Journal of Rural Studies 75 (2020) 119–124

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Rural Studies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jrurstud

Relevance of local knowledge in decision-making and rural innovation: A T

methodological proposal for leveraging participation of Colombian cocoa
producers
Gustavo Adolfo Gutiérrez Garcíaa,b,e,∗, Isabel Gutiérrez-Montesd,
Héctor Eduardo Hernández Núñezc,e, Juan Carlos Suárez Salazara,c,e, Fernando Casanovesd
a
Programa de Ingeniería Agroecológica. Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de la Amazonia, Florencia-Caquetá, Colombia
b
Doctorado en Ciencias Naturales y Desarrollo Sustentable. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad de la Amazonia, Florencia-Caquetá, Colombia
c
Maestria en Sistemas Sostenibles de Producción, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad de la Amazonia, Florencia-Caquetá, Colombia
d
CATIE – Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza. Turrialba, 30501, Costa Rica
e
Centro de Investigaciónes Amazónicas CIMAZ Macagual César Augusto Estrada González, Grupo de Investigaciones Agroecosistemas y Conservación en Bosques
Amazónicos-GAIA, Florencia, Caquetá, Colombia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The local knowledge is constituted in the basis for decision-making and is an important part of the livelihood of
Theobroma cacao L rural families. Knowledge of cocoa crop management practices takes an essential role in the producers’ resilience
Cultural and crop management capacity to face and adapt to changing environments in the productive, social and environmental level. It was
Cacota test carried out a study in the Macarena-Guaviare region, Colombia to evaluate the level of knowledge of cocoa
Participatory action research
producers, to analyze how this knowledge is affected by familiar, organizational or productive variables, and to
Local knowledge
determine the formation needs. To determine the level of knowledge, it was proposed a methodology called
“Cacota test” which was applied and validated by cocoa producers (n = 189). It was evaluated the knowledge
about the links (a. Crop design, b. Clones, c. Soil fertility, d. Pruning, e. Pests and diseases management, f. Good
agricultural practices, g. Harvest, h. Post-harvest, i. Transformation, j. Marketing, k. Associativity, l.
Institutionality). By means of a cluster analysis, producers were typified according to their level of knowledge
and it was made a principal component analysis (PCA) to visualize the relation between the links and types of
producers. It was elaborated a Cocoa Knowledge Index (CKI) and the links with greater and lesser strength
regarding management level were identified. Also, the variables which influence the CKI were identified using a
linear regression model. Positive correlations were found between the links: a. Clones and Soil fertility, b.
Pruning and good agricultural practices, c. Pruning and pests and diseases management. The typologies were
affected by the level of education, level of associativity and cultivated area. The local knowledge was not sig-
nificantly related to age and gender. The proposed methodology made possible to determine the level of local
knowledge of cocoa crop management practices. The institutions or people responsible for the formation of
cocoa producers in the Macarena-Guaviare region should focus on crop design, clones, soil fertility, harvest,
post-harvest and transformation links.

1. Introduction
From the critical epistemology, the theory of knowledge seeks to
explain how we know the things we think and do (Lehrer, 2019). The
different types of knowledge such as the scientific (Raymond et al.,
2010) and local are recognized, as well as the traditional, popular or
native one (Zinyeka et al., 2016). Within the local knowledge, the
knowledge of producers is distinguished as a subset which corresponds
to the practical skills that permit to manage crops in a specific condition
(Šūmane et al., 2018).
The local knowledge about managing farms takes an important role
in the development of farms (Isaac et al., 2009). A variety of authors
have defined the local knowledge as a dynamic and complex body of
knowledge, practices and skills that are developed and preserved by
towns or communities with histories and shared experiences (Beckford
and Barker, 2007; Dawoe et al., 2012; Naess, 2013). In this way,

