MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATIONS MCTE4145

Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

Objectives of Having studied this Chapter you will be able to:

this Chapter
n State the principles of the basic Wheatstone Bridge
circuit for resistance measurement.
n Describe the term "null balance".
n State and apply the expression for calculating an
unknown resistance from the Bridge values at balance.
n Discuss the factors affecting the resolution and
accuracy of measurements.
n Discuss the reason for the three-wire resistance
circuit.
n Apply null methods to voltage measurements.
n Make resistance and voltage measurements using the
DIGIAC 1750 facilities.

Equipment • DIGIAC 1750 Transducer and Instrumentation Trainer.

Required for • 4mm Connecting Leads.
this Chapter • Digital Multimeter.

Anas Al Sulti 127885

Ibrahim Al Badi 124229
Hamam AlShidi 129855

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

3.1 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

Fig 3.1 shows the basic Wheatstone Bridge circuit, consisting of four resistors and
a sensitive center zero meter connected to a DC source.

Fig 3.1

R1, R2 & R3 are accurate, close tolerance, resistors. R3 is variable and calibrated
over its full range. R4 is the unknown resistor to be measured.

3.2 Null Balance

During measurement, R3 is adjusted until there is no current (I m) flowing in the

galvanometer circuit. The galvanometer current is zero or "null". Under these
conditions, the bridge is said to be "balanced". Hence the term "null balance".
The purpose of the galvanometer is to "detect" the presence of the null condition.

From the known values of R1, R2 & R3 at balance, the value of R4 can be
calculated from:-
R4 = x R3

The ratio of the values of resistors R2:R1 sets the range, so that values of the
unknown resistor R4 which are larger or smaller than the variable resistor R3 can
be measured. There is no limit to the range of values which can be measured.

Any inaccuracy in the values of the ratio arm resistors R1 & R2, and also in the
standard variable resistor R3, will result in errors in the measured value of R4.

Since no current flows in the "null detector" branch at balance no error can be
introduced by this part of the circuit.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

3.3 Deriving the Formula

With no current in the galvanometer circuit, the voltages at either end of it must
be the same. This means that the voltages across R1 & R2 must be the same and
similarly those across R3 & R4.

With no current in the galvanometer, the current in R1 must be the same as that in
R3 and the current in R2 must equal that in R4.

If current I1 flows in R1 & R3 and current I2 flows in R2 & R4:-

I1R1 = I2R2.....................................................................(i)

I1R3 = I2R4....................................................................(ii)

Dividing: (i) ¸ (ii)

The unknown resistance R4 depends on the ratio R2:R1 and the value of R3 at
balance. The resistors R1 and R2 are normally referred to as the "ratio arms" of
the bridge.

Note 1. The value of the supply voltage or the magnitude of the currents flowing
in the resistors does not affect the result. This means that the supply voltage
need not be stabilized, and that the circuit currents can be kept to low values
for a component where the self heating effect of the current flowing could
affect the result.

2. The galvanometer current accuracy is unimportant, since, under balanced

conditions, the current in it is zero. The main characteristics required for the
galvanometer are a low resistance and a high sensitivity so that a small
deviation of voltage from zero produces a large scale reading.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

3.4 The Three Wire Resistance Measuring Circuit

With some resistance transducer circuits, the transducer may be situated a

relatively large distance from the bridge circuit, and the resistance of the
connecting leads may be significant and could affect the results. For these
situations the three wire connection arrangement is used.

Fig 3.2

Fig 3.2 (a) shows the circuit with a resistance transducer R4 situated remotely
from the bridge and connected via two wires. The resistance of these wires will be
included in the measurement of R4.

Fig 3.2 (b) shows the three wire arrangement. One of the wires to the transducer is
now included in the R2 circuit and the other is in the R4 circuit. The resistance of
both circuits will therefore be increased equally and the effect on the balance
condition will be minimized, provided that the resistances of R2 and R4 are of
similar magnitudes.

