systems, Systems, Department of Electronic & Computer
Department of Electronic & Computer Department of Electronic & Computer Engineering,
Engineering, Engineering, University of Limerick
University of Limerick University of Limerick Limerick, Ireland
Limerick, Ireland Limerick, Ireland John.Clifford@UL.ie
Liam.Lynch@UL.ie Thomas.Newe@UL.ie

Joseph Coleman Joseph Walsh Daniel Toal

Centre for Robotics and Intelligent Lero Research Centre, Lero Research Centre,
Systems, Head of School of STEM, Centre for Robotics and Intelligent
Department of Electronic & Computer Head of IMaR, Systems,
Engineering, Institute of Technology Tralee, Department of Electronic & Computer
University of Limerick Tralee, Ireland Engineering,
Limerick, Ireland Joseph.Walsh@staff.ittralee.ie University of Limerick
Joseph.Coleman@UL.ie Limerick, Ireland
Daniel.Toal@UL.ie

Abstract—Automatic Ground Vehicles (AGVs), require
guidance systems to navigate through their environment. The
navigation system and sensors employed are dictated by the
ambient conditions in that environment and the task to be
completed by the AGV. This paper examines AGVs, the types
of navigation systems available and the sensors employed by
these systems.
An alternative to this traditional method would be to
incorporate a flexible line into the system [3]. This would
differ from the traditional linear setup in terms of its layout,
its processing capabilities, and its ability to produce more
than one item [2]. Another advantage would be the ability to
change the system without impacting on overall production.

Keywords—AGV, Laser Guided, Magnetic Guide Sensor, The AGV is the major component of this flexible
Navigation, Sensor Technology production line. The term automatic ground vehicles refers
to vehicles that are able to navigate without human
intervention [4][5][6]. It could be used as an alternative to
I. INTRODUCTION
the fixed conveyor belt which passes an unfinished product
Manufacturing companies are constantly striving through the production stages sequentially. The AGV could
towards more efficient and cheaper ways to produce their pick and place an unfinished product to a different
products. Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) are production stage allowing for a more flexible production
employed in the pursuit of a more cost effective and time line. The latest version of an AGV is often referred to as an
efficient process [1]. The setting up of a new production line Autonomous Intelligent Vehicle (AIV). Figure 2 outlines a
represents a major investment for a company, and to make production line with an AIV incorporated.
minor changes to existing production lines can result in
down time, reduced productivity and require a large
investment of capital.
A traditional production line carries out processes on
materials and produces one product at the end. The line
consists of a series of sequential processes, where an
unfinished product passes through stages of production. At
each stage an action is performed, before the product is
allowed to pass to the next stage. These production lines are
traditionally laid out in a linear/straight line or U-shaped
configuration in keeping with the sequential nature of the
process as seen in figure 1 [2].

Figure 2. A Flexible line with AGV

The type of AGVs available and the technology they use
will be discussed in the next section.
Figure 1. A Traditional sequential line
 II. AN OVERVIEW OF AGV TYPES
The process of selecting a suitable AGV, begins with
identifying the task to be completed. AGVs for industry can
be broken down into the following types [7][8][9];
A. Towing Vehicles
These AGVs, as seen in figure 3, can have a trailer
attached and tow a load behind them to the required
destination. Usually chosen for a manufacturing process type
of application. The vehicle will tow its load to defined stops
in its environment.
Figure 3. Towing AGV [14]
B. Unit Load Vehicles
The AGV is equipped with a loading deck which can
load and unload the desired items and transport them via its
load deck. Suitable for medium to small sized loads and
often used in a flexible production line setting, see figure 4.
Figure 4. A Unit Load Vehicle [15]
C. Pallet Truck
As the name implies, similar to the manual pallet truck
but with an automated system. Removes the human element
from a pallet truck. It is often used to lift and move loads
around a factory floor.
D. Fork Lift
Again, similar to the human operated fork lift but with
an automated system that lowers/raises and loads/unloads a
desired load. Has the ability to place loads at higher levels
such as shelving or rack. Usually found in a warehouse or
goods in/out setting.
Each system outlined is specialised and geared towards a
specific task. Hybrid systems which combine the equipment
or capabilities of the above are also available. Once the task
has been identified and the correct AGV selected, the
navigation and sensor technology employed is the next area
of focus.
AGV navigation and the sensors used are dictated by the
environment the AGV is required to operate in. The nature
of the work being carried out, the area where the AGV will
operate, the area the AGV will share with other users,
(human and other AGV), the surface they will travel on, the
layout of the environment and whether the environment is
static or dynamic, are all contributing factors to navigation
and sensor selection [8][9].
III. AGV NAVIGATION SYTEMS
There are three main forms of navigation employed by
AGVs at present. The system chosen is influenced by the
layout of the environment and the task required. An outline
of each system is given below: [4][10][11].
A. Laser Guidance
• A class 1 rotating laser is fitted to a fixed point of
the AGV.
• The Area that the vehicle will operate in is stored in
the vehicles computer memory.
• Reflective tape is fitted to fixed points within the
area of operation to aid in position location.
B. Line Following Guidance
• For this system the AGV will follow a pre-loaded
track laid out in the area of operation.
• A magnetic tape is fixed to the floor surface or a wire
is embedded in the floor.
• A guide path sensor fitted to the robot senses the
magnetic tape or wire and the device can follow the
track to get to its desired destination.
C. Magnetic Spot Guidance
• Magnetic spots are laid out in the area of operation.
• A guide path sensor is fitted to the underneath of the
vehicle.
• Unlike the line follower guidance, the magnetic
spot guidance is not limited to the pre-set tracks.
• The vehicle can navigate through an area where
magnetic spots are located by using reference points
stored in computer memory.
D. Barcode Guidance
• Barcodes/QR codes are laid out in the area of
operation.
• The barcodes or QR codes can be on the floor or
positioned on walls or on static positions in the
area of operation
• The AGV detects the barcodes using a laser
scanner
• The AGV can calculate its position by comparing
the data in the barcode to its map stored in
computer memory
A table was created comparing the three guidance
systems available based on their Cost of installation, Ease of
installation, complexity, flexibility, ability to deviate from
their route, efficiency and finally the ease of expansion for
the system.
Table 1. Guidance system comparison table.
Laser Magnetic Line Barcode
Guidance Spot Following Guidance