∗
Corresponding author. Programa de Ingeniería Agroecológica. Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de la Amazonia, Florencia-Caquetá, Colombia.
E-mail address: g.gutierrez@udla.edu.co (G.A. Gutiérrez García).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.01.012
Received 3 July 2019; Received in revised form 14 November 2019; Accepted 14 January 2020
Available online 05 February 2020
0743-0167/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G.A. Gutiérrez García, et al.
producers have consolidated an intimate and well-developed knowl-
edge system based on experiences and phenomena lived directly in the
field or through the dialogue with other producers and professionals
(Dawoe et al., 2012), since their conception is a social construction
established in the institutional fabric of society (Nguyen et al., 2019).
The local knowledge is related to the way to face and adapt to
changing environments, either climate, economic or other type of en-
vironment (Zuma-Netshiukhwi et al., 2013). This knowledge has be-
come a reference to make decisions in relation to the social, economic
and environmental activities, and even in the livelihood of rural fa-
milies (Castellanos et al., 2013).
The cocoa crop (Theobroma cacao L) is the livelihood of more than
52.000 cocoa producers families in Colombia (FEDECACAO, 2019),
particularly elderly small producers (Díaz-Montenegro et al., 2018)
with low education levels. Despite these producers subsist on this ac-
tivity, they consider it has no enough impact on their economic (Pabon
et al., 2016). This is mainly due to the deficiency of crops productivity
(Motamayor et al., 2008), because of the influence of pests and diseases,
low levels of soil fertility and inappropriate genetic material planted
(Vaast and Somarriba, 2014).
To decrease these difficulties, the government has promoted
training processes that allow to qualify the producer in the sustainable
management of cocoa crop (FEDECACAO, 2016). However, these pro-
ducers and their knowledge are not taken into account at the moment to
define essential aspects such as the learning contents and learning
methods (Cerdán et al., 2012). Each of the state interventions ignores
the local knowledge of producers, in spite of authors such as Gutiérrez
Peláez (2017) believe that knowledge producers have been indis-
pensable for the inventions and successful interventions on the terri-
tory. That is why, the orientation of new training processes must be
redefined and thought, taking into consideration the educational prio-
rities of farmers (Feder et al., 2008).
In view of the challenges make people or institutions appreciate the
local knowledge in cocoa producers, the current document presents a
methodological proposal to evaluate the level of knowledge of produ-
cers regarding cocoa crop management. Besides, the paper involves
aspects to analyze the influence of familiar, organizational or produc-
tive characteristics on the level of knowledge. The research proposes a
diagnostic tool that will permit to collect information of local knowl-
edge of management practices used by cocoa families. This information
will help to identify the training needs of producers and to make de-
cisions in respect of future institutional efforts to foster the productive
skills of the cocoa sector.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
To diagnose the level of knowledge of producers, it was applied an
adaptation of the box test used in the evaluation stage of Farmer Field
Schools (FFS) (Godtland et al., 2004; Davis et al., 2012), which was
named “Cacota Test”. This test is a participatory action-research meth-
odology used with cocoa families located in the Macarena-Guaviare
region, in the municipalities of Puerto Concordia, Puerto Rico, Puerto
Lleras, Mesetas and Vista Hermosa in Meta department as well as San
José del Guaviare, Calamar and El Retorno in Guaviare department
(Fig. 1).
2.2. Conceptual structure of the “Cacota Test”
It was reviewed the bibliographic information available on different
participatory methods of agronomic and cultural diagnosis that were
applicable to the cultivation of cocoa (Henao et al., 2008). Based on the
above information and discussions with specialists, technicians and
producers of the crop, we determined the links of the production chain:
a. Crop design, b. Clones, c. Soil fertility, d. Pruning, e. Pests and
120
Journal of Rural Studies 75 (2020) 119–124
diseases management, f. Good agricultural practices, g. Harvest, h. Post-
harvest, i. Transformation, j. Marketing, k. Associativity, l. In-
stitutionality that allowed us to determine the level of knowledge of
agronomic practices and the adoption of cultural practices.
Once we defined the 12 links of the production chain and their
respective areas of importance, we also developed the ten questions
related to the subject to be evaluated, for a total of 120 questions. The
questions developed (Supplement 1) were submitted for assessment by
experts in the field; these were professors and modelers with emphasis
on cultivation (Taylor and Bhasme, 2018). Each expert in companion
with a pedagogy specialist evaluated the lexicon and relevance. The
pertinence of each question was evaluated by means of a value whose
rank was between 0 and 5; the assessment was made by the specialist,
adapting a scheme proposed by Somarriba (2009) for the weighting of
questions. The questions were evaluated by ten experts, including
professionals linked to technical assistance services as well as experts
belonging to state institutions that included the following: the Co-
lombian Agricultural Institute (ICA), National Service of Learning
(SENA), professors of the University of the Amazonia, which is located
in Florencia-Caquetá, Colombia, and organizations of producers such as
Departmental association of cocoa producers and timber species of
Caquetá (ACAMAFRUT) and Agro industrial cooperative of cocoa pro-
ducers of Meta (CACAOMET). As a result of the assessment made by
experts, the four questions with the highest rating value for each topic
were selected, for a total of 48 questions.
2.3. Circuit design
The links of the cocoa production chain were denominated stations,
for a total of 12, and each one of these stations included four questions.
The circular and sequential organization of the 12 stations was called
circuit; all of them according to the productive stages of cocoa crop.
This was a practical and versatile organization, able to adapt to the
agro-ecological and social conditions of the region, mostly to the par-
ticular locations of the rural sector, in this case, adaptable to farms,