The extra wire in the galvanometer circuit will have no effect on the reading, since
there is no current flowing in it at the balance condition.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

3.5 The DIGIAC 1750 Facilities

Fig 3.3 shows the Wheatstone Bridge layout provided with the DIGIAC 1750 unit.

Fig 3.3

A high quality 10-turn potentiometer fulfills the functions of the resistors R1 &
R3 for resistance, or a potentiometer for voltage measurements. The track
resistance of 10k has a maximum non-linearity of 0.25%. The "Fine" dial is
calibrated 0 - 100 in steps of 2, and the "Coarse" reading is calibrated 0 - 10, thus
enabling readings to be estimated from the dial with a discrimination of 1:1000,
representing a resolution of 10.

Reading the dial: If the number in the window (coarse setting) is 3 and the fine
setting is on 74, then the dial reading is 374. The resistance between the 0V
terminal and A (the wiper) is 10 x 374 = 3.74k.

A close-tolerance 12k resistor (R2) and an unknown resistor Rx (R4) are

provided for resistance measurement.

A switch open circuits the unknown resistor Rx to allow the measurement of other
unknown resistors which can be connected between socket C and the 0V terminal.

An accurate standard voltage of 1V is available at socket B.

The moving coil meter can be used as a center zero indicating instrument. Since it
is arranged as a 10V voltmeter its sensitivity is insufficient for a direct application
as a galvanometer. This problem can be overcome by using a differential amplifier
followed by a high gain DC amplifier from the signal conditioning circuits.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

3.6 Practical Exercise

Measurement of Resistance

Fig 3.4 shows the layout diagram required for setting up the null detector.

Fig 3.4

Initially the amplifier and meter configuration which forms the sensitive
galvanometer must be set up so that zero input produces zero output when the gain
is set to maximum.

 Connect the meter and amplifiers as shown in Fig 3.4 with the + & - inputs
to the Differential Amplifier short circuited so that the input is zero. Set the
Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 10 and the GAIN FINE to 1.0.

 Switch the power supply ON and adjust the OFFSET control so that the
moving coil meter indicates approximately zero. Then set the GAIN COARSE
control to 100 and re-adjust the OFFSET control for zero output precisely.

You will find that this adjustment is very sensitive. That is why you were
instructed to obtain an approximate setting with the gain set to 10 first.

Note The setting of the offset control may require adjustment as the temperature
of the unit varies during use and it is advisable to use the above procedure to
check and re-adjust as necessary at regular intervals.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

Fig 3.5

 With the switch on the Wheatstone bridge circuit set to IN (connecting the
unknown resistor in circuit) set the Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 10
and connect the circuit as shown in Fig 3.5.

 Adjust the control of the 10-turn variable resistor so that the moving coil
meter reading is approximately zero, then set the GAIN COARSE control to
100. Finally adjust the 10-turn resistor control accurately for zero meter
(null) reading to balance the bridge.

Reading the dial: If the number in the window (coarse setting) is 3 and the fine
setting is on 74, then the dial reading is 374. (Dial reading is 200)

 Note the resistor dial reading (overleaf).

This represents the resistance R3 in the theoretical circuit considered earlier.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

Dial reading = 200

Resistance R3 = 10 x dial reading = 2 kΩ
Resistance R1 = 10,000 - R3 = 8 kΩ
Resistance R2 = 12,000

Unknown resistance Rx = x R3 = 3 kΩ

3.6a Enter your value for the unknown resistor Rx in k

Carry out further resistance measurements on the 10k slide variable resistor to
obtain familiarity with the equipment and its adjustments as follows:

 Set the Wheatstone Bridge switch to OUT to remove the unknown resistor
Rx from the circuit. Connect the 10k Slide variable resistor terminals
A & B to the Wheatstone Bridge circuit connections C & 0V.