Cost of High Low Low Low

installation
Ease of High High High High
Installation
Complexity High Low Low Low

Flexibility High Medium Low Medium Figure 5. A Laser Scanner mounted on AGV [12]
Deviate Yes Yes No No The area of operation is fitted with reflective
from routes tape/targets. These targets are fitted to static points in the
Efficiency High Medium Low Medium proposed area of operation. A laser beam is transmitted from
the vehicle and reflected off the tape. The reflected beam is
Ease of High High Low High then picked up by the vehicles receiver. The on-board
expansion
computer calculates the beams angle and distance from the
point of reflection. The positions of the reflectors are
preloaded into the AGVs memory and it uses an algorithm
The four main guidance systems were investigated for to determine its position. The vehicle uses 3 or more targets
comparison purposes, to establish the main contributing to determine its position using a triangulation algorithm (see
factors to their selection. From the Table 1, it can be seen figure 6) [12][13].
that the laser guidance is the most expensive to install, but it
is the most flexible to use. The line following options are
cheaper to install but offer less flexibility in route selection.
From the data it was concluded that Line Following
Guidance with tape was the quickest and cheapest
installation but had limited use. Laser guidance was the most
flexible and comprehensive system but required a higher
investment to begin.

IV. AGV SENSORS

The sensors used by an AGV to navigate are determined
by the navigation system employed by the unit. There are
two main sensors used by AGVs in operation. They are the
Laser Scanner and the Magnetic Guide Sensor. Each sensor
works in conjunction with the guidance system on the
particular vehicle to enable the vehicle to navigate their
environment. The detection or sensing function is of
particular importance and a substantial research work has
been carried out to select the right type of sensors, to
improve their performance, to properly fuse the information
they provide and to optimally process it [4][5][6]. A
breakdown of the two most common sensors are given
below:
A. Laser Scanner
Laser Scanners are designed to work on Laser Guidance
navigation systems on AGVs. An AGV is fitted with a class
1 rotating laser transmitter and receiver. These are often
fitted to the top of an AGV on a turret as shown in figure 5
[12][13].
Figure 6. An AGV Laser scanner environment [13]
Alternatively, a Laser scanner can be fitted to the
underneath of an AGV to work in conjunction with a
Barcode/QR code system. The area of operation is mapped
with barcodes and the map is stored in the AGVs memory.
As the vehicle navigates through its area of operation, the
laser scanner underneath the AGV, sends out a beam of light
which is reflected by a barcode. The reflected light is
deciphered by the onboard computer and the AGV can
calculate its position by comparing the data to its map stored
in memory [12][13].
B. Magnetic Guide Sensor
A magnetic Guide sensor is fitted to an AGV that will
employ a line following guidance system (see figure 7). The
magnetic guide sensor is fitted to the underneath of an AGV
to sense the magnetic tape or magnetic spots. The sensor
will work in conjunction with dual channel motor
controllers which will steer the AGV [13][14].
The vehicle will follow a track set out using magnetic
tape or spots which are laid down on the floor of the area of
operation. The routes that the vehicle will take has to be pre-
planned as the AGV will not be able to stray from the routes
set out with the magnetic tape.