crops, green areas of rural educational institutions, among others. The
circuit included 12 question stations and two additional “social” sta-
tions, for a total of 14. The last two were designed with a double pur-
pose, first, to reduce through the consumption of cocoa bean products, a
possible academic stress generated by the set of questions; second, to
record through audiovisual media the essence of being a cocoa pro-
ducer. The “Cacota test” was carried out in 10 sessions with a global
participation of 189 producers.
2.4. Phase of implementation of the “Cacota test"
2.4.1. Registration and characterization of producers
A personal and productive characterization card was applied for
each cocoa producer, which includes personal information such as: a.
Name, b. Gender, c. Age, d. Localization of the farm, e. Years of ex-
perience as a cocoa producer, f. Level of education, g. Type of learning,
h. Cultivated area, i. Cocoa production area, j. Kilograms of bean pro-
duced the previous year, k. Level of associativity, l. Number of cocoa
trainings received the previous year, and m. Self-assessment of the level
of knowledge. To define the type of learning producers have had about
cocoa, they were given three options (empirical, academic and em-
pirical/academic). The level of associativity was measured by the
membership in a guild organization, that means, they had to answer Yes
or No. With the registration, a number was assigned to each participant
in the test, representing their identification in the circuit of the Cacota
test. With the identification number, a bag with forty-eight (48)
4 × 4 cm cardboards was given them; all the cardboards marked with
the number assigned at the time of registration.
2.4.2. Application
The ten sessions were carried out in open spaces, where each
G.A. Gutiérrez García, et al.
Fig. 1. Area of influence of the research.
participant responded independently according to his/her knowledge of
the questions expressed through the use of posters, where the questions
were ordered by link in the production chain: a. Crop design, b. Clones,
c. Soil fertility, d. Pruning, e. Pests and diseases management, f. Good
agricultural practices, g. Harvest, h. Post-harvest, i. Transformation, j.
Marketing, k. Associativity, l. Institutionality. The participant was lo-
cated in each “station”, where a total of 14 producers simultaneously
participated in the circuit during the test. The answering method to
each question was through the location of a card with the assigned
number inside the mailboxes marked with the letters A, B, C and D. The
time to answer in each station was 150 s, time for reading and choosing
the answer to the four questions established per station. The signal to
continue the next station was given by a referee. The number of rounds
required for the application of the “Cacota test” was determined ac-
cording to the number of participants per session.
2.5. Systematization phase and analysis of the information
Once the test was completed for each of the rounds, the codes were
collected by station, and recorded. The respective responses of each
producer were compiled onto a database using Microsoft Excel. The
score obtained by each producer at each station corresponded to an
evaluation of his/her knowledge of the management of cocoa crop at
each link, and was expressed as a value from zero to five. With this
information, Pearson correlations were applied to determine the re-
lationship and synergy between the links of cocoa crop management.
Likewise, based on the global knowledge of the cocoa management of
each producer we constructed a Cocoa Knowledge Index (CKI) that
corresponded to the sum of the ranges [0–1] for each link. Using the
CKI, the producers were categorized according to their level of
knowledge by using a cluster analysis test. Also, using a Principal
Component Analysis (PCA), the level of knowledge for each link was
related to the typologies using a Biplot chart. Using the social char-
acterization of each producer, a linear regression model was con-
structed that enabled identification of those variables with the highest
incidence in the CKI. Pearson correlation analysis, cluster analysis and
principal components analysis were performed using the InfoStat
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Journal of Rural Studies 75 (2020) 119–124
program (Di Rienzo et al., 2018). The FactoMineR package (Husson
et al., 2016) was used to obtain the graphs of the hierarchical grouping,
superimposed on the factorial plane composed by the first two factors
(hierarchical clustering on the factor map). The PCA graphs were made
using the Ade4 package (Dray and Dufour, 2007) of R version 3.4.4 (R
Developing Core Team, 2018).
3. Results
Knowledge about the crop of cocoa allowed us to establish three
types of families of producers: greatest knowledge (GK), medium
knowledge (MK), and least knowledge (LK) which showed significant
differences in the level of knowledge related to the links (Table 1). In
this sense, the GK typology was different from the others, specifically in
the links for the crop design, clones, soil fertility, pruning and harvest.
However, the transformation link was the variable that differentiated
the three typologies. When analyzing the links with the greatest need
for training, we identified those that showed the lowest scores in terms
of knowledge of crop management, which includes post-harvest, the
crop design and the harvest. Pruning was the link with the most
knowledge (Table 1) (see Table 2).
From the PCA of the matrix comprised of the variables measured in
each of the links for the production of cocoa, we chose the first seven
components that explain 86% of the original variability represented
(Fig. 1). The axis 1 was represented by links like pruning and clones,
while the axis 2 projected links related to harvest and transformation.
The effect of the different types of cocoa producers was highly sig-
nificant (p < 0.0001) and explained 16% of the total variance ac-
cording to the Monte-Carlo test (Fig. 2).
In the management of the cocoa crop, producers showed synergies
regarding the level of knowledge of subjects related to clonal identifi-
cation (clones) and soil fertility with respect to the management of
pruning and good agricultural practices (GAP, p < 0.05). Likewise,
pruning practices were related to the integrated management of pests
and diseases (MPD, p < 0.001).
From the Cocoa Knowledge Index (CKI) for each of the typologies,
we found that this was different (p < 0.05). The level of knowledge for
G.A. Gutiérrez García, et al. Journal of Rural Studies 75 (2020) 119–124