 With the 10k resistor control set to maximum, measure its resistance as
follows:-
1. Check that the amplifier offset is set correctly and adjust if necessary.
2. With Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control set to 10, obtain an
approximate balance by adjusting the 10-turn resistor.
3. Set Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 100 and obtain final
balance. Note the dial reading and enter the value in Table 3.1.

 Repeat the procedure to measure the resistance of the 10k resistor for all
settings from 9 through 1, recording the dial readings at balance in Table
3.1.

 Calculate the resistance corresponding with each reading, recording the

results in Table 3.1. R2 is still 12k

Note: Since the quoted accuracy of the 10-turn variable resistor is 0.25%, this
represents 1 part in 400. There is no reason for giving results to any more
than four significant figures.

 Switch OFF the power supply.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

10k Resistor Dial Reading R3 R1

Setting at Balance (10 x Dial) (10k - R3) R4 = x R3

500 5 5 12
10
k k k
475 4.7 5.3 10.64
9
k k k
450 4.5 5.5 9.82
8
k k k
420 4.2 5.8 8.69
7
k k k
380 3.8 6.2 7.35
6
k k k
330 3.3 6.7 5.91
5
k k k
280 2.8 7.2 4.67
4
k k k
210 2.1 7.9 3.19
3
k k k
140 1.4 8.6 1.95
2
k k k
75 0.75 9.25 0.97
1
k k kW
Table 3.1

3.6b Enter your value for the 10k variable resistor at the setting 5 in kW.

Fig 3.6

Note that a 1k resistor is connected in series with the wiper of all potentiometers
on the D1750 Trainer. This prevents damage to the potentiometer in the event of
back-driving the output with a voltage, which could otherwise cause a heavy
current to flow as the wiper is moved towards terminal A.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

3.7 Measurement of Voltage

Method 1

A calibrated variable resistor, standard voltage source and galvanometer are

required, these being connected as shown in Fig 3.7.

Fig 3.7

The position of the slider of the variable resistor is adjusted until the circuit is
balanced with no current flowing in the galvanometer.

Under these conditions, the voltage across the R section of the variable resistance
is equal to the value of the standard voltage supply. The unknown voltage is
proportional to the total resistance of the variable resistor Rt and the section
resistance R, and can be calculated from:-

Unknown voltage = x Standard voltage

The method has disadvantages:-

1. The unknown voltage source is loaded by the variable resistor and hence the
voltage may be affected.
2. The method only allows measurement of voltages greater than the standard
voltage.

This method of measuring potential is the origin of the term "potentiometer" for a
variable resistor. Early models of this measuring instrument were made of a
highly accurate, close tolerance, resistance wire which was stretched between
terminals on a scaled background. It was known as a Slide-Wire Potentiometer.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

3.8 Practical Exercise

Measurement of Voltage Using Method 1

Fig 3.8

 First set the OFFSET control of Amplifier #2 using the same procedure used
in Practical Exercise 3.6:

Switch ON the power supply and with the Differential Amplifier inputs
shorted together and Amplifier #2 GAIN FINE set to 1.0, adjust the OFFSET
for approximately zero output with the GAIN COARSE set to 10. Adjust
finally for zero with the GAIN COARSE set to 100.

 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 3.8 and set the switch on the Wheatstone
Bridge circuit to OUT to disconnect the 12k ratio arm resistor and the
unknown resistor Rx from the circuit.

 Set the Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE to 10 and set the output from the 10k
wirewound resistor to 4V as indicated by the digital meter. This represents
the "unknown" voltage.

 Adjust the 10-turn resistor for approximate balance and then obtain final
balance with Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE set to 100.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

 Note the dial reading at balance, enter the value in Table 3.2 and calculate
the value of the unknown voltage from:-

Unknown voltage = x Standard voltage

= x 1V

 Repeat the procedure with the "unknown" voltage input set to each of the
values indicated in Table 3.2, recording the readings and calculating the
voltages for each value.

