Design, Parameter Optimisation, and Performance Analysis of Active Tuned Inerter Damper (TID) Suspension For Vehicle

Journal of Sound and Vibration 525 (2022) 116750
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Sound and Vibration

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsvi
Design, Parameter Optimisation, and Performance Analysis of

Active Tuned Inerter Damper (TID) Suspension for Vehicle
Zheng GE a, *, Weirui WANG b, Guangping LI c, Daogong RAO c
a
School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
c
Research Institute of Zhejiang University - Taizhou, Taizhou, 317600, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The inherent inertia of active actuators can adversely affect the performance of vehicle suspen
inerter sion systems, which has been a long-standing problem in suspension design. To overcome this
active vehicle suspension problem, an active tuned inerter damper (TID) suspension is designed based on a combination of
tuned inerter damper
an active actuator and an inerter, merging the inherent inertia of the former into the inertia of the
optimisation
latter. However, several parameters are involved in active TID suspension, requiring much time
and resource to optimise via numerical method. Based on the H2-norm of a quarter-car model, an
analytical-solution-based parameter optimisation method that simplifies the process of obtaining
the optimal suspension parameters is proposed. Stability analysis is performed algebraically using
the Hurwitz criterion, verifying that the parameters obtained using this method can ensure the
stability of the suspension. The advantages of active TID suspensions are demonstrated via per
formance comparison against a variety of suspensions. The results show that the active TID
suspension can change the actuator inertia from a harmful to a favourable factor, greatly improve
the ultimate capacity of the suspension, and improve vehicle comfort without changing the tire
load.
1. Introduction
Vehicle suspension, which refers to the power transmission device between the wheels and the vehicle body, plays a vital role in the
ride comfort and driving safety of a vehicle [1]. The existing models of vehicle suspensions can be classified into three types: passive
suspensions, semiactive suspensions, and active suspensions. An active suspension can control vibration in accordance with the current
working condition of the vehicle and can improve ride comfort and driving safety more effectively than the other two types of sus
pension [2]. Active suspension is realised mainly using a rotary motor as the power unit and via conversion of the rotary torque into a
linear driving force through a rack and pinion or a ball screw [3–5]. However, in traditional designs, the actuator is directly mounted
between the sprung mass and the unsprung mass. In that design scheme, the performance of the suspension deteriorates because of the
inertia of the motor. The greater the inertia of the motor, the more serious the deterioration [6]. Therefore, currently, active suspension
design needs to reduce the adverse effects of motor inertia through the reduction of the motor inertia itself or through the addition of
auxiliary vibration damping devices [4,7,8].
On the other hand, inertia can also be a positive factor in a damping system. For example, the use of tuned mass dampers (TMD),
* Corresponding author: Zheng GE

E-mail address: gezheng01@126.com (Z. GE).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2022.116750
Received 22 April 2021; Received in revised form 16 December 2021; Accepted 7 January 2022
Available online 15 January 2022
0022-460X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. GE et al. Journal of Sound and Vibration 525 (2022) 116750
also known as dynamic vibration absorbers (DVA), can considerably decrease the amplitude of vibration near the natural frequency
through the addition of a set of mass–spring–damping devices to the main system [9,10]. TMDs, which are widely utilised in many
engineering areas, have been a subject of research and development for more than 100 years [11–13]. For example, Hrovat investi
gated the dynamic characteristics of vehicle suspensions equipped with TMDs and noted that although a TMD can improve vehicle ride
comfort, it requires a large tuned mass of tens to hundreds of kilograms [14]. As a result, the use of TMDs in actual vehicle suspensions
to improve ride comfort can be challenging to implement.
In 2002, Smith proposed a new type of two-terminal mechanical device, called an inerter, which has the same physical property as
the mass element; the output force of the inerter is proportional to the acceleration of one of the terminals of the inerter relative to
another terminal [15]. The inerter has already been applied to a variety of new passive suspensions [16–18]. An important feature of
the inerter is that it has a significant mass amplification effect [19]. For example, a planetary flywheel inerter can even generate
hundreds of times the inertial mass equivalent to the gravitational mass of a flywheel [20]. The inerter can replace the mass element in
a tuned shock absorber and greatly reduce the weight of the absorber. Marian et al. connected an inerter in series with a mass element
to construct a new tuned mass-damper-inerter (TMDI) to greatly improve the equivalent tuned mass in a tuned damper and enhance
the damping effect [21]. With a TMDI, the inerter can be placed between the tuned mass and the host structure or deployed between
the tuned mass and the ground. However, although the shock absorption effect of the TMDI is superior, in tall buildings it is challenging
to connect the inerter and the ground, resulting in a more difficult structural layout [19]. Several optimisation methods for TMDI that
reduce the peak horizontal displacement, the root mean square (RMS) response, and the peak horizontal acceleration, thus greatly
enriching the design theory of vibration absorbers, have been proposed [22,23]. On the other hand, Tai integrated a spring and
flywheel to form the tuned inerter–torsional–mass–damper (TITMD), which further reduces the weight of the absorber [24]. Mean
while, Lazar et al. replaced the mass element with an inerter to create a new absorber, referred to as a tuned inerter damper (TID) [25].
To better understand these kinds of systems, Hu et al. obtained an analytical solution for the optimal parameters of inerter-based
dynamic vibration absorbers, providing a mathematical basis for their parametric design [26,27].
Therefore, inerter can be used to build a DVA systems with inerter, springs, and dampers, also known as inerter-spring-damper-DVA
(ISD-DVA) technology. The ISD-DVA can greatly reduce the weight of DVA system, thus making it possible to apply DVA technology to
vehicle suspension [28]. For example, Shen et al. applied a TID to a passive suspension system to significantly improve its suspension
performance by reducing the sprung resonance peak [29]. Adding active or semiactive control to a tuned damping system is one way of
improving the damping effect [30]. Existing methods generally arrange the TMD and TID structure in parallel with an active actuator,
which is still directly mounted between the sprung mass and the unsprung mass [31–34]. This will make the suspension structure very
complicated. Furthermore, the inherent inertia of the actuator cannot be used by the vibration damping system and will still have
adverse effects on the suspension.
Based on the principles of active suspension and TID, an active TID suspension structure for vehicles is designed. In this suspension,
the actuator and inerter are combined into one, and thus the inertia of the actuator becomes part of the inertia of the inerter. Based on
the quarter-car model, an analytical optimisation method for the suspension parameters is proposed. Through this method, the pa
rameters of the TID system can be rapidly obtained based on the basic parameters of the vehicle. Comparison with various types of
suspensions shows that the active TID suspension is confirmed to be able to overcome the adverse effect of the inherent inertia of the
actuator, and significantly enhance the ride comfort performance of the vehicle without changing the tire load performance.
The remaining paper is organised as follows: Section 2 introduces the structure and working principle of the active TID suspension.
Section 3 provides a model of the active TID suspension and describes the relevant performance measures. Section 4 presents optimal
Fig. 1. Schematic of active actuator for (a) electromagnetic active actuator, (b) ball screw type inerter, and (c) active actuator integrated
with inerter.
2
solutions for the active TID suspension in terms of the ride comfort measure, tire grip measure, and a weighted combination of these
two measures. The impact of the parameters and system stability are also evaluated. Section 5 further illustrates the advantages of an
active TID suspension by comparing the performance with that of a variety of suspensions. Finally, Section 6 presents the conclusions
of the study.
2. Structure of active TID suspension
2.1. Structure of active inerter
Fig. 1a shows the structure of the traditional electromagnetic active actuator. The corresponding dynamic model is expressed as
follows:
( )2 ( )
2π 2π
FA (s) = Jm s2 [x1 (s) − x2 (s)] + kt η η Ia (s) (1)
P P 1 2
where x1 and x2 are the displacements of the two terminals of the active actuator; Jm is the total inertia of the motor rotor and the
screw; kt is the motor torque constant; η1 is the transmission efficiency of the screw; η2 is the efficiency of the motor; Ia is the armature
current; and P is the screw lead. The first term on the right side of Eq. (1) is the uncontrollable inertia force caused by the total inertia of
the motor rotor and screw, which will lead to the deterioration of the suspension performance.
Fig. 1b shows a ball screw type inerter. If the active actuator is combined with the ball screw type inerter, i.e. a flywheel is installed
on the screw of an active actuator, the resulting device is, as shown in Fig. 1c, an active actuator with an integrated inerter, which can
also be referred to as an active inerter. This design is also the technical basis for the passive electromechanical integrated impedance
network [35–37].
However, nonlinear factors such as friction and clearance present in an inerter will adversely affect the characteristics of the
suspension [38]. The ball screw type inerter eliminates clearance and reduces friction to a small value. Studies have shown that when a
ball screw type inerter and a damper are connected in series, especially when a TID configuration is formed, the nonlinear factors
present in the inerter will have very little effect on the suspension [39,40]. Therefore, in this study, the linear inerter model is used for
the suspension modelling.
Because the suspension works mainly in frequencies below 20 Hz, and because the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM)
has a high response capability, the dynamic model of the active inerter can be simplified as
( )2 ( )
2π ( ) 2π
FAb (s) = Jm + Jf s2 [x1 (s) − x2 (s)] + kt η η Ia (s) (2)
P P 1 2
where Jf is the inertia of the flywheel. The output force FAb of the active inerter is the sum of the controllable force FA and the un
controllable inertial force Fb, which are defined as follows:
FA (s) = kt (2π / P)η1 η2 Ia (s) (3a)
Fb (s) = bs2 [x1 (s) − x2 (s)] (3b)
Fig. 2. Tuned inerter suspension for (a) passive TID suspension and (b) active TID suspension.
3
b = bm + bf (3c)
bm = (2π /P)2 Jm (3d)
bf = (2π/P)2 Jf (3e)
where b is the inertance of the inerter; bm is the inherent inertance produced by the inertia of the motor and screw, which cannot be
altered via changes in the design of the flywheel; and bf is the inertance produced by the flywheel inertia, which can be altered via
changes in the design of the flywheel. Eqn 2, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d and 3e illustrate the active inerter is equivalent to the structure shown in the
dashed box in Fig. 1c. The controllable force can be changed via adjustments to the armature current [41,42].
2.2. Structure of suspension
Passive TID suspension is derived from TMD technology, which can significantly improve the performance of the suspension [29].
The passive TID suspension is shown in Fig. 2a, where ms is the sprung mass, mu is the unsprung mass, K is the main spring stiffness, Kt
is the tire stiffness, k is the tuned spring stiffness, and c is the tuned damper coefficient. By comparison, an active TID suspension
system, as shown in Fig. 2b, is formed when the passive inerter in a passive TID suspension is replaced with an active inerter [28].
The dynamic model of the mass element is
F = − m ⋅ ẍ (4)
where as the dynamic model of the inerter is