Figure 7. A Magnetic Guide Sensor [14]
The magnetic guide sensor fitted to the underneath of the
AGV senses the magnetic tape as it moves along. The
sensor can determine the vehicles position relative to the
tape and it will use the sensor input to provide power to the
appropriate wheels in order to stay within predetermined
tolerances of the track. As can be seen in figure 8, as the
senor begins to detect the AGV straying from the track it
will correct the power given to the steering motors and re-
align the vehicle on the track [14].
Figure 8. AGV Steering motor configuration [14]
C. Obstacle Detection and Docking
The AGV will be fitted with an array of sensors to work
in conjunction with the navigation system and a positional
sensor such as the Magnetic guide sensor or Laser Scanner.
These sensors are used to detect the following:
1. Collision Avoidance
When an obstacle is detected in the path of the vehicle
that is not stored in its environment database.
2. Docking to the target
The Vehicle must be able to locate its docking station in
order to recharge or store itself when not in use.
3. Determining position relative to the environment
Working in conjunction with the Magnetic Guide sensor
or Laser scanner to determine the vehicles position relative
to its programmed environment.
The sensors can be comprised of any of the following:
1. Ultrasonic sensor
2. CCD- camera
3. Odometry sensor
Through a combination of the Navigation system, the
main sensor (laser scanner/magnetic), and an array of
smaller low-cost sensors, the AGV navigates through its
programmed environment to complete its assigned tasks.
[4][16][17].
V. AGV IN A REAL SETTING
In this section two AGVs in real working environments
will be discussed. How and why their equipment was chosen
will be explored, and finally, a comparison table will
demonstrate the AGVs suitability to specific tasks and
environments.
A. Kiva Robot
The Kiva robot (see figure 9) is often used in a logistics
warehouse. The most famous application of this Robot is in
Amazon warehouses in America. The system comprises of a
large volume of robots working together to move stock
around a warehouse.
The robot investigated is a unit load vehicle. It works in
conjunction with a Manufacturing Execution System
(MES). The MES sends a request to an AGV to retrieve an
item from stock. The vehicle goes to the area of the
warehouse where the stock is stored. The stock is located in
a container and the AGV positions itself underneath. The
vehicle has a lifting mechanism which lifts the container and
brings it to the required location.
This system works using a laser scanner and barcode
arrangement. QR codes are placed at equal spacing around
the warehouse floor and as the AGV navigates it scans the
barcodes it passes over. Each container also had a barcode
to identify its stock contained within. Using these laser
scanners and its map in memory, the AGV can navigate the
warehouse, moving stock as required [18].
Figure 9. The Kiva AGV [18]
B. Dematic AGV
The Dematic AGV (see figure 10) is commonly used in
a manufacturing production setting. One of the more well
know applications for these AGVs is in L’Oréal production
sites around Europe. In particular the Karlsruhe production
site in Germany was investigated. There are 12 AGVs on
site which operate in conjunction with the MES. The AGVs
are in the forklift style. At this particular site, the AGVs
supply all the packaging materials to the production lines, as
well as transporting all of the finished products to the
wrapping line.
A request is made by the MES for finished goods to be
transported to the packaging area of the factory. The AGV is
summoned to move the finished goods to the packaging
area. Another AGV provides the packaging material. Once
the packaging process is completed, the AGV moves the
products to the warehouse section of the facility for
transport.
The AGVs in this particular factory have dedicated
navigation lanes where they operate. The navigate their
surroundings using a Laser Scanner mounted at the top of
the vehicle. The area of operation is fitted with reflective
tape for navigation purposes and the other AGVs are fitted
with reflective tape to avoid collisions [19].
Figure 10. Dematic AGV [19]
VI. CONCLUSION
AGVs, their use, the navigation system they utilise, and
the sensors they deploy were discussed in this paper.
• AGVs have dedicated roles within automated
processes in manufacturing. The AGV can be used
to improve an automated process as they offer
more flexibility. They can facilitate a multi-product
manufacturing system which is cell based, when
compared to a traditional linear manufacturing
system which is generally single product based.
• The task to be completed dictates the type of AGV
required.
• The navigation system employed is dictated by the
nature of the task and the area of operation.
• The sensors fitted to the AGV is dictated by the
navigation system employed.
Smart navigation combined with accurate fast sensing
abilities make it possible for an AGV to operate close to
humans in a manufacturing space. The utilisation of these
AGV’s is an expanding area within manufacturing as the
possibility of collaborative AGVs is becoming ever more
possible.
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported, in part, by Science Foundation
Ireland grant 13/RC/2094 and co-funded under the
European Regional Development Fund through the Southern
& Eastern Regional Operational Programme to Lero - the
Irish Software Research Centre (www.lero.ie).
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