"Unknown" Dial Reading Calculated

Voltage at Balance Voltage
250 4 V
4.0
288 3.47 V
3.5
335 2.98 V
3.0
406 2.47 V
2.5
506 1.97 V
2.0
672 1.49 V
1.5
1001 0.99 V
1.0
Table 3.2

3.8a Enter your dial reading with the "unknown" voltage set to 2.5V. (406)

The method has the disadvantage of loading the unknown voltage source and this
can be demonstrated as follows:-

 Set the "unknown " voltage to 2.0V and obtain balance conditions.

 Now remove the connection from the output of the wirewound resistor
(socket B) to the Wheatstone bridge (socket D) and note the revised value of
the unknown voltage as indicated by the digital voltmeter.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

"Unknown" Voltage:

When connected to the bridge = 2 V

Disconnected from the bridge = 3.16 V

3.8b Enter your value of the "Unknown" Voltage when disconnected from the
bridge in V.
3.16 V

3.9 Measurement of Voltage

Method 2

This method requires an additional DC source of voltage with a magnitude

exceeding the maximum value of the unknown voltages to be measured and
another variable resistor Rs. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig 3.9.

Fig 3.9

For measurement of voltages less than the standard voltage, the slider of the
variable resistor is set to its maximum position and, with the galvanometer
connected to the standard voltage source, the value of Rs is adjusted until there is
no current flowing in the galvanometer and the circuit is balanced.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

The full resistance Rt is then calibrated to represent the value of the standard
voltage.

To measure an unknown voltage, the galvanometer is connected to the unknown

voltage and the slider position is again adjusted for circuit balance. The section R
at balance represents the magnitude of the unknown voltage.

Unknown voltage = x Standard voltage

For the measurement of voltages higher than the standard voltage, the variable
resistor can be calibrated against the standard voltage with the slider set to a
position lower than the maximum setting. This setting will now represent a
magnitude equal to the standard voltage.

Balance with an unknown voltage is obtained as before and the unknown voltage
calculated from :-

Unknown voltage = x Standard voltage

With this method, no current is taken from the unknown voltage source at balance
and hence the circuit is not loaded. The voltage obtained should therefore be
accurate, within the limits of accuracy of the variable resistor.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

3.10 Practical Exercise

Measurement of Voltage Using Method 2

You should be familiar with the procedures for initially setting the amplifier offset
and balancing the bridge circuit by now. Instructions for the procedures will not
therefore be repeated in this exercise.

Measurement of Voltages Less Than the Standard Voltage.

 Carry out the OFFSET initializing procedure and then connect the circuit as
indicated in Fig 3.10, using the 100k variable resistor as Rs (Fig 3.9) in
the supply circuit of the additional DC source.

Note that the output of the 10k wirewound variable resistor is not
connected initially. This will be used as the source of the "unknown"
voltage.

Fig 3.10

 Set the 10-turn resistor to its maximum setting (1000) and adjust the setting
of the 100k resistor for balanced conditions, i.e. null indication on the
moving coil (M.C.) meter. Set Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 10
initially and then finally to 100 during the balancing.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

When completed, the 10-turn resistor has been calibrated so that full scale
reading of 1000 represents a voltage of 1.000V.
 Replace the 1.0V reference voltage source (from the Wheatstone Bridge
circuit) with the “unknown” voltage output of the 10k wirewound variable
resistor, by moving the lead that is connected to socket A of the Differential
Amplifier FROM socket B of the Wheatstone Bridge circuit TO socket B of
the 10k wirewound variable resistor.
 Set the "unknown" voltage to 0.25V as indicated on the digital multimeter.
 Adjust the control of the 10-turn resistor for balance and note the dial
reading for this balance condition. This reading will represent the unknown
voltage directly in mV. Record the value in Table 3.3 and compare with the
reading indicated by the digital multimeter.