( )
F = b ẍb − ẍs (5)
where xb is the displacement of the lower terminal of the active inerter; xs denotes the displacements of the sprung mass. Eqn 4 and 5
implying that the mass element is equivalent to a “ground-hook” inerter that is fixed on an ideal ground at one terminal. Relative to
TMD suspension, passive TID suspension is a reduced-order method; the two are not equivalent. To enable TID suspension to achieve
the effect of TMD suspension, the influence of unsprung vibration can be alleviated using the compensation force FA generated by the
actuator [28,43]. The compensation force FA is proportional to the acceleration of the sprung mass as Eqn 6.
FA = − rẍs (6)
where r is the compensation coefficient.
3. Model and performance measures of active TID suspension
3.1. Quarter-car model
The quarter-car model is a simplified model of a vehicle vibration system and is commonly employed to analyse and compare the
vertical performance of suspensions [1]. The kinetic equations of the quarter-car model shown in Fig. 2b after Laplace transformation
are
⎧ bs2 xb (s) − (b + r)s2 xs (s) = (cs + k)(xu (s) − xb (s)),
⎨
ms s2 xs (s) = K(xu (s) − xs (s)) + bs2 xb (s) − (b + r)s2 xs (s), (7)
⎩
2
mu s xu (s) = Kt (q(s) − xu (s)) − K(xu (s) − xs (s)) − (cs + k)(xu (s) − xb (s)),
where xu denotes the displacements of the unsprung mass; q is the displacement of the road input.
Sprung acceleration is the main indicator of ride comfort, whereas tire load is the main indicator of tire grip. This study uses these
two measures to evaluate the performance of the suspension.
According to Eq. (7), when the road speed is used as the input, the transfer function of the sprung acceleration relative to the road
input is
N4 s4 + N3 s3 + N2 s2 + N1 s
Hq→
˙ x¨s (s) = (8)
s6 + D5 s5 + D4 s4 + D3 s3 + D2 s2 + D1 s + D0
The transfer function of the tire load relative to the road input is
T5 s5 + T4 s4 + T3 s3 + T2 s2 + T1 s
Hq→K
˙ t (q− xu ) (s) = (9)
s6 + D5 s5 + D4 s4 + D3 s3 + D2 s2 + D1 s + D0
The coefficients Ni, Di, and Ti in Eqs. (8) and (9) are defined in Appendix A as Eqn A.1a, A.1b, A.1c, A.1d, A.1e, A.2a, A.2b, A.2c,
A.2d, A.3a, A.3b, A.3c, A.3d and A.3e.
4
3.2. Calculation of root mean square (RMS) of suspension performance measures
Given a vehicle running at a constant speed on a random road, if the vehicle suspension is approximated as a linear system, the RMS
value of the suspension performance measures can be calculated based on the integral of the power spectral density in the frequency
domain as Eqn 10. A smaller RMS value indicates a better suspension performance [1].
∫∞
[ ]
(10)
2
E y2 (t) = |H(f )| Gq˙ (f )df
0
where Gq̇ (f) is the time-frequency power spectral density of the road speed roughness rate, which can be expressed as Eqn 11.
Gq˙ (f ) = 4π2 Gq̇ (n0 )n20 u (11)
where n0 is the reference spatial frequency, Gq̇ (n0 ) is the road surface spectral density value corresponding to the reference spatial
frequency n0, and u is the vehicle speed. According to Scheibe and Smith [16], the sprung acceleration measure can be expressed as
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Ja = π 2Gq̇ (n0 )n20 u‖Hq̇→x¨s (s)‖2 (12)
where
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∫ ̅
1 ∞
‖ f (s) ‖2 = |f (s)| ds2
(13)
2π − ∞
is the H2-norm of the function f(s). The analytical expressions of the H2-norm of f(s) as Eqn 13 are provided in Appendix B. Similarly,
the tire load measure can be expressed as
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Jt = π 2Gq̇ (n0 )n20 u‖Hq̇→Kt (q− xu ) (s)‖2 (14)
Eqs. (12) and (14) show that each measure is proportional to the H2-norm of its transfer functions for a certain road and speed. The
H2-norm of the transfer function can fully represent the performance measure of the suspension. When the H2-norm is smaller, the
suspension performance measure is better.
4. Optimisation of active TID suspension performance measure
4.1. Mathematical expression of optimisation problem
Based on Eq. (8), the square of the H2-norm of the sprung acceleration transfer function is
( )2
Oa = ‖ Hq̇→x¨s (s) ‖2 (15)
Based on Eq. (9), the square of the H2-norm of the tire load transfer function is
( )2
Ot = ‖Hq→K
˙ t (q− xu ) (s)‖2 (16)
Because of the contradiction between ride comfort and tire grip, it is necessary to comprehensively optimise the suspension per
formance based on a combination of the two measures as Eqn 15 and 16. In this part of the study, a global optimum for a combined
measure can be derived as follows:
Om = 4m2s αOa + (1 − α)Ot (17)
where α ∈ [0, 1] is a weighting of Oa and Ot, and the scale coefficient 4ms2 is used to make the vehicle acceleration and tire load have
similar values to simplify the problem.
As shown in Fig. 2b, the suspension has 8 parameters. The sprung mass ms and unsprung mass mu are the basic parameters of the
vehicle suspension. The tire stiffness Kt is determined by the tire type. The main spring supports the vehicle weight, the stiffness K of
which determines the static balance height of the suspension. This study regards ms, mu, Kt, and K as the fixed parameters of the
suspension. The optimisation problem of the suspension measure can be represented as the adjustment of 4 parameters, which are the
tuned spring stiffness k, tuned damper coefficient c, inertance b of the inerter, and compensation coefficient r, such that the H2-norm of
the corresponding transfer function is minimised, as follows:
min(Om (k, c, b, r))
(18)
s.t.k ≥ 0, c ≥ 0, b ≥ 0, r ≥ 0.
5
4.2. Numerical solution of optimisation problem
First, we calculate the measures using the basic parameters of suspension, as outlined in Table 1, from Mitschke and Wallentowitz
[1].
If r = 0, the active TID suspension degenerates into a passive TID suspension. The same optimisation parameters as in Shen et al.
[29] can be obtained when Eq. (18) is solved using the numerical optimisation algorithm. If r > 0, and if the sprung acceleration
measure is regarded as the main optimisation objective (i.e. when the value of α is large), then the larger the r, the smaller the value of
Om.
When α = 0.6 and r = ms are substituted into Eq. (18), the optimal parameter combination, as shown in Table 2, can be calculated.
The global optimal solution of Om can be determined numerically. However, the computational procedure to obtain the global
optimal solution of Om with four unknown parameters is complicated, and the time required for the computation is very long. To
further understand the influence of parameters on suspension performance and improve the time efficiency of optimisation calcula
tion, it is necessary to study the analytical solution of optimisation.
4.3. Analytical solution of optimisation problem
4.3.1. Optimal solutions for sprung acceleration measure