Table 1
Average score obtained according to the level of knowledge relating to the links of the production chain in the cultivation of cocoa, least knowledge (LK), medium
knowledge (MK) and greatest knowledge (GK).
Link LK MK GK General p-value

Average S.E Average S.E Average S.E Average S.E

Crop design 2.21 ± 0.19 b 2.31 ± 0.18 b 3.69 ± 0.37a 2.42 ± 0.13 0.0016
Clones 2.16 ± 0.15 b 2.41 ± 0.14 b 4.44 ± 0.29a 2.54 ± 0.11 < 0,0001
Soil fertility 2.6 ± 0.15 b 2.74 ± 0.14 b 4.52 ± 0.28a 2.88 ± 0.12 < 0,0001
Pruning 3.49 ± 0.12 b 3.38 ± 0.11 b 4.7 ± 0.23a 3.57 ± 0.08 < 0,0001
MPD 3.18 ± 0.15 ab 2.89 ± 0.14 b 3.65 ± 0.29a 3.09 ± 0.11 0.0452
GAP 3.07 ± 0.15a 3.18 ± 0.14a 3.75 ± 0.29a 3.21 ± 0.12 0.1155
Harvest 2.48 ± 0.1a 2.25 ± 0.09a 2.38 ± 0.2a 2.36 ± 0.07 0.2452
Post-harvest 2.42 ± 0.13a 2.49 ± 0.12a 2.38 ± 0.25a 2.45 ± 0.08 0.8966
Transformation 0.13 ± 0.13c 4.83 ± 0.12a 2.86 ± 0.25 b 2.69 ± 0.18 < 0,0001