"Unknown" Voltage Input 0.25V 0.40V 0.60V 0.70V 0.80V 0.95V

Dial Reading at Balance

251 mV 404 mV 610 mV 715 mV 826 mV 980 mV
Table 3.3

 Repeat the procedure for other "unknown" voltage inputs given in Table 3.3.

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge


Plot the characteristic of Dial Reading against "unknown" input voltage on the
graticule provided.

3.10a Read from your Graph 3.1 and enter the Dial Setting corresponding to an
input voltage of 0.53V.

Measurement of Voltages Greater Than the Standard Voltage.

 Remove the lead from socket C of the 10k wirewound resistor to socket B
of the 100k resistor to remove the 1V supply.

 Replace the 100k resistor used for calibration with the 10k slider unit
and apply the +12V supply to this and the 10k wirewound instead of the
+5V.
 Set the control dial of the 10-turn resistor to setting 0100 and connect the A
socket of the Differential Amplifier back to socket B of the Wheatstone
Bridge as shown in Fig 3.10.
 Adjust the 10k slider resistor control setting for bridge balance. When
completed, the 10-turn resistance has been calibrated so that a dial reading
of 0100 represents a voltage of 1.00V and a maximum dial reading of 1000
will represent a voltage of 10V.
 Remove the 1.0V reference voltage source from socket A of the Differential
Amplifier and connect the "unknown" voltage from socket B of the 10kW
wirewound resistor to socket A of the Differential Amplifier.
 Apply various "unknown" voltages in the range 0 - 10V to the circuit . Note
the dial reading for balance for each input voltage setting and enter the
values in Table 3.4.

"Unknown" 1 2 3 4 6 8 9
Voltage Input
Dial Reading
at Balance
Measured Voltage
(Volts) V V V V V V V
Table 3.4

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

Loading Effect

 Set the "unknown" input voltage to 5V and note the voltage change on the
digital meter when the lead to the Differential Amplifier is removed.

"Unknown" Voltage:

When Connected to the bridge =

Disconnected from the bridge =

3.10b Enter the apparent change of the "Unknown" Voltage in mV when the
amplifier is disconnected from the bridge.

The slight loading effect is due to the input resistance of the Differential
Amplifier.

Notes:
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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

Student Assessment 3

Fig 1

1. For the circuit of Fig 1, the name of the circuit is:

wirewound potentiometer Wheatstone Bridge
slide wire potentiometer carbon track variable resistor

2. When the circuit of Fig 1 is balanced, the value of the unknown resistor Rx is:
85.3 853 1172 8.53k

3. For the circuit of Fig 1, if the supply voltage was increased to +2V the effect on the
balance condition would be to:
double the resistance value half the resistance value
half the error in the measurement make no change at all

4. For the circuit of Fig 1, which of the following components would NOT affect the
accuracy of the measurement?
100resistor 853resistor 1000resistor galvanometer G

5. A resistance transducer is situated at a distance from the measuring bridge and is

connected to it via just two wires, each of which has a resistance of 10. If the
resistance of the transducer is 120, the bridge reading will be:
110 120 130 140

Continued ...

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Experiment 2: Wheatstone Bridge

Student Assessment 3 Continued ...

6. If the circuit connection described in question 5 used a three-wire system, the bridge
reading would be:
110 120 130 140

7. The circuits of Fig 2 and Fig 3 are for measuring:

Fig 2 voltage, Fig 3 resistance Fig 3 voltage, Fig 2 resistance
both voltage both resistance

8. When the circuit in Fig 2 is balanced, the value of V1 will be:

5.85V 4.35V 3.9V 0.52V

9. The circuit of Fig 3 is calibrated against a standard voltage (V2) of 1V to a dial setting
of 0200. The dial has a discrimination of 1:1000. To be able to measure the maximum
unknown voltage the value of the additional supply (V1) must be:
<1V >1V =2V >5V

10. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of the circuit of Fig 3 compared to that of
Fig 2?
measures higher and lower voltages measures resistance
does not load the voltage source tested draws no current from the source tested

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