Based on Eqn 8 and Appendix B, the square of the H2-norm of the sprung acceleration transfer function is
( )2 p c + q c− 1
(19a)
a a
Oa = ‖ Hq̇→x¨s (s) ‖2 =
2e1
where
e4 b3 − (e5 − e4 r)b2 + (e6 − e7 r)b + e8 r

pa = ( ) (19b)
b e1 b2 + e2 rb + e3 r2
e9 b3 − (e10 − e12 r)b2 + (e11 + e13 r)b + e1 e3 r2 + e14 r 2 − e5 b3 + (2e6 − e7 r)b2 + 2e8 rb e15 b3 + e16 rb2
qa = (
2 2
) k − (
2 2
) k+ ( ). (19c)
b e1 b + e2 rb + e3 r b e1 b + e2 rb + e3 r b e1 b2 + e2 rb + e3 r2
The coefficient ei is defined in Appendix C as Eqn C.1a, C.1b, C.1c, C.1d, C.1e, C.1f, C.1g, C.1i, C.1j, C.1k, C.1l, C.1m, C.1n and C.1o.
As shown in Eqn 19c, qa is a quadratic function of k. For any fixed b and r, Oa has a unique minimum at
( )
− b e5 b2 − (2e6 − e7 r)b − 2e8 r
̂
ka = ( ) (20)
2 e9 b3 − (e10 − e12 r)b2 + (e11 + e13 r)b + e1 e3 r2 + e14 r
Because the spring stiffness cannot be negative, then based on Eq. (20), b must satisfy b∈[0,bamax]. bamax is defined as Eqn 21.
( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)/
bamax = 2e6 − e7 r + 4e26 + 4(2e5 e8 − e6 e7 )r + e27 r2 2e5 . (21)
When k = ̂k a is substituted into Eqn 19a, 19b and 19c, for any fixed b and r, Oa has a unique minimum at
√̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
qt c anum
̂
̂c a = = (22a)
pt c aden
̂
where
( ) 2 ( )
̂c anum = e9 b3 − (e10 − e12 r)b2 + (e11 + e13 r)b + (e14 + e1 e3 r)r ̂
k + e5 b3 − (2e6 − e7 r)b2 − 2e8 rb ̂k + e15 b3 + e16 rb2 , (22b)
̂c aden = b3 e4 − (e5 − e4 r)b2 + (e6 − e7 r)b + e8 r. (22c)
When k = ̂k a and c = ̂c a are substituted into Eqn 19a, 19b and 19c, Oa becomes a function involving only two variable parameters: b
and r. The number of undetermined parameters is reduced from 4 to 2, and the optimisation problem of the sprung acceleration
measure becomes
Table 1
Basic parameters of suspension.
Parameter Value
Sprung mass ms/kg 229

Unsprung mass mu/kg 31
Main spring stiffness K/(N m− 1) 20,213
Tire stiffness Kt/(N m− 1) 127,976
6
Table 2
Optimal parameters of active TID suspension.
Parameter Value
Inertance b/kg 103
Compensation coefficient r/kg 229
Tuned damper coefficient c/(N s m− 1) 747
Tuned spring stiffness k/(N m− 1) 3304
minOa (b, r)
( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)/
(23)
s.t.0 ≤ b ≤ 2e6 − e7 r + 4e26 + 4(2e5 e8 − e6 e7 )r + e27 r2 2e5 , γ ≥ 0.
The function Oa(b, r) is a higher-order function of b and r. It is challenging to obtain the extreme value using an analytical method.
Eq. (23) can be solved via numerical optimisation to obtain the parameter combination (bopt and ropt) that determines the optimal value
of Ja. When b = bopt and r = ropt are substituted into Eqs. (20) and (Eqn 22a, 22b and 22c), kopt = ̂ k a and copt = ̂c a can be calculated.
Through the previous steps, the optimal parameter combination (bopt, ropt, kopt and copt) is obtained such that the sprung acceleration
measure becomes optimal.
4.3.2. Optimal solutions for tire load measure

Based on Eqn 9 and Appendix B, the square of the H2-norm of the tire load transfer function is
( )2 p c + q c− 1
(24a)
t t
Ot = ‖ Hq→(q−
˙ xu )
(s) ‖2 =
2e1
where
g1 b3 − (g3 − g2 r)b2 + (g6 + g5 r + g4 r2 )b + g9 r + g8 r2 + g7 r3

pt = ( ) (24b)
b e1 b2 + e2 rb + e3 r2
( )
g10 b3 − (g12 − g11 r)b2 + g15 + g14 r + g13 r2 b + g18 r + g17 r2 + g16 r3 2
qt = ( ) k
b e1 b2 + e2 rb + e3 r2
( ) (24c)
− g3 b3 + (2g6 + g5 r)b2 + 2g9 r + g8 r2 b g19 b3 + g20 rb2
− ( 2 2
) k+ ( ).
b e1 b + e2 rb + e3 r b e1 b2 + e2 rb + e3 r2
The coefficient gi is defined in Appendix D as Eqn D.1a, D.1b, D.1c, D.1d, D.1e, D.1f, D.1g, D.1h, D.1i, D.1j, D.1k, D.1l, D.1m, D.1n,
D.1o, D.1p, D.1q, D.1r, D.1s and D.1t.
As shown in Eqn 24c, qt is a quadratic function of k. For any fixed b and r, Ot has a unique minimum at
( )
− b g3 b2 − (g5 r + 2g6 )b − g8 r2 − 2g9 r
̂kt = ( ) (25)
2 g10 b3 + (g11 r − g12 )b2 + (g13 r2 + g14 r + g15 )b + g16 r3 + g18 r + g17 r2
Because the spring stiffness cannot be negative, then based on Eq. (25), b must satisfy b∈[0,btmax]. btmax is defined as Eqn 26.
( ̅)/
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )
btmax = g5 r + 2g6 + 4g3 g8 + g25 r2 + 4(2g3 g9 + g5 g6 )r + 4g26 2g3 (26)
When k = ̂ k t is substituted into Eq. (Eqn 24a, 24b and 24c), for any fixed b and r, Ot has a unique minimum at
√̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
qt c num
̂
̂c t = = (27a)
pt c den
̂
where
( ( ) ( ) ) 2
c tnum = g10 b3 + (g11 r − g12 )b2 + g13 r2 + g14 r + g15 b + g16 r2 + g17 r + g18 r ̂
̂ k
( ( ) ) (27b)
+ g3 b3 − (g5 r + 2g6 )b2 − g8 r2 + 2g9 r b ̂ k + g19 b3 + g20 rb2 ,
( ) ( )
̂c tden = g1 b3 + (g2 r − g3 )b2 + g4 r2 + g5 r + g6 b + g7 r2 + g8 r + g9 r (27c)
When k = ̂k t and c = ̂c t are substituted into Eqn 24a, 24b and 24c, Ot becomes a function involving only two variable parameters: b
and r. The number of undetermined parameters is reduced from 4 to 2, and the optimisation problem of the tire load measure becomes
7
minOt (b, r)
( ̅)/
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) (28)
s.t.0 ≤ b ≤ g5 r + 2g6 + 4g3 g8 + g25 r2 + 4(2g3 g9 + g5 g6 )r + 4g26 2g3 , r ≥ 0.
Eq. (28) can also be solved via numerical optimisation to obtain the parameter combination (bopt and ropt) that determines the
optimal value of Jt. When b = bopt and r = ropt are substituted into Eqs. (25) and (Eqn 27a, 27b and 27c), kopt = ̂k t and copt = ̂c t can be
calculated. Through the previous steps, the optimal parameter combination (bopt, ropt, kopt, and copt) is obtained such that the tire load
measure becomes optimal.
4.3.3. Optimal solutions for combined performance measure of Ja and Jt

When Eqs. (19a,b,c) and (24a,b,c) are substituted into Eq. (17), Om can be expressed as
1
pm c + qm c−
Om = (29a)
2e1
where
pm = γαpa + (1 − α)pt (29b)
qm = γαqa + (1 − α)qt (29c)

2
γ=4ms
Based on the definitions of qa and qt, qm is also a quadratic function of k. For any fixed b and r, Om has a unique minimum at
̂
k num
̂
k= (30a)
̂
k den
where
̂ 3 2
( = (( − γe5 + g3 )α − g3 )b + ((g5 −) (γe7 + g5 )α)r + 2(γe6 − g6 )α + 2g6 )b
k num
(30b)
+ g8 (1 − α)r2 + (2(γe8 − g9 )α + 2g9 )r b,
(( ) ) 3 ((( ) ) ( ) )
̂ γe)1 2 − (g1 1 α + g1)1 r + g1)2 − γe1 0 α − g1 2 b2
( = 2( γe9 −2 g1(0( α + g1 0 b) +
k den
+ g1 3 (1 − α)r +( ( γe1 3 − g1 4 )α + g1 4 )r + (γe( 1 1 − g1 5 α)+ g1 5 b) (30c)
+g1 6 (1 − α)r3 + γe1 e3 − g1 7 α + g1 7 r2 + γe1 4 − g1 8 α + g1 8 r)
Because the spring stiffness cannot be negative, then based on Eq. (30a,b,c), b must satisfy
b ∈ [0, bmax ]
bmax is defined as Eqn 31a and 31b.