the producers obtained from the global qualification of the manage-

ment of the cocoa crop with GK was on average 3.64. The other types of
producers presented a score of 2.88 and 2.42 for MK and LK, respec-
tively. The level of knowledge was affected by territorial differences at
the municipality and department level, as well as by the characteristics
of the population. In this sense, both the level of education (p < 0.01),
the level of associativity (p < 0.01), and the cultivated area
(p < 0.01) caused the level of knowledge for the management of the
cocoa crop to increase. However, gender as a variable did not affect the
level of knowledge. By performing a linear regression model, we found
that CKI is related to the cultivated area, the level of education and the
level of associativity (Table 3).

4. Discussion

Within the study, the links of crop design, clones, soil fertility,
harvest, post-harvest and transformation were the ones that presented
the lowest level of knowledge on the part of the producers according to
the general averages. In relation to the crop design, there are defi-
ciencies of knowledge in the management of sowing density and type of
layouts, aspect that coincides with what is stated by Jagoret et al.
(2017), who expresses that the conventional cocoa productions scheme
adopted for decades in the cocoa producing countries is based on the
monoculture of hybrids, which demand an excessive use of chemical Fig. 2. Projection in the factorial plane F1/F2 of an analysis of the principal
components of the different links in the chain for the production of cocoa and
fertilizers and pesticides to maintain high productions. Weaknesses in
the different types of producers. Greatest knowledge (GK), medium knowledge
the identification of cocoa clones on the part of producers make them
(MK), and least knowledge (LK).
not recognize the essential attributes of the system productivity such as
compatibility in the clonal arrangement (Dumont et al., 2014). Like-
wise, Edem et al. (2016), concludes that the recognition of clones is vocation of soil and the productivity of farms (Dawoe et al., 2012).
fundamental at the moment to implement harvest and post-harvest The stage of production, processing and marketing of cocoa pro-
practices to preserve the quality of the cocoa bean. ducts is the livelihood of lots of rural families (Akanni and Dada, 2012).
The deficiency in the knowledge of soil fertility and sustainable Processing involves harvesting cobs, breaking and extracting the grains,
practices of alternative fertilization is a limiting condition that is con- fermenting and drying the grain (Lasisi, 2014). The knowledge of
sistent with the current processes of soil degradation which are asso- practices and capacities in these stages are essential to keep the quality
ciated with the reduction of the agronomic capacity of crops (Snoeck of the grain (Vera-Montenegro et al., 2014). According to Nguyễ;n et al.
et al., 2016). For this reason, having a basic knowledge of soil man- (2018), the decision to harvest cocoa cobs is focused on the experience
agement practices is a significant factor to preserve the agricultural of the producers. In the post-harvest stage, the fermentation stage is

Table 2
Correlations between the different links of the production chain in the cocoa crop.
Links Crop design Clones Soil fertility Pruning MPD GAP Harvest Post-harvest

Clones 0.12 1.00

Soil fertility 0.07 0.07
Pruning 0.13 0.35 < 0.001 0.15 0.038
MPD 0.01 0.06 0.07 0.15 0.040
GAP 0.00 0.15 0.036 0.19 0.011 0.13 −0.05
Harvest 0.04 0.03 −0.09 0.09 0.05 0.20
Post-harvest 0.07 0.14 −0.03 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.11
Transformation 0.06 0.08 0.06 −0.01 −0.05 0.05 −0.09 −0.07

