CHAPTER 5

Design Philosophy

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 Design Criteria
 Load Multiplier
 Load Factor and Load Combinations
 Resistance Factors
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 Design Criteria

 Design methods:- Allowable Stress Design

- Load Factored Design

-Load and Resistance Factored Design

 AASHTO /ERA LRFD Specification

 For each limit state:

Factored Load < Factored Resistance

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 The load modifier/multiplier is a factor that takes into account
the ductility, redundancy, and operational importance of the
bridge.
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 Operational Importance Factor (η I )

• Bridges can be considered of operational importance if they are

on the shortest path between residential areas and a hospital or
school or provide access for police, fire, and rescue vehicles to
homes, businesses, and industrial plants.

• A less important bridge could be on a secondary road leading to

a remote recreation area that is not open year round.

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 The following requirements apply to the extreme event limit
state as well as to the strength limit state:

ηI > 1.05 for a bridge of operational importance

ηI = 1.00 for typical bridges

ηI > 0.95 for relatively less important bridges

 For all other limit states:

ηI = 1.00

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 Ductility Factor η D : Ductility is important to the safety of a
bridge. If ductility is present, overloaded portions of the structure
can redistribute the load to other portions that have reserve
strength.

 This redistribution is dependent on the ability of the overloaded

component and its connections to develop inelastic deformations
without failure.

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 The values to be used for the strength limit state ductility factor are:

ηD > 1.05 for non ductile components and connections

ηD = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with the

specifications

ηD >0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-

enhancing measures have been specified beyond those required by

the specifications

 For all other limit states:

ηD = 1.00
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 Redundant Factor (η R)
 Multiple load path and continuous structures should be used. Main elements
whose failure is expected to cause the collapse of the bridge shall be designated
as failure-critical (non redundant)

 For strength limit states

1.05 for non redundant members

1.00 for conventional level of redundancy

0.95 for exceptional level of redundancy e.g. multi-girder continuous beam bridge

 For all other limit states the redundant factor is 1.0

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 CHAPTER 5
 Load Factors (γ i )

 The load factor γ i chosen for a particular load type must

consider the uncertainties in

• Magnitudes of loads

• Arrangement (positions) of loads

• Possible combinations of loads

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 Design Limit states

 There are four types of limit states

1. Ultimate Limit states: Involving the strength and the stability of

the structure both in global and local

direction.

Strength I, II, III, IV, and V

• Strength I: Basic load combination relating to the normal

vehicular use of the bridge without wind.

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• Strength II: Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by

owner-specified special design vehicles, evaluation

permit vehicles, or both, without wind.

• Strength III: Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to

wind in excess of 90 Km/h.

• Strength IV: Load combination relating to very high dead load

to live load force effect ratios.

 Strength V: Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of

bridge with a wind of 90 Km/hr.

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2. Extreme Event Limit States: relates to the structural survival of a

bridge during major earthquake,

flooding or collision.

• Extreme Event I: Load combination including earthquakes. The

load factor for live load EQ, shall be determined

on a project specific bases.

• Extreme Event II: Load combination relating to ice load,

collision by vessels and vehicles, and certain

hydraulic events with a reduced live load.

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3. Serviceability Limit States: involving the usability of the structure

including stress, deformation, and crack

width.

• Service I: Load combination relating to normal operational use of the

bridge with a 80 Km/h wind and all loads at nominal values

• Service II: Load combination intended to control yielding of steel

structures and slip of slip-critical connections

due to vehicular load.

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• Service III: Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed

concrete superstructures with the objective of crack

control.

• Service IV: Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed

concrete columns with the objective of crack control.

4. Fatigue Limit States: relates to restrictions on stress range to prevent

crack growth as a result of repetitive loads during

the design life of the bridge.

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 CHAPTER 5

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 CHAPTER 5

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 CHAPTER 5
 Load Combination

 For slabs and girders design, we normally have only DC,DW, and
(LL+IM)

• 𝜂(1.25DC+1.5DW+1.75(LL+IM)) (Strength I)

• 𝜂(1.5DC+1.5DW) (Strength IV)

• 𝜂(1.00DC+1.00DW+1.00(LL+IM)) (Service I)

• 𝜂(1.00DC+1.00DW+1.3(LL+IM)) (Service II, Steel)

• 𝜂(1.00DC+1.00DW+0.8(LL+IM)) (Service III, Prestressed)

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 Note on Load Combination
 Note that the sections for maximum moment of dead load and live load
are not the same
- Dead load : Mid span
- Live load: Some small distance away from mid span
 If we add them together, we are conservative!
 Critical moment for shear is d away from the support. We can calculate
shear at this location for both dead load and live load if we know the
height of the section. But if we don’t know, we calculate shear at support.
This is conservative but may not be economical
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 CHAPTER 5

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 Resistance Factors

 Takes care of uncertainties in the resistance

 3 Main sources of uncertainties

• Material Property – uncertainty in the

strength, chemical composition, defects

• Fabrication – uncertainty in the dimensions

and construction qualities

• Analysis – many methods are approximate so there are a lot of

uncertainties in predicting the resistance
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 Resistance factors are different for different types of action
(moment or shear) and for different types of materials (steel or
concrete). They are specified under each section of materials.

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