√̅̅̅̅
(g5 − (γe7 + g5 )α)r + 2(γe6 − g6 )α + 2g6 + Λ
bmax = (31a)
2(γe5 α − αg3 + g3 )
(( ) ( ) )
Λ = γ 2 e27 + 2(e7 g5 − 2e5 g8 )γ + 4g8 g3 + g25 α2 + 2 (2e5 g8 − e7 g5 )γ − 4g8 g3 − g25 α + 4g8 g3 + g25 r2
(( )
+4 (2e5 e8 − e6 e7 )γ 2 − (2e5 g9 + e6 g5 − e7 g6 + 2e8 g3 )γ + 2g9 g3 + g5 g6 α2 (31b)
+((2e5 g9 + e6 g5 − e7 g6 + 2e8 g3 )γ − 2g5 g6 − 4g9 g3 )α + 2g9 g3 + g5 g6 )r + 4((γe6 − g6 )α + g6 )2 .
When k = ̂k is substituted into Eqn 29a, 29b and 29c, for any fixed b and r, Om has a unique minimum at
√̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
qt ̂c num
̂c = = (32a)
pt c den
̂
where
(( ) ) 3 ((( ) ) ( ) )
( = ( γe9 − 2 g1 0( ( α + g1 0 b )+
c num
̂ γe)1 2 − g( 1 1 α + g1 1) r − γe)10 − g1 2 α − g1 2 b2
+ g1 3 (1 − α)r + e13 γ − g1 4 α + g1 4 r + e11 γ − g1 5 α + g1 5 b
(( ) ) (( ) ) 2
+g1 6 (1 − α)r3 + γe1 e3 − g1 7 α + g1 7 r2 + γe1 4 − g1 8 α + g1 8 r)̂ k
( (32b)
+ ((γe5 − g3 )α + g3 )b3 + (((γe7 + g5 )α − g5 )r − 2(γe6 − g6 )α − 2g6 )b2
( )
+( (( αg8 − g8 )r)2 − (2(γe)8 − g9( )(α + 2g9 )r )b)̂k )
+ γe15 − g1 9 α + g1 9 b + γe16 − g2 0 α + g2 0 rb2 ,
3
8
3
( ( = ((γe4 − g1 )α + g1 )b + (((γe
c den
̂ ) 4 − g2 )r − γe5 + g3))α + g2 r − g3 )b2
− ( ( g4 r2 + (γe7 + g5 )r − γe
) 6 + g 6 α − g 4 r 2
− g)5 r − g6 b (32c)
− r2 g7 − γe8 + rg8 + g9 α − g7 r2 − g8 r − g9 r.
When k = ̂
k and c = ̂c are substituted into Eq. (29a,b,c), Om becomes a function involving only two variable parameters: b and r.
The number of undetermined parameters is reduced from 4 to 2; the optimisation problem of the combined performance measure
becomes
minOm (b, r)
(33)
s.t.0 ≤ b ≤ bmax , r ≥ 0.
Eq. (33) can also be solved via numerical optimisation to obtain the parameter combination (bopt, and ropt) that optimises Om. When
b = bopt and r = ropt are substituted into Eqs. (30a,b,c) and (32a,b,c), kopt = ̂
k and copt = ̂c can be calculated. Through the previous
steps, the optimal parameter combination (bopt, ropt, kopt, and copt) is obtained such that the combined performance measure is
optimised.
4.4. Numerical examples for analytical solution and analysis
Herein, we further explore the influence of b and r on the suspension performance measures. First, we calculate the measures using
the suspension parameters outlined in Table 1.
4.4.1. Numerical examples for body acceleration measure (α = 1)

When α = 1, the optimisation objective includes only the vehicle body acceleration (Ot = 0). Through substitution and testing out of
different values of b and r into Eqs. (20) and (22a, 22b,22c), kopt and copt can be obtained. When the combination (b, r, kopt and copt) is
substituted into Eq. (19a,b,c), Oa can be obtained. Based on this process, the relationship between Oa and the parameter combination (b
and r) is illustrated in Fig. 3, which reveals the following:
(1) For any given r, there is an optimal b = bopt that minimises Oa. The dashed-dotted line in Fig. 3 visualises the relationship of
optimal Oa with (bopt and r), which shows that a larger r is correlated with a smaller bopt.
(2) To further illustrate the effect of r on the sprung acceleration measure, the amplitude–frequency characteristics of the sprung
acceleration with respect the optimal parameter combination (bopt, kopt and copt) for different values of r are shown in Fig. 4. In
most of the frequency ranges, as r increases, the sprung mass resonance frequency decreases, the amplitude of the unsprung
mass resonance peak increases slightly, and the amplitude decreases significantly. Therefore, the greater the r, the better the
sprung acceleration measure.
Fig. 3. Relationship between Oa and parameter combination (b and r) for (a) 3-dimensional surface and (b) contours.
9
Fig. 4. Amplitude-frequency characteristics of sprung acceleration for different r values.
(3) For any given value of b, Oa decreases as r increases. To obtain a smaller Oa, the value of r should be preselected to be as large as
the power of the actuator permits. When r = rmax is substituted into Eqn 23, bopt can be calculated. For this example, if rmax = ms
= 229 kg, Oa reaches its minimum (Oa = 972.558) when bopt = 38 kg, kopt = 1301 N/m, and copt = 319 N•s/m.
(4) When r = 0, the suspension degrades to the passive TID suspension shown in Fig. 2a. Fig. 3b shows that for any value of b, the
sprung acceleration measure of an active TID suspension is always better than that of a passive TID suspension.
4.4.2. Numerical examples for tire load measure (α = 1)

When α = 1, the optimisation objective includes only the tire load (Oa = 0). Through substitution and testing out of different values
of b and r into Eqs. (25) and (27a,b,c), kopt and copt can be obtained. If the combination (b, r, kopt, and copt) is substituted into Eq. (24a,b,
c), Ot can be obtained. Based on this approach, the relationship between Ot and the parameter combination (b and r) is illustrated in
Fig. 5, which reveals the following:
(1) Fig. 5 shows that if the value of r is fixed, then as the value of b increases, the value of Ot first decreases rapidly and then in
creases slowly. If the value of b is fixed, then when the value of r increases, the value of Ot also decreases and then increases,
although the change is small. The dashed line in Fig. 5 shows the relationship of optimal Ot with (bopt and r), whereas the
Fig. 5. Relationship between Ot and parameter combination (b and r) for (a) 3-dimensional surface and (b) contours.
10
dashed-dotted line shows the relationship of optimal Ot with (b and ropt). There is a global optimal value of Ot located at the
intersection of the dashed line and dashed− dotted line.
(2) To further understand the effect of r and b on the tire load measure, different values of b were tested to calculate for the best
combination of parameters (ropt, kopt and copt). Similarly, different values of r were tested to calculate for (bopt, kopt and copt).
With these values, the amplitude–frequency characteristics of the tire load are plotted. As shown in Fig. 6, when b = 0, the TID
structure will not exist, and the suspension will degenerate to a traditional suspension. Because the damping coefficient of the
system is zero, the amplitude of the resonance peak will be very large. When b > 0, the suspension appears to be an active TID
suspension. The amplitude–frequency curve of the dynamic tire load shows an evident anti-resonance phenomenon near the
resonant frequency of sprung mass. The frequency and amplitude of the first resonant peak decrease, whereas the amplitude of
the unsprung mass resonant peak increases. As b increases, the amplitudes of the first and unsprung mass resonance peaks
decrease dramatically, whereas the amplitudes of the frequency bands between the resonance peaks increase significantly.
(3) In this example, Ot reaches its minimum (Ot = 2.67 × 108) when ropt = 41 kg, bopt = 227 kg, kopt = 11,331 N/m, and copt = 1,499
Ns/m. Relative to the optimal parameter combinations (bopt, ropt, kopt, and copt) given in this section and those in Section
5Section 4.4.1, there is a vast difference in the values of the parameters that optimise the Ja and Jt measures. Therefore, as with
traditional suspensions, there is a trade-off between the ride comfort and tire grip of active TID suspensions, and thus it is
impossible to optimise both requirements with the same set of parameters.
4.4.3. Numerical examples for combined performance measure (0 < α < 1)

Let r = rmax; then, based on the optimum parameter combination as α is increased from 0 to 1, the optimal relationship between the
tire load and the sprung acceleration is visualised in Fig. 7 with random road parameters n0 = 0.1 m− 1, Gq̇ (n0) = 64 × 10− 6 m3, and u
= 20 m.s− 1. The Jt–Ja curve illustrates the ultimate performance of the active TID suspension. Increasing the compensation coefficient r
can generally improve the performance of the suspension, and the vehicle sprung acceleration measure is remarkably improved.
The amplitude–frequency characteristics of the active TID suspension for α = 0.6 and different rmax values are shown in Fig. 8. With
regard to the sprung acceleration measure, the effect of rmax on the amplitude of the unsprung resonance peak is negligible. As rmax
increases, the amplitude of the first resonance peak and the amplitude in the middle frequency range decrease significantly. On the
other hand, with regard to the tire load measure, as rmax increases, the amplitude of the first resonance peak decreases, whereas the
Fig. 6. Amplitude–frequency characteristics of tire load for (a) different r values and (b) different b values.
11
Fig. 7. Jt–Ja relationship of active TID suspension for different rmax values.
Fig. 8. Amplitude–frequency characteristics of active TID suspension for different rmax values: (a) sprung acceleration and (b) tire load.
amplitude of the unsprung resonance peak increases remarkably.