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G.A. Gutiérrez García, et al.
Table 3
Coefficients of the linear regression model that relate to the CKI.
Variable Coefficient p value
Years of experience as cocoa producer 11.1 0.2322
Age 28.9 0.0547
Cultivated area 86.16 0.0010
Gender 23.67 0.0818
Level of education 91.88 0.0007
Level of associativity 48.56 0.0131
Type of learning 2.05 0.6072
crucial in the formation of polyphenols and flavor precursors (Saltini
et al., 2013).
The results of this study show positive effects on the level of
knowledge of pruning practices, pets and diseases management and the
management of good agricultural practices.
It is highlighted that pruning is an essential part of the cultural
approach of integrated pests and diseases management (Sarapah and
Alias, 2016). Pruning favors the entry of solar radiation and wind into
the crop (Jagoret et al., 2017), decreasing the humidity and therefore
inhibiting the conditions for the development of diseases, particularly
fungi (Andres et al., 2016). According to Daniel et al. (2011) an im-
provement of knowledge of cultural management practices and epide-
miology of pests and diseases in cocoa, results in a decrease of these
problems and an average increase of 30% in cocoa yields.
The mastery of skills and management practices of the cacao crop,
expressed in the developed CKI, is conditioned by certain socio-cultural
characteristics of the cocoa producers, such as the level of education,
the level of associativity and the cultivated area, variables which
showed statistical significance in the linear model. These are consistent
with the results of the study by Dawoe et al. (2012), that is to say, in the
current investigation, the local knowledge was not related to age and
gender variables.
4.1. The use of the “Cacota test” as a participatory method for decision-
making
Changing dynamics in local contexts bring with them the need to re-
invent new methods of participation to address new realities (Wójcik et al.,
2019), based on the conviction that it is the actors who develop their own
understanding of the territory, and they act by virtue of it (Leeuwis and Van
den Ban, 2004). It is necessary to encourage innovations in agricultural
practices, based on the cultural values of the peasant producers (Koczberski
and Curry, 2018). Community approaches and social constructions of local
realities (Tregear, 2011) define the concept of territory (Champollion,
2011). The “Cacota test” is a method that binds producers which aims to
facilitate an understanding of the cocoa region from the perspective of the
producers themselves, and this transcends their role as receivers, to pro-
ducers and holders of their own particular knowledge (Goulet, 2013). The
identification of the CKI allows the cocoa producers to project their real
needs for training with respect to specific links in the cocoa production
chain. Addressing the training topics required by producers allows im-
proved human capital (Bonfiglio et al., 2017). Traditionally, each inter-
vention in rural territories brings with it a stage of training that introduces,
in the majority of cases, the generalities or topics already appropriate from
experience as producers. In certain occasions this is better directed by the
same producers rather than by professionals. The repeated call to conven-
tional training causes collective discomfort due to the excessive number of
workshops and training in rural communities, to the point of feeling satu-
rated with these activities. The paradox is that the communities are not
taken into account in the definition of the topics, contents and methods that
permeate and integrate training, even when antecedents have shown that
inventions and interventions in the region must start from the desires, in-
terests and needs of rural families (Gutiérrez Peláez (2017)).
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Journal of Rural Studies 75 (2020) 119–124
5. Conclusions
Using the cocoa knowledge index (CKI) that we constructed, we
identified three typologies that showed differences between skills and
abilities related to the cultural and agronomic practices of sustainable
crop management, and that are related to the studied links. Local
knowledge exposed through the Cocoa Knowledge Index (CKI) is af-
fected by different socio-cultural factors such as the level of education,
level associativity, and the cultivated area. Structural actions that en-
able strengthening of the CKI need to be incorporated into the design
and implementation of public policies of rural education and organi-
zational reinforcement. The methodological structure of the “Cacota
test” is designed to be adaptable to any of the productive chains whose
support unit is rural.
The “Cacota test” is a tool that enables the collection of the neces-
sary information that determines the level of local knowledge of cocoa
producers, and is a pedagogical option for developing field schools. The
training needs of the cocoa sector were identified through the devel-
opment of the course proposed for the “Cacota test”, with harvest, crop
design and post-harvest links being the areas that require the most at-
tention. Therefore, future training is required for producer-families,
where curricular structures can be designed by rural development in-
stitutions that enable an increase in the level of knowledge.
Declarations of interest
None.
Financing
This study was funded by the Ministry of National Education of
Colombia and the University of the Amazonia, through the program of
Rural Alliances for Education and Development (ARED) in its purpose
to bring higher education closer to the realities of the Colombian
countryside (Interadministrative Agreement No 1357 of 2017).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.01.012.
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