If α = 0.6 and rmax = ms = 229 kg, Om attains its optimum value. The values of the optimised parameters obtained via the analytical
optimisation method are shown in Table 2, which are the same as those obtained via the numerical optimisation method. When the
vehicle travels at a speed of 20 m.s− 1 on a random road surface where Gq̇ (n0) = 64 × 10− 6 m3, the RMS of the sprung acceleration Ja is
0.550 m.s− 2, the RMS of the tire load Jt is 291 N, and the RMS of the output force of the actuator is 126 N.
12
4.5. Optimisation process for combined performance measure of active TID suspension
Based on Section 4.4.1, ropt will tend toward infinity as the weighting of the sprung acceleration measure α increases. According to
Section 4.4.2, the value of r has a small effect on the tire load. If the sprung acceleration measure is regarded as the main optimisation
target, the value of r should be selected to be as large as the power of the active actuator permits to improve the suspension perfor
mance. Therefore, the numerical optimisation of the suspension performance needs to use only a single parameter, such as bopt. The
rmax and bopt values are calculated to obtain the optimal tuned spring stiffness kopt and damping coefficient copt, which complete the
design of the suspension parameters. The optimisation process for the combined performance measure of an active TID suspension is
illustrated in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Optimisation process for combined performance measure of active TID suspension.
13
4.6. Influence of analytical optimisation solutions on stability of suspension system
A vehicle suspension is a supercritical vibration system, because the fundamental frequency of the uncoupled source body is larger
than the fundamental frequency of the uncoupled receiving body. Čakmak et al. reported that after adding an inerter to a supercritical
vibration system, the system will no longer be unconditionally stable, and active control may lead to system instability [44].
Table 3 outlines Hurwitz matrix coefficients Hn with respect to coefficients from Eqs. (8) and (9). These coefficients constitute the
characteristic equation, i.e. denominator of Eqs. (8) and (9). The expressions for Hn are detailed in Appendix E as Eqn E.1a, E.1b, E.1c,
E.1d, E.1e and E.1f. According to the Hurwitz criterion, the system is stable when H1–H6 are all greater than 0.
According to the previously presented analysis, when the value of r is already determined, the values of bopt, copt, and kopt can be
calculated using the formula. Therefore, for different values of r, the optimal solutions for the other three parameters can be calculated
in turn, and then b = bopt, c = copt, and k = kopt can be substituted into H1–H6 to obtain the relationship between Hn and r. Fig. 10 shows
how Hn varies with respect to r for different values of α. It can be observed that the values of H1–H6 are quite different. For the sake of
presentation, each set of data is divided by its value at r = 300 kg. As shown in Fig. 10, when r is a positive value, H1–H6 are all greater
than 0. Therefore, if r is positive, the optimisation method can ensure that the suspension system is stable.
5. Comparison and analysis of multiple types of suspension
As an example, the components of the active inerter were selected and determined based on the optimisation results outlined in
Table 2. The corresponding values are listed in Table 4.
Based on the component parameters, the inherent inertance bm of the actuator, which is determined by the inertia of the motor and
the screw, is 7.86 kg; the inertance bf produced by the flywheel inertia is 95.14 kg; the inertance b of the inerter is 103 kg; the total mass
of all inertial components is 1.3 kg; and the rated output force of the actuator is 340 N. When the vehicle travels at a speed of 30 m/s on
a random road surface where Gq(n0) = 64 × 10− 6 m3, the RMS of the output force of the actuator is 154 N, and the maximum power
required of the actuator is 126 W. The active inerter can fulfil the requirements of use.
To study the advantages of active TID suspension, we compared the levels of performance of the active TID suspension, the passive
TID suspension shown in Fig. 1b, the active skyhook suspension shown in Figure 11a, and the TMD suspension shown in Fig. 11b.
Although the actuator of an ideal skyhook suspension should not have inherent inertia (bm = 0), such a condition is impossible for a
real actuator, because the inertia of the motor and the screw cannot be excluded. The amplitude–frequency characteristics of an ideal
skyhook suspension (bm = 0) and real skyhook suspension (bm = 7.86 kg) for the same suspension parameters are illustrated in Fig. 12.
Because the inherent inertia of the actuator cannot be reduced, the amplitude of the unsprung resonance peak increases significantly,
and thus the suspension performance deteriorates remarkably [6].
Based on the method presented in Section 4.3, the optimal relationships of the tire load and sprung acceleration as α is increased
from 0 to 1 for the active TID suspension (rmax = ms), passive TID suspension, TMD suspension, and skyhook suspension are visualised
in Figure 13, which shows the combination of the minimum Ja and Jt for each type of suspension within the ranges of its corresponding
parameters.
For TMD suspensions, superior performance can be achieved if the mass of the mass block is infinitely increased; however, that is
not possible in reality. The Jt–Ja relationship for the TMD suspension is shown in Fig. 13 with the optimal parameters of the passive TID
suspension, where the tuned mass is equal to the inertance of the inerter of the passive TID suspension (md = b). The main damper
coefficient of the TMD suspension is equal to its tuned damper coefficient (C = c), ensuring that the TMD suspension and passive TID
suspension have the same damping for the sprung mass and unsprung mass.
Fig. 13 shows that the performance of the passive TID suspension is inferior to that of the TMD suspension. The performance curve
of the active TID suspension is closer to the origin of the coordinate system than those of the passive TID suspension and TMD sus
pension, indicating that the active TID suspension can greatly improve the ultimate performance of the suspension and improve the
sprung acceleration measure. Relative to the ideal skyhook suspension, the active TID suspension produces better tire load perfor
mance but worse sprung acceleration performance. Relative to the real active skyhook suspension, the active TID suspension is able to
produce superior performance over a larger range and substantially enhance the tire load measure.
Limiting Jt = 291 N and optimising the suspension parameters are necessary to obtain the minimum sprung acceleration. The
optimal suspension parameters are listed in Table 5.
In accordance with the parameters in Table 5, the amplitude–frequency characteristics of the five types of suspensions are shown in
Fig. 14.
Table 3
Hurwitz coefficients chart for i = 6.
Hurwitz matrix coefficients Hurwitz matrix items
H1 D5 1 0 0 0 0
H2 D3 D4 D5 1 0 0
H3 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 1
H4 0 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4
H5 0 0 0 D0 D1 D2
H6 0 0 0 0 0 D0
14
Fig. 10. Relationship between Hn and r for (a) α = 1, (b) α = 0.6, (c) α = 0.3, (d) α = 0.
Table 4
Parameters of components of active inerter.
Parameter Specification
(a) Motor
Type MSME022G1
Rated power/W 200
Rated torque/(N m) 0.64
Rotary inertia/(× 10− 5kg m2) 1.40
Efficiency η2 0.92
Mass/kg 0.82
(b) Ball screw
Nominal diameter/mm 14
Lead P/mm 10
Rotary inertia/(× 10− 5kg m2) 0.59
Transmission efficiency η1 0.92
Mass/kg 0.24
(c) Flywheel
Diameter/mm 90
Rotary inertia Jf/(× 10− 5kg m2) 24.10
Mass/kg 0.24
Fig. 14 shows that, in most frequency ranges, the amplitude of the real skyhook suspension is greater than the ideal skyhook
suspension, because actuator inertia causes a significant increase in the high-frequency resonance peak of the active suspension.
Therefore, compromises must be made to reduce the amplitude of the unsprung resonance peak for both suspensions to have the same
Jt measure. Although the active TID suspension is not as good as an ideal skyhook suspension, it is superior to a real skyhook suspension
15
Fig. 11. Suspensions for performance comparison of (a) active skyhook suspension and (b) TMD suspension.
Fig. 12. Amplitude–frequency characteristics of skyhook suspension for (a) sprung acceleration and (b) tire load.
in the middle- and high-frequency ranges.

In the high-frequency range, the amplitudes of the three tuned suspensions are the same. The amplitude of the sprung mass
resonance peak of the active TID suspension is greatly reduced compared to those of the passive TID suspension and TMD suspension.
The RMS values of the five suspension performance measures are listed in Table 6. For the same tire load, the RMS value of the
sprung acceleration of the active TID suspension is 18.5% less than that of a passive TID suspension, 8.8% less than that of a TMD
suspension, and 14.7% less than that of a real skyhook suspension. The combination of the active inerter and TID makes the inherent
inertia of the actuator a favourable factor and drastically reduces the amplitude of the unsprung mass resonance peak. In addition, the
total mass of the inertia components of the active inerter is 1.3 kg, which is only 1.2% of the tuned mass of a TMD suspension (109 kg),
indicating the higher practical value of the active TID suspension.
16
Fig. 13. Jt–Ja relationship for multiple types of suspensions.
Table 5
Optimal suspension parameters.
Parameter ActiveTID PassiveTID TMD Skyhook(bm = 7.86 kg) Skyhook(bm = 0)
Main damper coefficient C/(N m s− 1) — — 806 1170 790

Tuned spring stiffness k/(N m− 1) 3304 6591 6888 — —
Tuned damper coefficient c/(N m s− 1) 747 717 806 — —
Tuned mass md/kg — — 109 — —
Inerter inertance b/kg 103 109 — — —
Compensation coefficient r/kg 229 — — — —
Skyhook coefficient/(N m s− 1) — — — 1460 3480
6. Conclusion
Active TID suspension combines the advantages of active suspension and TID technology and changes the inherent inertia of the
actuator in active suspension from a harmful to a favourable factor, thus overcoming the adverse effect of the inherent inertia of the
actuator on active suspension performance. Compared with an actual active suspension, where the active actuator has an inherent
inertia, the active TID suspension can improve the suspension limit performance over a larger range, particularly to obtain a better tire
grip measure and improve vehicle driving safety.
This paper presents an analytical optimisation method for the sprung acceleration measure, the tire load measure, and a weighted
combination of these two measures for an active TID suspension. Based on the analytic solutions of the H2-norm of the suspension
performance measures, when the sprung mass ms, unsprung mass mu, tire stiffness Kt, and main spring stiffness K are already known,
the optimal tuned spring stiffness kopt is a function of both the optimal inerter inertance and sprung acceleration compensation co
efficient (bopt and r), and the optimal damping coefficient copt is a function of (kopt, bopt and r).
For active TID suspension, there is a trade-off between the sprung acceleration and the tire load. Increasing the compensation
coefficient r is more favourable for improving the sprung acceleration measure and has a more limited effect on the tire load measure.
Therefore, the value of r should be selected to be as large as the power of the active actuator permits. The numerical optimisation of the
suspension performance will then require only a single parameter, such as bopt. The rmax and bopt values are calculated to obtain the
optimal tuned spring stiffness kopt and damping coefficient copt, which complete the design of the suspension parameters. This method
can reduce the number of parameters to be solved by numerical optimisation from four parameters, namely, k, c, b and r, to one
parameter, i.e. b, thus reducing the calculation volume and calculation time of numerical optimisation. The parameters obtained by
this optimisation method can also ensure the stability of the suspension.
In addition, compared to the passive TID suspension and TMD suspension, the active TID suspension can significantly improve the
ultimate performance of the suspension, thus enabling superior performance, particularly ride comfort performance, from the
suspension.
Author contribution statement
Zheng Ge: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Weirui
Wang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Guangping Li: Calculation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.
Daogong Rao: Calculation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.
17
Fig. 14. Amplitude–frequency characteristics of five types of suspensions: (a) sprung acceleration and (b) tire load.
Table 6
RMS values of five suspension performance measures.
Type of suspension Sprung acceleration/(m/s2) Tire load/N
Active TID 0.550 291

Passive TID 0.675
TMD 0.603
Skyhook (bm = 7.86 kg) 0.645
Skyhook (bm = 0) 0.523
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement(s)
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51905488, 51005206) and Science Foundation of
Zhejiang Sci-Tech University (ZSTU) (19022103-Y, 2021Q019).
Appendix A. The coefficients in Eqs. (8) and (9)
Para
(ms + mu )bc + mu (ms + r)c
D5 = (A.1a)
ms mu b
18
K(ms + mu )b + Kt ms b + (ms + mu )bk + mu (ms + r)k

D4 = (A.1b)
ms mu b
K(ms + mu )c + Kt bc + Kt (ms + r)c

D3 = (A.1c)
ms mu b
Kt Kb + K(ms + mu )k + Kt (ms + b + r)k

D2 = (A.1d)
ms mu b
Kt Kc
D1 = , (A.1e)
ms mu b
Kt Kk
D0 = (A.1f)
ms mu b
Kt bc
N4 = (A.2a)
ms mu b
Kt (K + k)b
N3 = (A.2b)
ms mu b
Kt Kc
N2 = (A.2c)
ms mu b
Kt Kk
N1 = (A.2d)
ms mu b
T5 = Kt (A.3a)
(ms + mu )bc + mu (ms + r)c

T4 = Kt (A.3b)
ms mu b
K(ms + mu )b + (ms + mu )bk + mu (ms + r)k

T3 = Kt (A.3c)
ms mu b
K(ms + mu )c
T2 = Kt (A.3d)
ms mu b
K(ms + mu )k
T1 = Kt . (A.3e)
ms mu b
Appendix B. Analytical expressions of the H2-norm of the transfer function
A minimal state-space realization of the transfer function as Eqn B.1
bn− 1 sn− 1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + b1 s + b0
G(s) = (B.1)
sn + an− 1 sn− 1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1 s + a0
is shown as Eqn B.2a, B.2b, B.2c and B.2d.
G(s) = C(sI − A)− 1 B (B.2a)
where
⎛ ⎞
0 1 0 ⋯ 0
⎜ 0 0 1 ⋯ 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A=⎜
⎜ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟
⎟ (B.2b)
⎝ 0 0 0 … 1 ⎠
− a0 − a1 − a2 ⋯ − an− 1
19
⎛ ⎞
0
⎜0⎟
⎜ ⎟
B=⎜
⎜⋮⎟
⎟ (B.2c)
⎝0⎠
1
C = ( b0 b1 b2 … bn− 1 ) (B.2d)
According to the literature [45], a H2 -norm of the transfer function G(s) can be computed by the following formula as Eqn B.3.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
‖ G(s) ‖2 = ‖ C(sI − A)− 1 B ‖2 = CLCT (B.3)
where matrix L is the unique solution of the Lyapunov equation as Eqn B.4.
AL + LAT + BBT = 0 (B.4)
Appendix C. The coefficients in Eq. (19a,b,c)
Para
e1 = Kt ms (C.1a)
e2 = ms K + mu K + Kt ms (C.1b)
e3 = mu K, (C.1c)
e4 = Kt 3 (C.1d)
e5 = 2Kt 2 (ms + mu )K (C.1e)

( )
e6 = Kt (ms + mu )2 K + Kt ms 2 K (C.1f)
e7 = 2Kt 2 mu K (C.1g)
e8 = Kt mu (ms + mu )K 2 (C.1h)
e9 = Kt 2 (ms + mu ) (C.1h) (C.1i)

( )
e10 = Kt 2(ms + mu )2 K + Kt ms 2 (C.1j)
e11 = (ms + mu )3 K 2 + 2Kt ms 2 (ms + mu )K + Kt 2 ms 3 (C.1k)
e12 = Kt 2 mu (C.1l)
( )
e13 = Kt Kms 2 − Kms mu − 2Kmu 2 + Kt ms 2 (C.1m)
( )
e14 = mu (ms + mu )2 K + Kt ms 2 K (C.1n)
e15 = Kt 2 (ms + mu )K 2 (C.1o)
e16 = Kt 2 mu K 2 (C.1p)
Appendix D. The coefficients in Eq. (24a,b,c)
Para
g1 = Kt 3 (ms + mu )2 (D.1a)
g2 = Kt 3 (ms + 3mu )(ms + mu ) (D.1b)
20
( )
g3 = 2Kt 2 (ms + mu ) (ms + mu )2 K − Kt ms mu (D.1c)
g4 = Kt 3 mu (2ms + 3mu ) (D.1d)

( )
g5 = 2Kt 2 mu Kt ms (ms + 2mu ) − 2(ms + mu )2 K (D.1e)
( )
g6 = Kt (ms + mu )4 K 2 + Kt ms (ms − 2mu )(ms + mu )2 K + Kt 2 m2s m2u (D.1f)
g7 = Kt 3 m2u (D.1g)
g8 = 2Kt 2 m2u (Kt ms − (ms + mu )K) (D.1h)

( )
g9 = Kt mu (ms + mu )3 K 2 − 2Kt ms mu (ms + mu )K + Kt 2 m2s mu (D.1i)
g10 = Kt 2 (ms + mu )3 (D.1j)
g11 = 3Kt 2 mu (ms + mu )2 (D.1k)

( )
g12 = Kt (ms + mu )2 2K(ms + mu )2 + Kt ms (ms − 2mu ) (D.1l)
g13 = 3Kt 2 m2u (ms + mu ) (D.1m)

( )
g14 = Kt (ms + mu ) Km3s − 2Km2s mu − 7Kms m2u − 4Km3u + Kt m3s − Kt m2s mu + 4Kt ms m2u (D.1n)
( ( ))
g15 = (ms + mu ) (ms + mu )4 K 2 + 2Kt ms (ms + mu )2 (ms − mu )K + Kt 2 m2s m2s − ms mu + m2u (D.1o)
g16 = Kt 2 m3u (D.1p)

( )
g17 = Kt mu K(ms − 2mu )(ms + mu )2 + 2Kt ms m2u (D.1q)
g18 = mu (ms + mu )4 K 2 + Kt ms mu (ms − 2mu )(ms + mu )2 K + Kt 2 m2s m3u (D.1r)

( )
g19 = Kt (ms + mu )3 K 2 − 2Kt ms mu (ms + mu )K + Kt 2 m2s mu
2
(D.1s)
( )
g20 = Kt 2 mu (ms + mu )2 K 2 − Kt ms (ms + 2mu )K + Kt 2 m2s (D.1t)
Appendix E. The coefficients of Hn in Table 3
Para
c
H1 = Den5 = (mu r + bmu + ms mu + bms ) (E.1a)
bms mu
c (( ) )
H2 = (km2u r2 + Kms mu + Km2u + 2kms mu + 2km2u b + 2kms m2u r
b2 m2s m2u (E.1b)
( )
+ (K + k + Kt )m2s + 2mu (K + k)ms + m2u (K + k) b2 + 2kms mu (ms + mu )b + km2s m2u ),
c2
H3 = (KKt ms mu r2
b m3s m3u
2
(( ) ) (E.1c)
+ KKt m2s + KKt ms mu + Kt2 m2s b + K 2 m2s mu + 2K 2 ms m2u + K 2 m3u + KKt m2s mu r
( )
+Kt2 b2 m2s + K 2 m3s + 3K 2 m2s mu + 3K 2 ms m2u + K 2 m3u + 2KKt m3s + 2KKt m2s mu + Kt2 m3s b),
21
c2
H4 = (KKt2 kms mu r3
b3 m4s m4u
(( ) )
+ Kt2 ms (k(K + Kt )ms + Kmu (K + 2k)) b + 2((K + Kt )ms + Kmu )kKt mu Kms r2
(((( 2 ) ) ) ( )
+ K + (k + Kt )K + 2kKt ms + Kmu (K + k) Kt2 ms b2 + 2((K + Kt )ms + Kmu )2 kKt ms b (E.1d)
( ( )))
+ kmu K (ms + mu )3 K 2 + 2Kt m2s (ms + mu )K + Kt2 m3s r
( ) ( )
+ Kt3 m2s (K + k) b3 + 2((K + Kt )ms + Kmu )kKt2 m2s b2
(( ) ) )
+ (K + Kt )3 m4s + 4(K + Kt )(K + Kt /2)mu Km3s + 6(K + Kt /2)m2u K 2 m2s + 4K 3 ms m3u + K 3 m4u k b ,
K 2 Kt3 c3 ( )
H5 = Kmu r2 + (((K + Kt )ms + Kmu )b)r + Kt b2 ms (E.1e)
b3 m4s m5u
kK 3 Kt4 c3 ( )
H6 = Kmu r2 + ((K + Kt )ms + Kmu )br + Kt b2 ms (E.1f)
b4 m5s m6u
References
[1] M. Mitschke, H. Wallentowitz, Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge, fifth ed., Springer Vieweg, Wiesbaden, 2014 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-05068-9.
[2] H.E. Tseng, D. Hrovat, State of the art survey: Active and semi-active suspension control, Veh. Syst. Dyn. 53 (2015) 1034–1062, https://doi.org/10.1080/
00423114.2015.1037313.
[3] Z. Li, L. Zuo, G. Luhrs, L. Lin, Y.X. Qin, Electromagnetic energy-harvesting shock absorbers: Design, modeling, and road tests, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 62
(2013) 1065–1074, https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2012.2229308.
[4] Y. Kawamoto, Y. Suda, H. Inoue, T. Kondo, Modeling of electromagnetic damper for automobile suspension, J. Syst. Des. Dyn. 1 (2007) 524–535, https://doi.
org/10.1299/jsdd.1.524.
[5] J.-Q. Zhang, Z.-Z. Peng, L. Zhang, Y. Zhang, A review on energy-regenerative suspension systems for vehicles, in: Proc. World Congr. Eng., London, 2013,
pp. 1889–1892.
[6] X. Wang, J. Zhang, Y. Liu, J. Zhang, Z. Peng, Influence of inertia mass in actuator on amplitude-frequency characteristics of active suspension system, Automot.
Eng. 40 (2018) 1083–1088, https://doi.org/10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2018.09.012.
[7] S.S. Liu, Q.N. Wang, W.H. Wang, X. Lin, Influence of inertial mass on damping and amplitude-frequency characteristic of regenerative suspension, J. Jilin Univ.
Eng. Technol. Ed. 43 (2013) 557–563, https://doi.org/10.7964/jdxbgxb201303001.
[8] A. Tonoli, N. Amati, J.G. Detoni, R. Galluzzi, E. Gasparin, Modelling and validation of electromechanical shock absorbers, Veh. Syst. Dyn. 51 (2013) 1186–1199,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00423114.2013.789538.
[9] T. Asami, O. Nishihara, A.M. Baz, Analytical solutions to h∞ and h2 optimization of dynamic vibration absorbers attached to damped linear systems, J. Vib.
Acoust. 124 (2002) 284–295, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1456458.
[10] Y. Shen, X. Wang, S. Yang, H. Xing, Parameters optimization for a kind of dynamic vibration absorber with negative stiffness, Math. Probl. Eng. (2016) 2016,
https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/9624325.
[11] N.D. Anh, N.X. Nguyen, L.T. Hoa, Design of three-element dynamic vibration absorber for damped linear structures, J. Sound Vib. 332 (2013) 4482–4495,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2013.03.032.
[12] J.C. Ji, N. Zhang, Suppression of super-harmonic resonance response using a linear vibration absorber, Mech. Res. Commun. 38 (2011) 411–416, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.mechrescom.2011.05.014.
[13] O.F. Tigli, Optimum vibration absorber (tuned mass damper) design for linear damped systems subjected to random loads, J. Sound Vib. 331 (2012) 3035–3049,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2012.02.017.
[14] D. Hrovat, Applications of optimal control to advanced automotive suspension design, J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control. 115 (1993) 328–342, https://doi.org/
10.1115/1.2899073.
[15] M.C. Smith, Synthesis of mechanical networks: The inerter, IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr. 47 (2002) 1648–1662, https://doi.org/10.1109/TAC.2002.803532.
[16] F. Scheibe, M.C. Smith, Analytical solutions for optimal ride comfort and tyre grip for passive vehicle suspensions, Veh. Syst. Dyn. 47 (2009) 1229–1252,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00423110802588323.
[17] L. Chen, C. Liu, W. Liu, J. Nie, Y. Shen, G. Chen, Network synthesis and parameter optimization for vehicle suspension with inerter, Adv. Mech. Eng. 9 (2017)
1–7, https://doi.org/10.1177/1687814016684704.
[18] C. Li, M. Liang, Y. Wang, Y. Dong, Vibration suppression using two-terminal flywheel. Part I: Modeling and characterization, J. Vib. Control. 18 (2012)
1096–1105, https://doi.org/10.1177/1077546311419546.
[19] R. Ma, K. Bi, H. Hao, Inerter-based structural vibration control: A state-of-the-art review, Eng. Struct. 243 (2021) 1–23.
[20] Z. Ge, W. Wang, Modeling, testing, and characteristic analysis of a planetary flywheel inerter, Shock Vib 2018 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2631539.
[21] L. Marian, A. Giaralis, Optimal design of a novel tuned mass-damper-inerter (TMDI) passive vibration control configuration for stochastically support-excited
structural systems, Probabilistic Eng. Mech. 38 (2014) 156–164, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.probengmech.2014.03.007.
[22] M. De Angelis, A. Giaralis, F. Petrini, D. Pietrosanti, Optimal tuning and assessment of inertial dampers with grounded inerter for vibration control of seismically
excited base-isolated systems, Eng. Struct. 196 (2019), 109250, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.05.091.
[23] D. Caicedo, L. Lara-Valencia, J. Blandon, C. Graciano, Seismic response of high-rise buildings through metaheuristic-based optimization using tuned mass
dampers and tuned mass dampers inerter, J. Build. Eng. (2021) 34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101927.
[24] W.-C. Tai, Optimum design of a new tuned inerter-torsional-mass-damper passive vibration control for stochastically motion-excited structures, J. Vib. Acoust.
142 (2020), 011015, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4045264.
[25] I.F. Lazar, S.A. Neild, D.J. Wagg, Using an inerter-based device for structural vibration suppression, Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn. 43 (2014) 1–6, https://doi.org/
10.1002/eqe.2390.
[26] Y. Hu, M.Z.Q. Chen, Performance evaluation for inerter-based dynamic vibration absorbers, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 99 (2015) 297–307, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijmecsci.2015.06.003.
[27] Y. Hu, M.Z.Q. Chen, Z. Shu, L. Huang, Analysis and optimisation for inerter-based isolators via fixed-point theory and algebraic solution, J. Sound Vib. 346
(2015) 17–36, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2015.02.041.
22
[28] Z. Ge, W. Wang, Vehicle active ISD-DVA suspension system, J. Vib. Shock. 36 (2017) 167–174, https://doi.org/10.13465/j.cnki.jvs.2017.01.025.
[29] Y. Shen, L. Chen, X. Yang, D. Shi, J. Yang, Improved design of dynamic vibration absorber by using the inerter and its application in vehicle suspension, J. Sound
Vib. 361 (2016) 148–158, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2015.06.045.
[30] M.Z.Q. Chen, Y. Hu, Inerter and its application in vibration control systems, Science Press Beijing and Springer, Beijing, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
981-10-7089-1.
[31] X. Yang, L. Yan, Y. Shen, Y. Liu, C. Liu, Optimal design and dynamic control of an ISD vehicle suspension based on an ADD positive real network, IEEE Access 8
(2020) 94294–94306, https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2993009.
[32] Y. Hu, M.Z.Q. Chen, Y. Sun, Comfort-oriented vehicle suspension design with skyhook inerter configuration, J. Sound Vib. 405 (2017) 34–47, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jsv.2017.05.036.
[33] P. Li, J. Lam, K.C. Cheung, Control of vehicle suspension using an adaptive inerter, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng. 229 (2015) 1934–1943,
https://doi.org/10.1177/0954407015574808.
[34] N. Alujević, D. Čakmak, H. Wolf, M. Jokić, Passive and active vibration isolation systems using inerter, J. Sound Vib. 418 (2018) 163–183, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jsv.2017.12.031.
[35] F.-C. Wang, H.-A. Chan, Vehicle suspensions with a mechatronic network strut, Veh. Syst. Dyn. 49 (2011) 810–830, https://doi.org/10.1080/
00423111003797143.
[36] A. Gonzalez-Buelga, L.R. Clare, S.A. Neild, J.Z. Jiang, D.J. Inman, An electromagnetic inerter-based vibration suppression device, Smart Mater. Struct. 24 (2015)
55015, https://doi.org/10.1088/0964-1726/24/5/055015.
[37] Y. Shen, J.Z. Jiang, S.A. Neild, L. Chen, Vehicle vibration suppression using an inerter-based mechatronic device, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng.
234 (2020) 2592–2601, https://doi.org/10.1177/0954407020909245.
[38] A. Gonzalez-Buelga, I.F. Lazar, J.Z. Jiang, S.A. Neild, D.J. Inman, Assessing the effect of nonlinearities on the performance of a tuned inerter damper, Struct.
Control Heal. Monit. 24 (2017) e1879, https://doi.org/10.1002/stc.1879.
[39] F.-C. Wang, W.-J. Su, Impact of inerter nonlinearities on vehicle suspension control, Veh. Syst. Dyn. 46 (2008) 575–595, https://doi.org/10.1080/
00423110701519031.
[40] X.Q. Sun, L. Chen, S.H. Wang, X.L. Zhang, X.F. Yang, Performance investigation of vehicle suspension system with nonlinear ball-screw inerter, Int. J. Automot.
Technol. 17 (2016) 399–408, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12239-016-0041-x.
[41] L. He, Y. Liu, S. Han, Comparative study between two schemes of active-control-based mechatronic inerter, in: Proc. MATEC Web Conf., Shanghai, 2017,
p. 13005, https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20179513005.
[42] D. Ning, H. Du, N. Zhang, S. Sun, W. Li, Controllable electrically interconnected suspension system for improving vehicle vibration performance, IEEE-ASME
Trans. Mechatron. 25 (2020) 859–871.
[43] Z. Xia, J. Zhou, J. Liang, S. Ding, D. Gong, W. Sun, Y. Sun, Online detection and control of car body low-frequency swaying in railway vehicles, Veh. Syst. Dyn.
59 (2021) 70–100, https://doi.org/10.1080/00423114.2019.1664751.
[44] D. Čakmak, Z. Tomičević, H. Wolf, Ž. Božić, D. Semenski, Stability and performance of supercritical inerter-based active vibration isolation systems, J. Sound
Vib. (2021), 116234, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2021.116234.
[45] J. Doyle, F. Bruce, A. Tannenbaum, Feedback Control Theory Continued, Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 1990.
23

Design, Parameter Optimisation, and Performance Analysis of Active Tuned Inerter Damper (TID) Suspension For Vehicle

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design, Parameter Optimisation, and Performance Analysis of Active Tuned Inerter Damper (TID) Suspension For Vehicle

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Sound and Vibration 525 (2022) 116750

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Sound and Vibration

Design, Parameter Optimisation, and Performance Analysis of

* Corresponding author: Zheng GE

2. Structure of active TID suspension

2.1. Structure of active inerter

Fb (s) = bs2 [x1 (s) − x2 (s)] (3b)

bm = (2π /P)2 Jm (3d)

2.2. Structure of suspension

where as the dynamic model of the inerter is

where r is the compensation coefficient.

3. Model and performance measures of active TID suspension

3.1. Quarter-car model

3.2. Calculation of root mean square (RMS) of suspension performance measures

Gq˙ (f ) = 4π2 Gq̇ (n0 )n20 u (11)

4. Optimisation of active TID suspension performance measure

4.1. Mathematical expression of optimisation problem

Om = 4m2s αOa + (1 − α)Ot (17)

4.2. Numerical solution of optimisation problem

4.3. Analytical solution of optimisation problem

4.3.1. Optimal solutions for sprung acceleration measure

e4 b3 − (e5 − e4 r)b2 + (e6 − e7 r)b + e8 r

̂c aden = b3 e4 − (e5 − e4 r)b2 + (e6 − e7 r)b + e8 r. (22c)

Sprung mass ms/kg 229

4.3.2. Optimal solutions for tire load measure

g1 b3 − (g3 − g2 r)b2 + (g6 + g5 r + g4 r2 )b + g9 r + g8 r2 + g7 r3

4.3.3. Optimal solutions for combined performance measure of Ja and Jt

qm = γαqa + (1 − α)qt (29c)

bmax is defined as Eqn 31a and 31b.

4.4. Numerical examples for analytical solution and analysis

4.4.1. Numerical examples for body acceleration measure (α = 1)

Fig. 4. Amplitude-frequency characteristics of sprung acceleration for different r values.

4.4.2. Numerical examples for tire load measure (α = 1)

4.4.3. Numerical examples for combined performance measure (0 < α < 1)

amplitude of the unsprung resonance peak increases remarkably.

4.6. Influence of analytical optimisation solutions on stability of suspension system

5. Comparison and analysis of multiple types of suspension

in the middle- and high-frequency ranges.

Fig. 13. Jt–Ja relationship for multiple types of suspensions.

Main damper coefficient C/(N m s− 1) — — 806 1170 790

Author contribution statement

Active TID 0.550 291

Declaration of Competing Interest

Appendix A. The coefficients in Eqs. (8) and (9)

K(ms + mu )b + Kt ms b + (ms + mu )bk + mu (ms + r)k

K(ms + mu )c + Kt bc + Kt (ms + r)c

Kt Kb + K(ms + mu )k + Kt (ms + b + r)k

(ms + mu )bc + mu (ms + r)c

K(ms + mu )b + (ms + mu )bk + mu (ms + r)k

Appendix B. Analytical expressions of the H2-norm of the transfer function

A minimal state-space realization of the transfer function as Eqn B.1

is shown as Eqn B.2a, B.2b, B.2c and B.2d.

G(s) = C(sI − A)− 1 B (B.2a)

AL + LAT + BBT = 0 (B.4)

Appendix C. The coefficients in Eq. (19a,b,c)

e5 = 2Kt 2 (ms + mu )K (C.1e)

e9 = Kt 2 (ms + mu ) (C.1h) (C.1i)

e11 = (ms + mu )3 K 2 + 2Kt ms 2 (ms + mu )K + Kt 2 ms 3 (C.1k)

e15 = Kt 2 (ms + mu )K 2 (C.1o)

Appendix D. The coefficients in Eq. (24a,b,c)

g2 = Kt 3 (ms + 3mu )(ms + mu ) (D.1b)

g4 = Kt 3 mu (2ms + 3mu ) (D.1d)